Opportunities and Risks

Chapter 3

Internal process (folding)

- Definition: Folding is an Earth movement resulting from horizontal

compression of sedimentary rock layers by internal forces of the
Earth

- Annotated diagram

- Resulting landforms

1. Fold mountains

- formed by collision of two land masses

- usually located at destructive plate boundaries

Internal process (faulting)

- Definition: Faulting is the fracturing of rock masses under forces as result of

plate movement. It occurs along fault lines of rocks. When the
rock cannot withstand forces applied on it, the rock will break along
fault plane, faulting occurs. Rocks displace vertically or horizontally.

- Types of faults / annotated diagram

1. Normal faults

2. Reverse fault

3. Tear faults
 Question: Describe the formation of fault

Answer: Normal / Reverse / Tear fault is formed by tensional / compressional /

shearing force. Horizontal / vertical displacement of rocks occur. They are
usually found along constructive / destructive / conservative plate boundaries.

- Resuling landforms

1a. Rift Valley (normal fault)

A rift valley is the down thrust block of landmass produced by faulting.

When tensional force acts on the landmass, normal faults develop. Central
block sinks between faults to become a rift valley as outer blocks are pulled
apart
 1b. Rift valley (reverse fault)

A rift valley is the down thrust block of landmass produced by

faulting. When compressional force acts on landmass, reverse faults develop.
Outer blocks thrust over the central block and the central block becomes a rift
valley. Subsequent erosion removes overhanging scarps on the two
sides of the rift valley

2a. Block mountain (normal fault)

 A block mountain is the uplifted block of landmass produced by
faulting. The uplifted block is usually flat-topped. When there is
tensional force acting on landmass, normal faults develop. Outer
blocks sink along faults and central block stands up as block
mountain

2b. Block mountain (reverse fault)

A block mountain is the uplifted block of landmass produced by

faulting. The uplifted block is usually flat-topped. When compressional force acts
on landmass, reverse faults develop. Central block is forced to thrust
up between outer blocks and become a block mountain. Overhanging
scarps on two sides of block mountain are removed by subsequent erosion
 3a. Vulcanicity (Intrusive vulcanicity / igneous intrusion)

Intrusive vulcanicity refers to the process by which magma enters

cracks or chambers in the crust, then cools down and solidifies. Major
types include sills, dykes, laccoliths, batholiths. Igneous intrusions may be exposed
when erosion removes materials above

Sill horizontal, thin crack between rock layers

Batholith large amount of magma, in great depth

Laccolith Rome-shaped, near Earth surface, arch up Earth surface

Dyke vertical chamber, wall-liked

3b. Vulcanicity (extrusive vulcanicity / igneous extrusion)

Extrusive vulcanicity refers to the process by which magma and other

materials eject from cracks and reaches Earth’s surface through a
vent of fissure

- Different types of extrusive vulcanicity

 1. Vent eruption

Vent eruption refers to the process by which magma reaches

Earth’s surface through a pipe. Lava cools down and solidify to
form a volcano

2. Fissure eruption

Fissure eruption refers to the process by which magma is

ejected out through a large crack on Earth’s surface. Lava
spreads out, cools down and solidifies to form a lava plateau.

Vent eruption less gentle

Fissure eruption gentler

3c. Vulcanicity (other forms)

1. Hot spring

Water underground is heated up and flows out continuously

through pores of rock, it usually contains mineral substances

2. Geyser

Superheated water is ejected at regular intervals with great

force

3. Fumarole

Steam and gases are ejected through cracks in rocks

Chapter 4

Resultant landforms along constructive plate boundaries

- Different types of landforms

1. Mid-oceanic ridge

When two oceanic plates move apart from each other, magma rises
through lines of weakness to surface. Lava cools down and solidifies. New crust is
formed. Newly formed crust will be pushed away from plate boundary due
to continuous uprise of magma, which is sea floor spreading

2. Submarine volcano

Lines of weakness are often found at constructive plate boundaries,

where magma can rise to Earth’s surface. Lava cools down and solidify to form
submarine volcano underwater
 3. Volcanic island

Lines of weakness are often found at constructive plate boundaries,

where magma can rise to Earth’s surface. Lava cools down and solidify to form a
submarine volcano underwater. Repeated eruptions may lead to increase in
height. When a volcano on the sea floor emerges on sea surface, it becomes a
volcanic island
 4. Volcanic island arc

Lines of weakness are often found at constructive plate boundaries,

where magma can rise to Earth’s surface. Lava cools down and solidify to form
a submarine volcano underwater. Repeated eruptions may lead to
increase in height. When a volcano on the sea floor emerges on the sea surface,
it becomes a volcanic island. When volcanic islands line up along plate boundary,
volcanic island arc is formed
 Resultant landforms along destructive plate boundary

Plates involved resultant landforms

continental + continental 1. fold mountain range (no subduction)

oceanic + continental / oceanic 1. ocean trench (subduction)

2. submarine volcano (subduction)
3. volcanic island (subduction)
4. volcanic island arc (subduction)

1. Fold mountain range

Over years, erosion and weathering of neighbouring landmass

produces sediments. Sediments from continents are transported to oceans and
deposited in ocean trench. Sediments are compressed and compacted by their
own weight and cemented to form sedimentary rocks. Continuous collision of
plates compresses, folds and uplifts sedimentary rocks on ocean trench. Fold
mountain range parallel to plate boundary is formed.

2. Ocean trench
 When plate convergence involves at least one oceanic crust, denser
oceanic crust will subduction under continental crust. Ocean trench is
formed parallel to plate boundary

3. Submarine volcano

When plate convergence involves at least one oceanic crust, ，

subduction occurs. Denser oceanic crust enters the asthenosphere, its
upper part melts to become magma. New amount of magma formed
increases pressure, magma is forced out through lines of weakness to the
surface. Lava cools down and solidifies to form submarine volcano
underwater
 4. Volcanic island

When plate convergence involves at least one oceanic crust, ，

subduction occurs. Denser oceanic crust enters the asthenosphere, its
upper part melts to become magma. New amount of magma formed
increases pressure, magma is forced out through lines of weakness to the
surface. Lava cools down and solidifies to form submarine volcano
underwater. Repeated eruptions may lead to increase in height. When a
volcano on the sea floor emerges on sea surface, it becomes a volcanic
island
 5. Volcanic island arc

When plate convergence involves at least one oceanic crust,

subduction occurs. Denser oceanic crust enters the asthenosphere, its
upper part melts to become magma. New amount of magma formed
increases pressure, magma is forced out through lines of weakness to the
surface. Lava cools down and solidifies to form submarine volcano
underwater. Repeated eruptions may lead to increase in height. When a
volcano on the sea floor emerges on sea surface, it becomes a volcanic
island. When volcanic islands line up along plate boundary, volcanic island arc is
formed
 Resultant landforms along conservative plate boundary

1. Transform fault

Along conservative plate boundaries, there is lateral magma convection

currents in the mantle. Two plates slide past each other along plate
boundary, shearing force resulted, transform fault is formed

Chapter 5

Natural hazard

- Definition

Natural hazards are natural phenomena or processes which threaten

human lives and properties

- Classification of natural hazards