Pak Study Project 4

BUISNESS MATH(BM1)
PROJECT
FRANK S. BUDNICK 1/1/23 BM1

MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Submitted TO:
UMAIR UMER
SUBMITTED BY:
AKASH AHMED (060)
AZAN SHAHID (096)
ALI HAIDER (062)
ABOUT US:
AKASH AHMED: In this project I have done 3
chapters(1,2,3) from book.
Ali Haider: In this project I have done 3 ch.
(4,5,6)From Book .
Azan Shahid: In this project I have done 3 ch.
(7,8,9) From Book .
1|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Contents
Chapter 1: Preliminaries..................................................................................................................3
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations.............................................................................................3
Step to solve.............................................................................................................................3
1.2 Solving second-degree Equations:.........................................................................................4
Steps to solve:...........................................................................................................................4
1.3 Inequalities and their solution:...............................................................................................5
Example....................................................................................................................................5
1.4 Absolute value relationships..................................................................................................6
Example....................................................................................................................................6
1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System.............................................................................................7
Example:...................................................................................................................................8
Chapter 2: Linear Equations............................................................................................................9
2.1 Characteristics of linear equations:........................................................................................9
Examples:.................................................................................................................................9
2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs:........................................................................10
Example..................................................................................................................................11
2.3: Slope intercept form............................................................................................................11
2.4: Equation of a straight line...................................................................................................16
2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables.................................................................18
Definition................................................................................................................................18
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables................................................................18
Example..................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations.......................................................................................19
3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variables....................................................................................19
Definition................................................................................................................................19
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables................................................................19
Example: 5x + 3y = 30...........................................................................................................19
Gauss Elimination Method.........................................................................................................20
2|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Solving two variable linear system via GEM.........................................................................20

Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions...............................................................................................21
4.1 Functions in mathematics:..............................................................................................21
A Condition for a Function:...................................................................................................21
Example:.................................................................................................................................22
4.2 Types of Functions:.........................................................................................................22
4.3 Graphical representation of functions:............................................................................24
One – one function (Injective function).................................................................................24
Many – one function...............................................................................................................24
Onto – function (Surjective Function)....................................................................................25
Into – function........................................................................................................................25
Polynomial function...............................................................................................................26
Linear Function......................................................................................................................26
Identical Function...................................................................................................................28
Quadratic Function.................................................................................................................28
Rational Function...................................................................................................................29
Algebraic Functions...............................................................................................................29
Cubic Function.......................................................................................................................30
Modulus Function...................................................................................................................31
Signum Function....................................................................................................................31
Greatest Integer Function.......................................................................................................31
Fractional Part Function.........................................................................................................32
Even and Odd Function..........................................................................................................33
Periodic Function...................................................................................................................33
Composite Function...............................................................................................................33
Constant Function...................................................................................................................34
Identity Function....................................................................................................................34
Chapter 5 Linear Functions: Applications.....................................................................................35
5.1 Linear Functions..................................................................................................................35
What is a Linear Function?........................................................................................................35
Linear Function Graph...........................................................................................................35
3|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Linear Function Table................................................................................................................35

Linear Function Formula...........................................................................................................36
Linear Function Characteristics..............................................................................................36
Linear Function Example....................................................................................................36
Example:................................................................................................................................36
Linear Cost functions.............................................................................................................37
Linear Revenue Functions......................................................................................................37
Linear Profit Functions...........................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions.......................................................................38
6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics....................................................................38
6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications.......................................................................................38
Using the Parabola..................................................................................................................38
6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions.....................................................................................39
Polynomial Functions.............................................................................................................39
Rational Functions..................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions....................................................................42
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions.......................................................................42
Exponential Function Formula...................................................................................................43
Exponential Function Graph......................................................................................................44
Exponential Function Derivative...............................................................................................46
Exponential Series......................................................................................................................46
Exponential Function Properties................................................................................................47
Exponential Function Rules...................................................................................................49
Exponential Functions Examples...........................................................................................50
Solved Problems.....................................................................................................................50
7.3 Applications of Exponential Functions...........................................................................51
Applications of Exponential Functions..................................................................................51
7.4 Logarithms......................................................................................................................53
7.5 Properties of logarithms..................................................................................................54
CHAPTER 8 Mathematics of finance...........................................................................................54
8.1 Interest and Its Computation................................................................................................54
4|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Simple Interest........................................................................................................................54
What is Simple Interest?.........................................................................................................54
Simple Interest Formula.........................................................................................................55
Compound Interest.................................................................................................................55
How to Calculate Interest on Interest.........................................................................................55
8.2 Single Payment Computations.............................................................................................56
Single Payment Compound-Amount Factor..........................................................................56
8.3 Annuities and Their Future Value........................................................................................56
Key Takeaways......................................................................................................................56
Understanding the Future Value of an Annuity.........................................................................56
Formula and Calculation of the Future Value of an Annuity....................................................57
Future Value of an Annuity Due............................................................................................57
Future Value of an Annuity Example........................................................................................57
Future Value of an Annuity Due............................................................................................57
8.4 Annuities and Their Present Value......................................................................................58
Present Value of an Annuity: Meaning, Formula, and Example...................................................58
What Is the Present Value of an Annuity?.................................................................................58
Key Takeaways......................................................................................................................58
Present Value of an Annuity..................................................................................................58
CHAPTER 9 Matrix algebra.........................................................................................................60
9.1 Introduction to Matrices..................................................................................................60
Adding and Subtracting Matrices Concepts...........................................................................61
Multiplying Matrices Concepts..............................................................................................61
Introduction to Matrices and Determinants............................................................................62
Concept of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors.............................................................................62
9.2 Special Types of Matrices...............................................................................................62
9.3 Matrix Operations...........................................................................................................62
Operations on Matrices..............................................................................................................63
Addition of Matrices..................................................................................................................63
Subtraction of Matrices..............................................................................................................64
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices..............................................................................................64
5|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Multiplication of Matrices.........................................................................................................64
Properties of matrix multiplication.........................................................................................64
9.4 The Determinant.............................................................................................................65
9.5 Cramer's Rule...................................................................................................................66
Cramer’s Rule Formula..............................................................................................................66
6|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations
IT is an equation that can be written in the form:
ax + b = 0
where a and b are constants. To solve a first-degree equation, you need to find the value of x that
makes the equation true. Here are the steps to solve a first-degree equation:
Move all the terms to one side of the equation by performing the opposite operation on both
sides. For example, if there is a term on the right side of the equation, you can subtract it from
both sides to move it to the left side.
Simplify the resulting expression by combining like terms.
Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable (a in this case). This will
isolate the variable on one side of the equation.
Simplify the resulting expression, if necessary.
Check your solution by substituting it back into the original equation to make sure it is a valid
solution.
Example:
Solve the equation 2x + 3 = 0
Subtract 3 from both sides: 2x = -3
Divide both sides by 2: x = -3/2
The solution to the equation is x = -3/2.
Step to solve
1. Addition axiom: When two equal quantities are added on both sides of an equation, the
equation will remain equal.
2. Subtraction axiom: When two equal quantities are subtracted on both sides of an equation the
3. Multiplication axiom: When we multiply both sides of an equation with the same value, the
7|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
4. Division axiom: When we divide both sides of an equation with the same value (≠0), the
5. Distributive axiom: a (b+c) = ab + ac.
Examples
1.3x-14-x-2(x+1) Write the equation.
3x+14-x-2x-2 Use the distributive property to remove parentheses. 3x+14=-x-2
Simplify.
4x+14=-2 Add x to both sides.
4x=-16 Add -14 to both sides,
X=-4 Divide both sides by 4.
1.2 Solving second-degree Equations:

A second-degree equation with one variable is an equation reducible to the form ax2+bx+c=0,
where x is the variable,. When solving such an equation, ax2+bx+c=0.is used.
The number of solutions to the equation ax2+bx+c=0 is indicated by the value of the
discriminant (b2−4ac) of it.
Steps to solve:
To solve a second degree equation, you can use the quadratic formula:
x = (-b +/- sqrt(b^2 - 4ac)) / (2a)
where a, b, and c are coefficients in the equation of the form:
ax^2 + bx + c = 0
Here are the steps to solve a second degree equation using the quadratic formula:
Write the equation in the standard form: ax^2 + bx + c = 0
Identify the values of a, b, and c. These are the coefficients of the x^2, x, and constant terms,
respectively.
Substitute the values of a, b, and c into the quadratic formula: x = (-b +/- sqrt(b^2 - 4ac)) /
(2a)
8|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Simplify the formula and solve for x.
Check your solution by substituting it back into the original equation to make sure it is a
valid solution.
Note: If the value under the square root is negative, there are no real solutions. In this case,
the equation has complex solutions of the form x = (-b +/- sqrt(-b^2 + 4ac)) / (2a) + iy, where
y is the imaginary unit.
Example
For example, consider the equation 2x2+9x+5=−4.
Change the equation to the form ax2+bx+c=0 by adding 4 to each side of the equality.
2x2+9x+5=−4 → 2x2+9x+9=0
Evaluate the discriminant b2−4ac,
where a=2, b=9 and c=9. b2−4ac= (9)2−4(2)(9) =9
We can continue since the discriminant is positive.
2x2+9x+9 can be factored using the product-sum method.
2x2+9x+9=0 → (x+3) (2x+3) =0
Apply the zero-product rule.
x+3=0 ⇒ x=−3 or 2x+3=0⇒ x=−32
Therefore, the starting equation’s two solutions are −3 and −32.
9|Page
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
1.3 Inequalities and their solution:
An inequality is a mathematical statement that expresses the relationship between two values.
Inequalities can be used to describe situations in which one value is greater than, less than, or
different from another value.
There are several types of inequalities, including:
Greater than: a > b
Less than: a < b
Greater than or equal to: a >= b
Less than or equal to: a <= b
To solve an inequality, you need to find the set of values that make the inequality true. This can
be done by performing the same operations on both sides of the inequality that you would
perform to solve an equation. However, you need to be careful to preserve the inequality when
you perform these operations.
For example, consider the inequality 2x + 3 > 5. To solve this inequality, you can subtract 3 from
both sides to get:
2x >
Then, you can divide both sides by 2 to get:
x>1
The solution to the inequality is x > 1, which means that x is any value that is greater than 1.
Inequalities are used in a variety of mathematical and scientific applications to model situations
in which one value is greater than, less than, or different from another value.
10 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
1.4 Absolute value relationships

An absolute value relationship is a relationship between two values that involves the absolute
value function, which is a function that returns the distance of a number from zero on the number
line.
Here are some examples of absolute value relationships:
 The equation |x - 3| = 2 represents the set of all values of x that are a distance of 2 from 3
on the number line. The absolute value function "traps" the solution x between 3 - 2 = 1
and 3 + 2 = 5, so the solutions to the equation are x = 1 and x = 5.
 The equation |x - 5| = |x + 2| represents the set of all values of x that are the same
distance from 5 as they are from -2 on the number line. The absolute value function
"traps" the solution x between 3 and 7, so the solution to the equation is x = {3, 7}.
 The equation |x| = 3 represents the set of all values of x that are a distance of 3 from zero
on the number line. The absolute value function "traps" the solution x between -3 and 3,
so the solutions to the equation are x = {-3, 3}.
1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System

A rectangular coordinate system, also known as a Cartesian coordinate system, is a system used
to locate points in two-dimensional space by using a pair of numerical coordinates. In a
rectangular coordinate system, the location of a point is represented by an ordered pair of
numbers (x, y), where x is the horizontal coordinate and y is the vertical coordinate.
The rectangular coordinate system is named after the mathematician René Descartes, who is
credited with its invention. It is called a "rectangular" coordinate system because the two axes
that define the system are perpendicular to each other, forming a rectangular grid.
In a rectangular coordinate system, the x-axis is the horizontal axis, and the y-axis is the vertical
axis. The point where the two axes intersect is called the origin, and it has coordinates (0, 0).
Points to the right of the y-axis have positive x-coordinates, and points to the left have negative
x-coordinates. Points above the x-axis have positive y-coordinates, and points below have
negative y-coordinates.
The rectangular coordinate system is a useful tool for graphing and analyzing mathematical
functions and equations, and it is used in a wide variety of fields, including mathematics,
science, engineering, and computer graphics.
11 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
An ordered pair (x,y)represents the position of a point relative to the origin
Example:
Calculate the distance between (−3,−2) and (−6,4)
Solution:
Use the distance formula
distance = √((x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2)
where (x_1, y_1) and (x_2, y_2) are the coordinates of the two points.
distance = √((-6 - (-3))^2 + (4 - (-2))^2
Simplifying the expression, we find that the distance between the two points is:
distance = √(3^2 + 6^2)
distance = √(9 + 36)
distance = √(45)
distance = 3√5
Therefore, the distance between the two points (-3, -2) and (-6, 4) is approximately 3.87.
12 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Chapter 2: Linear Equations

2.1 Characteristics of linear equations:
Linear equations are equations that represent linear relationships between variables. Some
characteristics of linear equations are:
 They have at most one solution

 They have a constant slope.
 They can be represented by a straight line on a graph.
 They can be written in the standard form y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and
b is the y-intercept (the point at which the line crosses the y-axis).
 They can also be written in the slope-intercept form y = mx + b, where m is the slope of
the line and b is the y-intercept.
 They can be solved by graphing the equation and finding the point at which the graph
intersects the x-axis, or by using algebraic techniques such as the point-slope form or the
slope-intercept form.
Linear equations are used in a variety of applications, including physics, engineering, economics,
and other fields, to model linear relationships between variables.
Examples:
Example 1: distance = rate × time
In this equation, for any given steady rate, the relationship between distance and time will be
linear. However, distance is usually expressed as a positive number, so most graphs of this
relationship will only show points in the first quadrant. Notice that the direction of the line in the
graph below is from bottom left to top right. Lines that tend in this direction have positive slope.
A positive slope indicates that the values on both axes are increasing from left to right.
13 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Example 2: amount of water in a leaky bucket = rate of leak × time
In this equation, since you won't ever have a negative amount of water in the bucket, the graph
will show points only in the first quadrant. Notice that the direction of the line in this graph is top
left to bottom right. Lines that tend in this direction have negative slope. A negative slope
indicates that the values on the y-axis are decreasing as the values on the x-axis are increasing.
2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs:
An equation is said to be linear equation in two variables if it is written in the form of ax + by +

c=0, where a, b & c are real numbers and the coefficients of x and y, i.e a and b respectively, are
not equal to zero.
For example, 10x+4y = 3 and -x+5y = 2 are linear equations in two variables.
The solution for such an equation is a pair of values, one for x and one for y which further makes
the two sides of an equation equal.The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is
a particular point in the graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is
multiplied by b, then the sum of these two values will be equal to c.
Basically, for linear equation in two variables, there are infinitely many solutions.
Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to us.For
Example,
5x + 3y = 30 ---- 1
The above equation has two variables namely x and y.
Graphically this equation can be represented by substituting the variables to zero.
14 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
The value of x when y=0 is
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6
and the value of y when x = 0 is,
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
2.3: Slope intercept form
The graph of the linear equation y = mx + c is a line with m as slope, m and c as the y-intercept.
This form of the linear equation is called the slope-intercept form, and the values of m and c
are real numbers.
The slope, m, represents the steepness of a line. The slope of the line is also termed as gradient,
sometimes. The y-intercept, b, of a line, represents the y-coordinate of the point where the graph
of the line intersects the y-axis.
Consider a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance of c units from the origin.
Here, the distance c is called the y-intercept of the given line L.
So, the coordinate of a point where the line L meets the y-axis will be (0, c).
That means, line L passes through a fixed point (0, c) with slope m.
We know that, the equation of a line in point slope form, where (x 1, y1) is the point and slope m
is:
15 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
(y – y1) = m(x – x1)
Here, (x1, y1) = (0, c)
Substituting these values, we get;
y – c = m(x – 0)
y – c = mx
y = mx + c
Therefore, the point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and only if
y = mx + c
Note: The value of c can be positive or negative based on the intercept is made on the positive or
negative side of the y-axis, respectively.
Slope Intercept Form Formula
As derived above, the equation of the line in slope-intercept form is given by:
y = mx + c
Here,
(x, y) = Every point on the line
m = Slope of the line
c = y-intercept of the line
Usually, x and y have to be kept as the variables while using the above formula.
Slope Intercept Form x Intercept
We can write the formula for the slope-intercept form of the equation of line L whose slope is m
and x-intercept d as:
y = m(x – d)
Here,
m = Slope of the line
d = x-intercept of the line
16 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Sometimes, the slope of a line may be expressed in terms of tangent angle such as:
m = tan θ
Derivation of Slope-Intercept Form from Standard Form Equation
We can derive the slope-intercept form of the line equation from the equation of a straight line in
the standard form as given below:
As we know, the standard form of the equation of a straight line is:
Ax + By + C = 0
Rearranging the terms as:
By = -Ax – C
⇒y = (-A/B) x + (-C/B)
This is of the form y = mx + c
Here, (-A/B) represents the slope of the line and (-C/B) is the y-intercept.
Slope Intercept Form Graph
The slope-intercept form of a linear equation is a standard form of a linear equation that
expresses the equation in the form y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-
intercept (the point at which the line crosses the y-axis).
To graph a linear equation in slope-intercept form, you can use the following steps:
Determine the slope of the line by looking at the coefficient of the x term (m in the equation y =
mx + b). The slope is the ratio of the rise to the run between two points on the line.
Determine the y-intercept of the line by looking at the constant term (b in the equation y = mx +
b). The y-intercept is the point at which the line crosses the y-axis.
Plot the y-intercept on the graph.
Use the slope to find a second point on the line. For example, if the slope is positive, you can
pick a point to the right of the y-intercept and use the slope to find the corresponding y-value. If
the slope is negative, you can pick a point to the left of the y-intercept and use the slope to find
the corresponding y-value.
Connect the two points with a straight line.
17 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Examples
Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 3 and passes through the point (–2, –5).
Solution:
By the slope-intercept form we know.
y = mx+c
Given,
m=3
As per the given point, we have;
y = -5 and x = -2
Hence, putting the values in the above equation, we get;
-5 = 3(-2) + c
-5 = -6+c
c = -5 + 6 = 1
Hence, the required equation will be;
y = 3x+1
2.4: Equation of a straight line

Definition
The equation of a straight line is
y=mx+c
m is the gradient and c is the height at which the line crosses the y-axis, also known as the y-
intercept. The gradient m is the slope of the line - the amount by which the y-coordinate
increases in proportion to the x-coordinate. If you have two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) on the
line, the gradient is m=y2−y1x2−x1
If you know one point (x1,y1)
18 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
on the line as well as its gradient m, the equation of the line is (y−y1)=m(x−x1)
If we are just given two points (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2)
, we must first work out the gradient using the gradient formula above, and then choose either
point to substitute into the straight line equation with this gradient.
Example 1
Find the equation of the line with gradient −2
that passes through the point (3,−4)
Solution
y - y_1 = m(x - x_1)
where (x_1, y_1) is the given point, and m is the gradient of the line.
In this case, the gradient of the line is -2, and the given point is (3, -4). Plugging these values into
the point-slope form, we get:
y - (-4) = (-2)(x - 3)
Solving for y, we find that the equation of the line is:
y = -2x + 10
Therefore, the equation of the line with gradient -2 that passes through the point (3, -4) is y = -2x
+ 10.
2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables

Definition

not equal to zero.
the two sides of an equation equal.
19 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the graph,
such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b, then the sum
of these two values will be equal to c.
Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to us.
5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6 and the value of y when x = 0 is,
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
20 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations

3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variables
Linear equations in two variables, explain the geometry of lines or the graph of two lines, plotted
to solve the given equations. As we already know, the linear equation represents a straight line.
The plotting of these graphs will help us to solve the equations, which consist of unknown
variables. Previously we have learned to solve linear equations in one variable, here we will find
the solutions for the equations having two variables.
Definition

not equal to zero.
the two sides of an equation equal.
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the graph,
such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b, then the sum
of these two values will be equal to c.
Example: 5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6 and
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
21 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Gauss Elimination Method
The Gauss elimination method is a method for solving systems of linear equations by eliminating
variables. A system of linear equations is a set of equations in which each equation represents a
linear relationship between the variables.
To use the Gauss elimination method to solve a system of linear equations, you need to follow
these steps:
Write the system of linear equations in the form Ax = b, where A is a matrix of coefficients, x is
a vector of variables, and b is a vector of constants.
Use elementary row operations to transform the matrix A into an upper triangular matrix. This
involves performing operations such as swapping rows, multiplying rows by constants, and
adding multiples of one row to another row.
Solve the system of equations by back substitution. Starting with the last equation and working
your way up, solve for each variable in turn using the values of the other variables that have
already been found.
The Gauss elimination method is a popular choice for solving systems of linear equations
because it is relatively simple and easy to implement. However, it can be computationally
expensive for large systems of equations, and there are other methods that may be more efficient
in these cases.
Solving two variable linear system via GEM
In mathematics, the Gaussian elimination method is known as the row reduction algorithm for
solving linear equations systems. It consists of a sequence of operations performed on the
corresponding matrix of coefficients. We can also use this method to estimate either of the
following:
 The rank of the given matrix

 The determinant of a square matrix
 The inverse of an invertible matrix
To perform row reduction on a matrix, we have to complete a sequence of elementary row

operations to transform the matrix till we get 0s (i.e., zeros) on the lower left-hand corner of the
matrix as much as possible. That means the obtained matrix should be an upper triangular
matrix. There are three types of elementary row operations; they are:
 Swapping two rows and this can be expressed using the notation ↔, for example, R2 ↔
R3
 Multiplying a row by a nonzero number, for example, R1 → kR2 where k is some nonzero
number
 Adding a multiple of one row to another row, for example, R2 → R2 + 3R1
22 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Name of the system of equations Number of solutions

Consistent independent system 1
Consistent dependent system Multiple or infinitely many
Inconsistent system 0
The obtained matrix will be in row echelon form. The matrix is said to be in reduced row-
echelon form when all the leading coefficients equal 1, and every column containing a leading
coefficient has zeros elsewhere.
Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions

1.1 Functions in mathematics:
A function is a rule that assigns to each element in the set of input values (the domain),
one and only one element in the set of output values (the range)
Functions are written as” f(x)= an algebraic expression”. Since y=f(x), f(x) is the same
thing as y. This notation expresses x as the input into the function, and f(x) as the output
from the function.
Functions on finite sets can be defined by listing all the assignments.
A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the property
that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A & B be any two non-empty sets; mapping
from A to B will be a function only when every element in set A has one end, only one image in
set B.
Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A” is
mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also in a function, there can’t be two pairs
with the same first element.
A Condition for a Function:
Set A and Set B should be non-empty.
In a function, a particular input is given to get a particular output. So, A function f: A->B
denotes that f is a function from A to B, where A is a domain and B is a co-domain.
 For an element, a, which belongs to A, a ∈ A, a unique element b, b ∈ B is there such

that (a,b) ∈ f.
The unique element b to which f relates a, is denoted by f(a) and is called f of a, or the value of f
at a, or the image of a under f.
23 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
 The range of f (image of a under f)

 It is the set of all values of f(x) taken together.
 Range of f = { y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x in X}
A real-valued function has either P or any one of its subsets as its range. Further, if its domain is
also either P or a subset of P, it is called a real function.
Vertical Line Test:
Vertical line test is used to determine whether a curve is a function or not. If any curve cuts a
vertical line at more than one points then the curve is not a function.
Question: Find the output of the function g(t) = 6t2 + 5 at
(i) t = 0
(ii) t = 2
Solution:
The given function is g(t) = 6t2 + 5
(i) At t = 0, g(0) = 6(0)2 + 5 = 5
(ii) At t = 2, g(2) = 6(2)2 + 5 = 29
1.2 Types of Functions:
There are many different types of functions that are used in mathematics and other fields. Some
common types of functions include:
1. Linear functions: These are functions that have a constant slope and can be represented
by a straight line on a graph. Linear functions have the general form y = mx + b, where m
is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept (the point at which the line crosses the y-
axis).
2. Quadratic functions: These are functions that have a parabolic shape and can be
represented by a parabola on a graph. Quadratic functions have the general form y = ax^2
+ bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants.
3. Exponential functions: These are functions that involve an independent variable raised
to a power and have the general form y = a^x, where a is a positive constant known as the
base of the function.
4. Logarithmic functions: These are functions that involve the logarithm of an independent
variable and have the general form y = log_a(x), where a is the base of the logarithm.
24 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
5. Trigonometric functions: These are functions that involve the ratios of the sides of a
right triangle and are used to model periodic phenomena such as waves and oscillations.
The most common trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, and tangent.
6. Polynomial functions: These are functions that involve only non-negative integer
powers of the independent variable and have the general form y = a_nx^n + a_{n-
1}x^{n-1} + ... + a_1x + a_0, where a_n, a_{n-1}, ..., a_1, a_0 are constants.
1.3 Graphical representation of functions:

One – one function (Injective function)
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-domain, the function is
said to be
one – one function.
For examples f; R R given by f(x) = 3x + 5 is one – one.
Many – one function
On the other hand, if there are at least two elements in the domain whose images are same, the
function is known as many to one.
For example f : R R given by f(x) = x2 + 1 is many one.
Onto – function (Surjective Function)
A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at least one pre –
image in the domain.
Into – function
If there exists at least one element in the co-domain which is not an image of any element in the
domain then the function will be Into function.
(Q) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 1} = B be a mapping f : A B, find the nature of the given function (P).
F(x) = |x|
25 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
f (x) = |1|
Solution for x = 1 & -1
Hence, it is many one the Range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1], which is not equal to the co-
domain.
Hence, it is into function.
Let’s say we have function,
For different values of Input, we have different output hence it is one – one function also it
manages is equal to its co-domain hence it is onto also.
Polynomial function
A real-valued function f : P → P defined by
, where n ∈ N and h0 + h1 + … + hn ∈ P, for each a ∈ P, is called polynomial function.
 N = a non-negative integer.
 The degree of the Polynomial function is the highest power in the expression.
 If the degree is zero, it’s called a constant function.
 If the degree is one, it’s called a linear function. Example: b = a+1.
 Graph type: Always a straight line.
So, a polynomial function can be expressed as :
The highest power in the expression is known as the degree of the polynomial function. The
different types of polynomial functions based on the degree are:
1. The polynomial function is called a Constant function if the degree is zero.

2. The polynomial function is called a Linear if the degree is one.
3. The polynomial function is Quadratic if the degree is two.
4. The polynomial function is Cubic if the degree is three.
Linear Function
All functions in the form of ax + b where a, b ∈ R & a ≠ 0 are called linear functions. The graph
will be a straight line. In other words, a linear polynomial function is a first-degree polynomial
where the input needs to be multiplied by m and added to c. It can be expressed by f(x) = mx + c.
For example, f(x) = 2x + 1 at x = 1
f(1) = 2.1 + 1 = 3
26 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
f(1) = 3
Another example of linear function is y = x + 3
Identical Function
Two functions f and g are said to be identical if
(a) The domain of f = domain of g
(b) The range of f = the Range of g
27 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
(c) f(x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ Df & Dg
For example f(x) = x
Solution: f(x) = x is defined for all x
But
is not defined of x = 0
Hence it is identical for x ∈ R – {0}
Quadratic Function
All functions in the form of y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R, a ≠ 0 will be known as Quadratic

function. The graph will be parabolic.
, we will get its maximum on minimum value depends on the leading coefficient and that value
will be -D/4a (where D = Discriminant)
In simpler terms,
A Quadratic polynomial function is a second degree polynomial, and it can be expressed as;
F(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and a is not equal to zero.
Where a, b, c are constant, and x is a variable.
Example, f(x) = 2x2 + x – 1 at x = 2
If x = 2, f(2) = 2.22 + 2 – 1 = 9
28 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
For Example: y = x2
Rational Function
These are the real functions of the type
where f (a) and g (a) are polynomial functions of a defined in a domain, where g(a) ≠ 0.
 For example f : P – {– 6} → P defined by
 is a rational function.
 Graph type: Asymptotes (the curves touching the axes lines).
Algebraic Functions
An algebraic equation is known as a function that consists of a finite number of terms involving
powers and roots of independent variable x and fundamental operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
For Example,
Cubic Function
A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of degree three and can be expressed as;
F(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and a is not equal to zero.
29 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
In other words, any function in the form of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d ∈ R & a ≠ 0
For example: y = x3
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ R
Modulus Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = |a| = a when a ≥ 0. and f(a) = -a when a < 0 ∀ a ∈ P
is called the modulus function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P+ U {0}
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)
30 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Signum Function
The real function f : P → P is defined by
is called the signum function or sign function. (gives the sign of real number)
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {1, 0, – 1}
For example: signum (100) = 1
signum (log 1) = 0
signum (x21) =1
Greatest Integer Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = [a], a ∈ P assumes the value of the greatest
integer less than or equal to a, is called the greatest integer function.
 Thus f (a) = [a] = – 1 for – 1 ⩽ a < 0

 f (a) = [a] = 0 for 0 ⩽ a < 1
 [a] = 1 for 1 ⩽ a < 2
 [a] = 2 for 2 ⩽ a < 3 and so on…
The greatest integer function always gives integral output. The Greatest integral value that has
been taken by the input will be the output.
For example: [4.5] = 4
[6.99] = 6
31 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
[1.2] = 2
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ Integers
Fractional Part Function
{x} = x – [x]
It always gives fractional value as output.
For example:- {4.5} = 4.5 – [4.5]
= 4.5 – 4 = 0.5
{6.99} = 6.99 – [6.99]
= 6.99 – 6 = 0.99
{7} = 7 – [7] = 7 –7 = 0
Even and Odd Function
If f(x) = f(-x) then the function will be even function & f(x) = -f(-x) then the function will be odd
function
Example 2:
and
32 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
f(x) = f(-x)
It is an even function.
Periodic Function
A function is said to be a periodic function if a positive real number T exists, such that f(u – t) =
f(x) for all x ε Domain.
For example f(x) = sin x
f(x + 2π) = sin (x + 2π) = sin x fundamental
then period of sin x is 2π
Composite Function
Let A, B, C be three non-empty sets
Let f: A → B & g : G → C be two functions, then gof : A → C. This function is called the
composition of f and g given gof (x) = g(f(x)).
For example f(x) = x2 & g(x) = 2x
f(g(x)) = f(2x) = (2x)2 = 4x2
g(f(x)) = g(x2) = 2x2
Constant Function
The function f : P → P is defined by b = f (x) = D, a ∈ P, where D is a constant ∈ P, is a

constant function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {D}
 Graph type: A straight line which is parallel to the x-axis.
In simple words, the polynomial of 0th degree where f(x) = f(0) = a0 = c. Regardless of the input,
the output always results in a constant value. The graph for this is a horizontal line.
33 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Identity Function
P= set of real numbers
The function f : P → P defined by b = f (a) = a for each a ∈ P is called the identity function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P
 Graph type: A straight line passing through the origin.
34 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Chapter 5 Linear Functions: Applications

5.1 Linear Functions
What is a Linear Function?
A linear function is a function which forms a straight line in a graph. It is generally a

polynomial function whose degree is utmost 1 or 0. Although the linear functions are also
represented in terms of calculus as well as linear algebra. The only difference is the function
notation. Knowing an ordered pair written in function notation is necessary too. f(a) is called a
function, where a is an independent variable in which the function is dependent. Linear Function
Graph has a straight line whose expression or formula is given by;
y = f(x) = px + q
It has one independent and one dependent variable. The independent variable is x and the
dependent one is y. P is the constant term or the y-intercept and is also the value of the dependent
variable. When x = 0, q is the coefficient of the independent variable known as slope which gives
the rate of change of the dependent variable.
What is a Nonlinear Function?
A function which is not linear is called nonlinear function. In other words, a function which does
not form a straight line in a graph. The examples of such functions are exponential function,
parabolic function, inverse functions, quadratic function, etc. All these functions do not satisfy
the linear equation y = m x + c. The expression for all these functions is different.
Linear Function Graph
Graphing a linear equation involves three simple steps:
1. Firstly, we need to find the two points which satisfy the equation, y = px+q.
2. Now plot these points in the graph or X-Y plane.
3. Join the two points in the plane with the help of a straight line.
Linear Function Table
See the below table where the notation of the ordered pair is generalised in normal form and
function form.
A normal ordered pair A function notation ordered pair
(a,b) = (2,5) f(a) = y coordinate, a=2 and y = 5, f(2) = 5
35 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Using the table, we can verify the linear function, by examining the values of x and y. For the
linear function, the rate of change of y with respect the variable x remains constant. Then, the
rate of change is called the slope.
Linear Function Formula
The expression for the linear function is the formula to graph a straight line. The expression for
the linear equation is;
y = mx + c
where m is the slope, c is the intercept and (x,y) are the coordinates. This formula is also called
slope formula.
While in terms of function, we can express the above expression as.
f(x) = a x + b, where x is the independent variable.
Linear Function Characteristics
Let’s move on to see how we can use function notation to graph 2 points on the grid.
 Relation: It is a group of ordered pairs.

 Variable: A symbol that shows a quantity in a math expression.
 Linear function: If each term is either a constant or It is the product of a constant and
also (the first power of) a single variable, then it is called as an algebraic equation.
 Function: A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible
outputs. It has a property that each input is related to exactly one output.
 Steepness: The rate at which a function deviates from a reference
 Direction: Increasing, decreasing, horizontal or vertical.
Linear Function Example
Graphing of linear functions needs to learn linear equations in two variables.
Example:
Find an equation of the linear function given f(2) = 5 and f(6) = 3.
Solution: Let’s write it in an ordered pair
f(2) = 5, and f(6) = 3
(2, 5) (6, 3)
36 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Find the slope.
(2, 5) (6, 3)
Slope = -1/2
In the equation, substitute the slope and y intercept, write an equation like this: y = mx+c
5 = -(½) (2) + b
5 = -1 + b
b=5+1
b = 6, which is a y-intercept.
y = mx+b
y = -(½) (x) + 6
In function Notation: f(x) = -(½) (x) + 6
Linear Cost functions

The cost function, C(x), is the total cost of manufacturing x units of the product.
Fixed costs are the costs that remain regardless of the company’s activity. Examples: building
fees (rent or mortgage), executive salaries. Variable costs are costs that vary with the production
or sales.
Linear Revenue Functions

The revenue function, R(x), is the total revenue realized from the sale of x units of the product.
Examples; wages of production staff, raw materials
Linear Profit Functions

The profit function, P(x), is the total profit realized from the manufacturing and sale of the x
units of product.
CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions

6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics
A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are numbers with a
not equal to zero. The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a parabola.
Determining the Characteristics of a Quadratic Function Using Various Methods
Determine the following characteristics of the quadratic function y=−2x2+4x+6y=−2x2+4x+6:
37 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
• Opening of the graph
• y−y−intercept
• x−x−intercept(s)
• Vertex
• Axis of symmetry
• Domain
• Range
• Minimum/Maximum value
6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications

Using the Parabola
A very common and easy-to-understand application of a quadratic function is the trajectory

followed by objects thrown upward at an angle. In these cases, the parabola represents the path
of the ball (or rock, or arrow, or whatever is tossed). If we plot distance on the `x`-axis and
height on the `y`-axis, the distance of the throw will be the `x` value when `y` is zero. This value
is one of the roots of a quadratic equation, or x-intercepts, of the parabola. We know how to
find the roots of a quadratic equation—by either factoring, completing the square, or by applying
the quadratic formula.
Let’s look at a throw made by a shot-putter. Notice that `x = 0` when the shot-putter has the shot
(a heavy metal ball) in his hand—the shot hasn't gone anywhere yet. The shot-putter usually
starts with the shot at his shoulder, so `y` (height) is not `0` when `x = 0`:
6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function is a function that can be expressed in the form of a polynomial. The
definition can be derived from the definition of a polynomial equation. A polynomial is generally
represented as P(x). The highest power of the variable of P(x) is known as its degree. Degree of a
polynomial function is very important as it tells us about the behavior of the function P(x) when
x becomes very large. The domain of a polynomial function is entire real numbers (R).
If P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1+.……….…+a2 x2 + a1 x + a0, then for x ≫ 0 or x ≪ 0, P(x) ≈ an xn.

Thus, polynomial functions approach power functions for very large values of their variables.
38 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Polynomial Function Examples
A polynomial function has only positive integers as exponents. We can even perform different
types of arithmetic operations for such functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
Some of the examples of polynomial functions are here:
 x2+2x+1
 3x-7
 7x3+x2-2
All three expressions above are polynomial since all of the variables have positive integer
exponents. But expressions like;
 5x-1+1
 4x1/2+3x+1
 (9x +1) ÷ (x)
are not polynomials, we cannot consider negative integer exponents or fraction exponent or
division here.
Rational Functions
A number that can be expressed in the form of
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, is a rational number.
Just like rational numbers, the rational function definition as:
Definition: A rational function R(x) is the function in the form
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions and Q(x) is a non-zero polynomial.
R(x) =
, Q(x) ≠ 0
From the given condition for Q(x), we can conclude that zeroes of the polynomial function in the
denominator do not fall in the domain of the function. When Q(x) = 1, i.e. a constant polynomial
function, the rational function becomes a polynomial function.
39 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Graphing Rational Functions
One very important concept for graphing rational functions is to know about their asymptotes.
An asymptote is a line or curve which stupidly approaches the curve forever but yet never
touches it. In fig. 1, an example of asymptotes is given.
Figure 1: Asymptotes
Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Rational functions can have 3 types of asymptotes:
1. Horizontal Asymptotes
2. Vertical Asymptotes
3. Oblique Asymptote
Horizontal Asymptotes
This literally means that the asymptote is horizontal i.e. parallel to the axis of the independent
variable. R(x) can only have a horizontal asymptote if
Degree of P(x) ≤ Degree of Q(x)
To determine the asymptotes, divide the numerator and the denominator of R(x) by
. After that, find the value R(x) approaches as x tends to a very large value. This value gives the
height of the asymptote.
Vertical Asymptotes
R(x) will have vertical asymptotes at the zeros of Q(x). This is because at the zeros of Q(x),
Q(x)=0. This means that just towards the left and right of the zero of Q(x), the value of Q will be
very small negative and positive number respectively. Value of R(x) will be a largely negative
and positive number respectively, towards just left and right of that point.
40 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Oblique Asymptotes
R(x) will have oblique asymptote if it can be represented in the form
.
When Q(x) ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ T(x). The curve or line T(x) hence becomes an oblique asymptote.
To quote an example, let us take R(x) =
Here, the degree of P(x) is greater than that of Q(x). So, it can’t have a horizontal asymptote. But
it will have a vertical asymptote at x=-1. This is because that point is the zero of its denominator
polynomial.
It can also be written as R(x) =
. So, when x ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ x + 2. So, y = x + 2 will be an oblique asymptote. The graph of the
function and all the asymptotes are shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2: A rational function with its asymptotes
41 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions

1.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a Mathematical function in the form f (x) = ax, where “x” is a variable
and “a” is a constant which is called the base of the function and it should be greater than 0. The
most commonly used exponential function base is the transcendental number e, which is
approximately equal to 2.71828.
Exponential Function Formula
An exponential function is defined by the formula f(x) = ax, where the input variable x occurs as
an exponent. The exponential curve depends on the exponential function and it depends on the
value of the x.
The exponential function is an important mathematical function which is of the form
f(x) = ax
Where a>0 and a is not equal to 1.
x is any real number.
If the variable is negative, the function is undefined for -1 < x < 1.
Here,
“x” is a variable
42 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
“a” is a constant, which is the base of the function.
An exponential curve grows, or decay depends on the exponential function. Any quantity that
grows or decays by a fixed per cent at regular intervals should possess either exponential growth
or exponential decay.
Exponential Growth
In Exponential Growth, the quantity increases very slowly at first, and then rapidly. The rate of
change increases over time. The rate of growth becomes faster as time passes. The rapid growth
is meant to be an “exponential increase”. The formula to define the exponential growth is:
y = a ( 1+ r )x
Where r is the growth percentage.
Exponential Decay
In Exponential Decay, the quantity decreases very rapidly at first, and then slowly. The rate of
change decreases over time. The rate of change becomes slower as time passes. The rapid growth
meant to be an “exponential decrease”. The formula to define the exponential growth is:
y = a ( 1- r )x
Where r is the decay percentage.
Exponential Function Graph
The following figure represents the graph of exponents of x. It can be seen that as the exponent
increases, the curves get steeper and the rate of growth increases respectively. Thus, for x > 1,
the value of y = fn(x) increases for increasing values of (n).
43 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
From the above, it can be seen that the nature of polynomial functions is dependent on their
degree. The higher the degree of any polynomial function, the higher its growth. A function
which grows faster than a polynomial function is y = f(x) = ax, where a>1. Thus, for any of the
positive integers n the function f (x) is said to grow faster than that of fn(x).
Thus, the exponential function having base greater than 1, i.e., a > 1 is defined as y = f(x) = ax.
The domain of exponential function will be the set of entire real numbers R and the range are
said to be the set of all the positive real numbers.
It must be noted that the exponential function is increasing and the point (0, 1) always lies on the
graph of an exponential function. Also, it is very close to zero if the value of x is mostly
negative.
Exponential function having base 10 is known as a common exponential function. Consider the

following series:
The value of this series lies between 2 & 3. It is represented by e. Keeping e as the base of the
function, we get y = ex, which is a very important function in mathematics known as a natural
exponential function.
For a > 1, the logarithm of b to base a is x if ax = b. Thus, loga b = x if ax = b. This function is

known as logarithmic function.
For base a = 10, this function is known as a common logarithm and for the base a = e, it is
known as a natural logarithm denoted by ln x. Following are some of the important observations
regarding logarithmic functions which have a base a>1.
 The domain of log function consists of positive real numbers only, as we cannot interpret
the meaning of log functions for negative values.
44 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
 For the log function, though the domain is only the set of positive real numbers, the range
is a set of all real values, i.e. R
 When we plot the graph of log functions and move from left to right, the functions show
increasing behaviour.
 The graph of log function never cuts the x-axis or y-axis, though it seems to tend toward
them.
 Logap = α, logbp = β and logba = µ, then aα = p, bβ = p and bµ = a

 Logbpq = Logbp + Logbq
 Logbpy = ylogbp
 Logb (p/q) = logbp – logbq
Exponential Function Derivative
Let us now focus on the derivative of exponential functions.
The derivative of ex with respect to x is ex, i.e. d(ex)/dx = ex
It is noted that the exponential function f(x) =ex has a special property. It means that the
derivative of the function is the function itself.
(i.e) f ‘(x) = ex = f(x)
Exponential Series
The exponential series are given below.
45 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Exponential Function Properties
The Exponential functions have several important properties that make them useful in a variety
of mathematical and scientific applications. Some of the most important properties of
exponential functions are:
The domain of an exponential function is the set of all real numbers.
The range of an exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers
The graph of an exponential function is always increasing.
The graph of an exponential function is always asymptotic to the x-axis, meaning that it gets
closer and closer to the x-axis but never actually touches it.
The graph of an exponential function is always exponential, meaning that the rate of change of
the function is always proportional to the current value of the function.
The derivative of an exponential function is always equal to the original function multiplied by
the constant of the function.
The inverse of an exponential function is always a logarithmic function.
These properties make exponential functions useful for modeling a variety of phenomena that
exhibit exponential growth or decay, such as population growth, the spread of diseases, and the
decay of radioactive materials.
46 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Exponential Function Graph y=2-x
The graph of function y=2-x is shown above. The properties of the exponential function and its
graph when the base is between 0 and 1 are given.
 The line passes through the point (0,1)

 The domain includes all real numbers
 The range is of y>0
 It forms a decreasing graph
 The line in the graph above is asymptotic to the x-axis as x approaches positive infinity
 The line increases without bound as x approaches negative infinity
 It is a continuous graph
 It forms a smooth graph
Exponential Function Rules
Some important exponential rules are given below:
If a>0, and b>0, the following hold true for all the real numbers x and y:

o ax ay = ax+y
o ax/ay = ax-y
o (ax)y = axy
o axbx=(ab)x
o (a/b)x= ax/bx
o a0=1
o a-x= 1/ ax
Exponential Functions Examples
The examples of exponential functions are:
 f(x) = 2x
 f(x) = 1/ 2x = 2-x
 f(x) = 2x+3
47 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
 f(x) = 0.5x
Solved Problems
Question 1:
Simplify the exponential function 2x – 2x+1
Solution:
Given exponential function: 2x – 2x+1
By using the property: ax ay = ax+y
Hence, 2x+1 can be written as 2x. 2

Thus the given function is written as:
2x-2x+1 = 2x-2x. 2
Now, factor out the term 2x
2x-2x+1 = 2x-2x. 2 = 2x(1-2)
2x-2x+1 = 2x(-1)
2x-2x+1 = – 2x
Therefore, the simplification of the given exponential function 2x – 2x+1 is – 2x.
Question 2:
Solve the exponential equation: (¼)x = 216
Solve:
(1/4)^x = 216
Then, we can take the logarithm of both sides of the equation to get:
x * log(1/4) = log(216)
We can simplify the left side of the equation as follows:
x * log(1/4) = x * -2
48 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Then, we can solve for x by dividing both sides of the equation by -2:
x = log(216) / -2
Finally, we can use a calculator to evaluate the logarithm and find that the value of x is
approximately 6.16. Therefore, the solution to the equation is x = 6.16.
1.2 Applications of Exponential Functions

Applications of Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are functions that involve an independent variable raised to a power,
typically represented by the variable x. Exponential functions have the general form f(x) = a^x,
where a is a positive constant known as the base of the function.
Exponential functions have a number of important applications in a variety of fields, including

mathematics, science, engineering, and economics. Some examples of the applications of
exponential functions include:
Modeling population growth: Exponential functions can be used to model the growth of a
population over time, taking into account factors such as birth rates and death rates.
Modeling the spread of diseases: Exponential functions can be used to model the spread of
diseases through a population, taking into account factors such as the rate of infection and the
effectiveness of containment measures.
Modeling the decay of radioactive materials: Exponential functions can be used to model the rate
at which radioactive materials decay over time.
Modeling the growth of investments: Exponential functions can be used to model the growth of
investments over time, taking into account factors such as the rate of return on the investment.
Modeling the decay of certain physical systems: Exponential functions can be used to model the
decay of certain physical systems over time, such as the cooling of a hot object or the loss of
energy in a mechanical system.
Problem-Solving Strategies
1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan – Translate.
3. Carry out the plan – Solve.
4. Look – Check and Interpret.
49 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Real-World Application: Investing Money
Suppose $4000 is invested at 6% interest compounded annually. How much money will there be
in the bank at the end of 5 years? At the end of 20 years?
Step 1: Read the problem and summarize the information.
$4000 is invested at 6% interest compounded annually; we want to know how much money we
have in five years.
Assign variables:
Let
time in years
Let
amount of money in investment account
Step 2: Look for a pattern.
We start with $4000 and each year we add 6% interest to the amount in the bank.
The pattern is that each year we multiply the previous amount by the factor of 1.06.
Let’s fill in a table of values:
We see that at the end of five years we have $5352.90 in the investment account
1.3 Logarithms
A logarithm is a mathematical function that represents the power to which a base number
must be raised to produce a given number. For example, the base-10 logarithm of 100 is
2, because 10^2 = 100. The base-2 logarithm of 8 is 3, because 2^3 = 8.
The logarithm function is written as log_b(x), where b is the base of the logarithm and x
is the number for which the logarithm is being calculated. For example, log_2(8) is the
base-2 logarithm of 8, and log_10(100) is the base-10 logarithm of 100.
The logarithm function is the inverse of the exponentiation function. This means that if
you take the logarithm of a number, and then raise the base to the power of the result, you
will get the original number back. For example, log_10(100) = 2, and 10^2 = 100.
50 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Logarithms are used in a variety of mathematical and scientific applications, including

scientific notation, engineering, and finance. They are especially useful for working with
very large or very small numbers, because they allow you to express these numbers in a
more manageable form.
Properties of logarithms
The logarithm function has several important properties that make it useful in a variety
of mathematical and scientific applications. Some of the most important properties of
logarithms are:
 The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors: log(a*b) =
log(a) + log(b)
 The logarithm of a quotient is the difference of the logarithms of the dividend and
divisor: log(a/b) = log(a) - log(b)
 The logarithm of an exponent is the exponent multiplied by the logarithm of the
base: log(a^b) = b * log(a)
 The logarithm of 1 is 0: log(1) = 0
 The logarithm of any number x greater than 0 to the base b is the exponent to
which b must be raised to produce x: log_b(x) = y if and only if b^y = x
 The logarithm function is the inverse of the exponentiation function: log_b(b^y) =
y and b^(log_b(x)) = x
 The logarithm function is strictly increasing: if x > y, then log(x) > log(y). This
means that the logarithm of a larger number is always greater than the logarithm
of a smaller number.
51 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
CHAPTER 8 Mathematics of finance

8.1 Interest and Its Computation
Interest is the cost of borrowing money, typically expressed as a percentage of the principal, or
the initial amount borrowed. It is typically computed as a percentage of the principal and is paid
to the lender by the borrower.
There are many different ways to calculate interest, and the method used can depend on the type
of loan, the terms of the loan agreement, and other factors. Some common methods of
calculating interest include:
Simple interest: This method calculates interest only on the principal amount of the loan.
Compound interest: This method calculates interest on the principal amount of the loan, as well
as on any accumulated interest from previous periods.
Flat interest rate: This method charges a fixed rate of interest on the principal amount of the loan,
regardless of the length of the loan term.
Variable interest rate: This method charges an interest rate that can change over time,
depending on market conditions or other factors.
It's important to carefully consider the terms of a loan, including the interest rate, before
borrowing money. It can also be helpful to compare offers from multiple lenders to find the best
deal.
What is Simple Interest?
Simple interest is a type of interest that is calculated only on the principal amount of a loan or
deposit, and not on any accumulated interest from previous periods. It is called "simple" because
it is calculated using a simple formula, which is:
Interest = Principal * Rate * Time
Here, "Principal" is the initial amount of the loan or deposit, "Rate" is the interest rate, and
"Time" is the length of time for which the interest is being calculated.
For example, if you have a $100 loan at a 5% annual interest rate, and you want to know how
much interest you will pay over the course of 3 years, you would use the following formula:
Interest = $100 * 0.05 * 3 = $15
So in this example, you would pay a total of $15 in interest over 3 years.
52 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Simple Interest Formula
Simple interest is calculated with the following formula: S.I. = P × R × T, where P = Principal,
R = Rate of Interest in % per annum, and T = Time, usually calculated as the number of years.
The rate of interest is in percentage r% and is to be written as r/100.
 Principal: The principal is the amount that initially borrowed from the bank or invested.
The principal is denoted by P.
 Rate: Rate is the rate of interest at which the principal amount is given to someone for a
certain time, the rate of interest can be 5%, 10%, or 13%, etc. The rate of interest is
denoted by R.
 Time: Time is the duration for which the principal amount is given to someone. Time is
denoted by T.
 Amount: When a person takes a loan from a bank, he/she has to return the principal
borrowed plus the interest amount, and this total returned is called Amount.
Amount = Principal + Simple Interest
A = P + S.I.
A = P + PRT
A = P(1 + RT)
Compound Interest
Interest on interest also referred to as compound interest is the interest earned when interest
payments are reinvested. Compound interest is used in the context of bonds. Coupon payments
from bonds are assumed to be reinvested at some interest rate and held until the bond is sold or
matures.
Compound interest refers to the interest owed or received on an investment, and it grows at a
faster rate than simple interest.
How to Calculate Interest on Interest
When calculating interest-on-interest, the compound interest formula determines the amount of

accumulated interest on the principal amount invested or borrowed. The principal amount, the
annual interest rate, and the number of compounding periods are used to calculate the compound
interest on a loan or deposit.
The formula to calculate compound interest is to add 1 to the interest rate in decimal form, raise
this sum to the total number of compound periods, and multiply this solution by the principal
amount. The original principal amount is subtracted from the resulting value.
53 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
8.2 Single Payment Computations

Single Payment Compound-Amount Factor
As explained earlier, the future value of money after n period with an interest rate of i can be
calculated using the Equation 1-1: F=P(1+i)n which can also be written regarding Table 1-1
notation as: F=P*F/Pi,n.
With an investment that pays simple interest, the amount of interest accumulated each period
depends solely on the amount invested, not on prior interest earned and left in the account. The
following single payment equation applies to simple interest: F = P (1 + I * n)
8.3 Annuities and Their Future Value
The future value of an annuity is the value of a group of recurring payments at a certain date in
the future, assuming a particular rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the discount rate, the
greater the annuity's future value. As long as all of the variables surrounding the annuity are
known such as payment amount, projected rate, and number of periods, it is possible to calculate
the future value of the annuity.
Key Takeaways
 The future value of an annuity is a way of calculating how much money a series of
payments will be worth at a certain point in the future.
 By contrast, the present value of an annuity measures how much money will be required
to produce a series of future payments.
 In an ordinary annuity, payments are made at the end of each agreed-upon period. In an
annuity due, payments are made at the beginning of each period.
 To calculate the future value of an annuity, you must know the annuity payment amount,
number of periods, and projected rate of return.
 Because annuity due payments often entail having an additional compounding period, the
future value of an annuity due will usually be higher than the future value of an annuity.
Formula and Calculation of the Future Value of an Annuity
The formula for the future value of an ordinary annuity is as follows. (An ordinary annuity pays
interest at the end of a particular period, rather than at the beginning, as is the case with an
annuity due.)
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)rwhere:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of each ann
uity paymentr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods in which payment
s will be madeP=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)where:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of each annuity paym
entr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods in which payments will be
made
54 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Future Value of an Annuity Due
With an annuity due, where payments are made at the beginning of each period, the formula is
slightly different. To find the future value of an annuity due, simply multiply the formula above
by a factor of (1 + r). So:
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)r×(1+r)P=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)×(1+r)
Future Value of an Annuity Example
The future value of an annuity is the value of a series of periodic payments or receipts in the
future, taking into account the time value of money. To calculate the future value of an annuity,
we need to know the following information:
The size of each payment or receipt (the annuity payment)
The number of payments or receipts (the term of the annuity)
The discount rate, which reflects the opportunity cost of holding the annuity and any associated
risk
The future value of an annuity can be calculated using the following formula:
FV = A * (((1 + r)^t - 1) / r)
where FV is the future value of the annuity, A is the annuity payment, r is the discount rate, and t
is the number of periods (e.g. years).
For example, consider an annuity that pays $100 per year for 5 years, with a discount rate of
10%. The future value of the annuity would be:
FV = 100 * (((1 + 0.1)^5 - 1) / 0.1) = $661.0
This means that, in the future, the annuity will be worth $661.05.
The future value of an annuity is used in many financial applications, including evaluating the
feasibility of investments, comparing alternative investment opportunities, and setting the price
of financial instruments such as bonds
55 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
8.4 Annuities and Their Present Value
Present Value of an Annuity: Meaning, Formula, and Example

What Is the Present Value of an Annuity?
The present value of an annuity is the current value of future payments from an annuity, given a
specified rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the discount rate, the lower the present value
of the annuity.
Present value (PV) is an important calculation that relies on the concept of the time value of
money, whereby a dollar today is relatively more "valuable" in terms of its purchasing power
than a dollar in the future.
Key Takeaways
 The present value of an annuity refers to how much money would be needed today to
fund a series of future annuity payments.
 Because of the time value of money, a sum of money received today is worth more than
the same sum at a future date.
 You can use a present value calculation to determine whether you'll receive more money
by taking a lump sum now or an annuity spread out over a number of years.
Present Value of an Annuity

Understanding the Present Value of an Annuity
An annuity is a series of periodic payments or receipts that occur at regular intervals. The present
value of an annuity is the value of a series of future payments or receipts in the present, taking
into account the time value of money.
To calculate the present value of an annuity, we need to know the following information:
 The size of each payment or receipt (the annuity payment)

 The number of payments or receipts (the term of the annuity)
 The discount rate, which reflects the opportunity cost of holding the annuity and any
associated risk
The present value of an annuity can be calculated using the following formula:
PV = A * ((1 - (1 / (1 + r)^t)) / r)
where PV is the present value of the annuity, A is the annuity payment, r is the discount rate, and
t is the number of periods (e.g. years).
56 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
For example, consider an annuity that pays $100 per year for 5 years, with a discount rate of
10%. The present value of the annuity would be:
PV = 100 * ((1 - (1 / (1 + 0.1)^5)) / 0.1) = $454.39
This means that, in the present, the annuity is worth $454.39.
The present value of an annuity is used in many financial applications, including evaluating the
of financial instruments such as bonds.
Present Value and the Discount Rate
The present value of a future cash flow is the value of that cash flow in the present, taking into
account the time value of money. The time value of money is the idea that a given amount of
money is worth more in the present than in the future, because money that can be received in the
present can be invested and earn interest.
The discount rate is the rate at which the present value of a future cash flow is discounted. It
reflects the opportunity cost of holding the cash flow, as well as any associated risk. The higher
the discount rate, the lower the present value of the cash flow.
To calculate the present value of a future cash flow, we use the following formula:
PV = CF / (1 + r)^
where PV is the present value, CF is the future cash flow, r is the discount rate, and t is the
number of periods (e.g. years) until the cash flow is received.
For example, consider a future cash flow of $100 that is received in 5 years. If the discount rate
is 10%, the present value of the cash flow would be
PV = 100 / (1 + 0.1)^5 = $62.87
This means that, in the present, the cash flow is worth $62.87.
The present value of a series of future cash flows can be calculated by summing the present
values of each individual cash flow. This is known as the present value of an annuity.
The present value concept is used in many financial applications, including evaluating the
of financial instruments such as bonds.
57 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
CHAPTER 9 Matrix algebra

1.1 Introduction to Matrices
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, organized in rows and
columns. You will get a complete matrix introduction following all the parts :
 Introduction to matrix algebra
 Introduction to matrices and determinants
 Introduction of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
 Introduction to matrix algebra
All these are introductions to matrices with applications in statistics. So, now at first, it's
important to get a brief introduction about matrices.
Introduction to Matrices
A matrix is a collection of numbers arranged into a fixed number of rows and columns. Matrices
are often used to represent linear transformations, which are functions that preserve the linear
structure of a vector space.
For example, consider the following matrix A:
A = [[a11, a12, a13],
[a21, a22, a23],
[a31, a32, a33]]
This matrix has 3 rows and 3 columns, and is called a 3x3 matrix. The element at the i-th row
and j-th column is denoted by a_ij. In this matrix, a11 is the element at the first row and first
column, a12 is the element at the first row and second column, and so on.
Matrices can be added and subtracted element-wise, as long as they have the same size. For
example, given two 3x3 matrices A and B, their sum C is calculated as:
C = [[a11 + b11, a12 + b12, a13 + b13],
[a21 + b21, a22 + b22, a23 + b23],
[a31 + b31, a32 + b32, a33 + b33]]
Matrices can also be multiplied, but the rules for matrix multiplication are different from the
rules for multiplying scalars. To multiply two matrices, the number of columns in the first matrix
58 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
must be equal to the number of rows in the second matrix. The resulting matrix will have the
same number of rows as the first matrix and the same number of columns as the second matrix
Introduction to Matrix Algebra: Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication

Here, we will go through an introduction to matrices with applications in statistics and basic
mathematics.
Adding and Subtracting Matrices Concepts
We use matrices to list information or to represent systems. Because the entries are numbers, we
can apply methods on matrices. We plus or minus matrices by adding or subtracting
corresponding entries.
To do this, the entries must correspond. Therefore, the plus and minus of matrices are only
applicable when the matrices have equal dimensions.
Adding matrices is very simple. Just add each element in the first matrix to the corresponding
element in the second matrix. One of the basic methods that can be done on matrices is the
addition process. Just as we plus two or more integers, two or more matrices can also be added
similarly. This is identified as the Addition of Matrices.
Multiplying Matrices Concepts
To multiply two matrices, the number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number
of rows in the second matrix. The resulting matrix will have the same number of rows as the first
matrix and the same number of columns as the second matrix.
For example, consider two matrices A and B:
A = [[a11, a12],
[a21, a22],
[a31, a32]]
B = [[b11, b12, b13],
[b21, b22, b23]]
The resulting matrix C will have the size 3x3 (the same number of rows as A and the same
number of columns as B):
C = [[c11, c12, c13],
[c21, c22, c23],
59 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
[c31, c32, c33]]

To calculate the elements of C, we take the dot product of each row in A and each column in B.
For example, c11 is calculated as:
c11 = a11 * b11 + a12 * b21
Similarly, c12 is calculated as:
c12 = a11 * b12 + a12 * b22
and c13 is calculated as:
c13 = a11 * b13 + a12 * b23
The remaining elements of C are calculated in a similar manne

Introduction to Matrices and Determinants
Now let's understand the concept of matrices and determinants, and their relation.
A determinant seems very much like a matrix, but it isa little different.
Unlike a matrix, a determinant isn’t simply an array of numbers. It also has a value, which can be
determined using methods. The other major difference to take note of now is that even though in
a matrix, the number of rows does not have to equal the number of columns. In a determinant,
they need to be equal. In short, all determinants are square.
Concept of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are a fundamental concept in linear algebra that are used to solve
systems of linear equations, diagonalize matrices, and understand the properties of linear
transformations.
An eigenvalue of a matrix A is a scalar λ that satisfies the equation
A*v=λ*v
where v is a non-zero vector called an eigenvector. The equation above is known as the
eigenvalue equation.
Intuitively, an eigenvector of a matrix A is a vector that, when multiplied by A, changes only in

scale (not direction). The eigenvalue λ represents the scale factor by which the eigenvector is
stretched or shrunk.
60 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
1.2 Special Types of Matrices

Matrix refers to a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix consists of rows and columns. There
are several special types of matrices that are frequently used in various mathematical and
scientific fields. Here are some examples:
Identity matrix: An identity matrix is a square matrix with 1's on the diagonal and 0's everywhere
else. It is denoted by I or I_n, where n is the size of the matrix. For example, the 3x3 identity
matrix is:
I_3 = [[1, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1]]
Diagonal matrix: A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all non-diagonal elements equal to 0.
For example:
[[4, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 6]]
is a diagonal matrix.
Upper/lower triangular matrix: A square matrix is upper triangular if all the elements below the
main diagonal (top-right to bottom-left) are 0. A square matrix is lower triangular if all the
elements above the main diagonal are 0. For example:
[[1, 2, 3],
[0, 4, 5],
[0, 0, 6]]
is an upper triangular matrix, and
[[6, 0, 0],
[7, 8, 0],
[9, 10, 11]]
is a lower triangular matrix.
Symmetric matrix: A square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its transpose. For example:
61 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
[[1, 2, 3],
[2, 4, 5],
[3, 5, 6]]
is a symmetric matrix.
Orthogonal matrix: An n x n matrix Q is orthogonal if Q^T * Q = Q * Q^T = I_n, where Q^T is

the transpose of Q and I_n is the n x n identity matrix. An orthogonal matrix preserves the length
and angle between vectors when it is applied to them.
1.3 Matrix Operations
Matrix operations mainly involve three algebraic operations which are addition of matrices,
subtraction of matrices, and multiplication of matrices. Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers
or expressions arranged in rows and columns. Important applications of matrices can be found in
mathematics.
All these operations on matrices are covered in this article along with their properties and solved
examples. Before starting with the operation, it is important to know about the elementary
operation of a matrix in detail which is given in the linked articles below.
Read More:
 Introduction to Matrices
 Types of Matrices
 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
 Rank of a Matrix and Special Matrices
Operations on Matrices
Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on the matrix. To add or
subtract matrices, these must be of identical order and for multiplication, the number of columns
in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the second matrix.
 Addition of Matrices
 Subtraction of Matrices
 Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
 Multiplication of Matrices
Addition of Matrices
If A[aij]mxn and B[bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order, then their sum A + B is a matrix, and
each element of that matrix is the sum of the corresponding elements. i.e. A + B = [aij + bij]mxn
62 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the sum is given by:
Properties of Matrix Addition: Matrix addition is an operation that takes two matrices of the
same size and produces a third matrix by adding corresponding elements. In general, if A and B
are m x n matrices, then the sum A + B is an m x n matrix given by:
A + Bij = Aij + Bij
where i and j are the row and column indices, respectively.
There are a number of important properties of matrix addition that are useful to know:
Commutativity: Matrix addition is commutative, which means that A + B = B + A for any

matrices A and B of the same size.
Associativity: Matrix addition is associative, which means that (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) for

any matrices A, B, and C of the same size.
Identity element: The zero matrix (a matrix with all elements equal to 0) is the identity element
for matrix addition. If A is a matrix and O is the zero matrix of the same size, then A + O = O +
A = A.
Inverse element: For any matrix A, there exists a matrix -A such that A + (-A) = (-A) + A = O,
where O is the zero matrix. The matrix -A is called the inverse of A.
Scalar multiplication: If A and B are matrices and c is a scalar, then c(A + B) = cA + cB and (c
+ d)A = cA + dA for any scalars c and d.
These properties can be useful when working with matrices and performing matrix calculations.
Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then we define
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the difference is given by:
We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element of one matrix from the corresponding
element of the second matrix. i.e. A – B = [aij – bij]mxn
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k any number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying the
elements of A by k is called the scalar multiplication of A by k and it is denoted by k A thus if A
= [aij]m×n.
Then
63 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Properties of Scalar Multiplication: If A, B are matrices of the same order and λ and μ are any
two scalars then;
(a) λ(A + B) = λA + λB
(b) (λ + μ)A = λA + μA
(c) λ(μA) = (λμA) = μ(λA)
(d) (-λA) = -(λA) = λ(-A)
(e) tr(kA) = k tr(A)
Multiplication of Matrices
Matrix multiplication is an operation that takes two matrices as inputs and produces a third
matrix as output. In general, if A is an m x n matrix and B is an n x p matrix, then the product
AB is an m x p matrix.
To calculate the elements of the product matrix AB, you need to multiply the elements of each
row of A by the elements of each column of B and sum the products. For example, if A is a 2 x 3
matrix and B is a 3 x 2 matrix, then the element in the i-th row and j-th column of the product
AB is given by:
(AB)ij = ∑(k=1 to n)(Aik * Bkj)
where n is the number of columns in A (which is also the number of rows in B).
For example, if A is the following matrix:
[123]
[456]
and B is the following matrix:
[78]
[ 9 10 ]
[ 11 12 ]
then the product AB is the following matrix:
[ 58 64 ]
64 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
[ 139 154 ]
Note that matrix multiplication is not commutative, which means that AB ≠ BA in general. This
means that the order of the matrices matters when multiplying them.
Matrix multiplication is a fundamental operation in linear algebra and has a wide range of
applications in many fields, including computer graphics, machine learning, and engineering.
Properties of matrix multiplication
Matrix multiplication is a mathematical operation that takes two matrices as inputs and produces
a third matrix as output. In general, if A is an m x n matrix and B is an n x p matrix, then the
product AB is an m x p matrix.
There are a number of important properties of matrix multiplication that are useful to know:
 Associativity: Matrix multiplication is associative, which means that (AB)C = A(BC) for
any appropriate matrices A, B, and C.
 Distributivity: Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, which means
that A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC for any appropriate matrices A, B,
and C.
 Identity matrix: The identity matrix is a special square matrix that has 1s on the
diagonal and 0s everywhere else. If I is the identity matrix and A is any matrix, then IA =
AI = A.
 Inverse matrix: If A is an invertible matrix (also called a nonsingular matrix), then there
exists a matrix A^(-1) such that AA^(-1) = A^(-1)A = I, where I is the identity matrix.
The matrix A^(-1) is called the inverse of A.
 Scalar multiplication: If A is a matrix and c is a scalar, then cA is the matrix obtained
by multiplying every element of A by c.
 Zero matrix: The zero matrix is a matrix with all elements equal to 0. If A is a matrix
and O is the zero matrix of the same size, then AO = OA = O.
These properties can be useful when working with matrices and performing matrix calculations.
1.4 The Determinant

The determinant is a mathematical concept that can be used to find the solution to a
system of linear equations, or to determine certain properties of a matrix.
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar value that can be calculated from the elements of
the matrix. In general, the determinant of a matrix A is denoted as |A| or det(A).
The determinant of a matrix is defined differently for different types of matrices. For a
2x2 matrix, the determinant is given by the following formula:
|A| = ad - bc
65 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
where a, b, c, and d are the elements of the matrix:
[ab]
[cd]
For a 3x3 matrix, the determinant is more complex and is given by the following
formula:
|A| = a*(ei - fh) - b*(di - fg) + c*(dh - eg)
where a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h are the elements of the matrix:
[abc]
[def]
[ghi]
For larger matrices, the determinant can be calculated using more complex methods,
such as expanding the determinant along a row or column of the matrix.
The determinant of a matrix has a number of important properties and applications. In

particular, it can be used to find the inverse of a matrix, to solve systems of linear
equations, and to determine the stability of certain types of dynamical systems.
9.5 Cramer's Rule
Cramer's Rule is a method for solving systems of linear equations. It is named after Gabriel
Cramer, a Swiss mathematician who published it in 1750.
The general form of a system of linear equations is:
ax + by = c
dx + ey = f
where x and y are the variables being solved for, and a, b, c, d, e, and f are constants.
Cramer's Rule provides a formula for finding the values of x and y in terms of the constants in
the system of equations. Specifically, the value of x can be found using the following formula:
x = (ce - bf) / (ae - bd)
66 | P a g e
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
And the value of y can be found using the following formula:
y = (af - cd) / (ae - bd)
To use Cramer's Rule, you need to first determine the determinant of the system of equations,
which is given by the expression:
(ae - bd)
If the determinant is zero, then the system of equations does not have a unique solution and
Cramer's Rule cannot be applied. If the determinant is nonzero, then the formulas for x and y can
be used to find the values of the variables.
Cramer's Rule can be useful when you want to find the exact solution to a system of linear
equations, rather than an approximate solution. However, it can be time-consuming to use,
especially for larger systems of equations, so it is not always the most practical method. There
are also other methods for solving systems of linear equations, such as Gaussian elimination and
matrix inversion, that may be more efficient in certain cases.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
67 | P a g e

Pak Study Project 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pak Study Project 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BUISNESS MATH(BM1)

FRANK S. BUDNICK 1/1/23 BM1

Solving two variable linear system via GEM.........................................................................20

Linear Function Table................................................................................................................35

Simplify the resulting expression by combining like terms.

Simplify the resulting expression, if necessary.

Solve the equation 2x + 3 = 0

Subtract 3 from both sides: 2x = -3

Divide both sides by 2: x = -3/2

The solution to the equation is x = -3/2.

5. Distributive axiom: a (b+c) = ab + ac.

1.3x-14-x-2(x+1) Write the equation.

3x+14-x-2x-2 Use the distributive property to remove parentheses. 3x+14=-x-2

4x+14=-2 Add x to both sides.

4x=-16 Add -14 to both sides,

X=-4 Divide both sides by 4.

1.2 Solving second-degree Equations:

x = (-b +/- sqrt(b^2 - 4ac)) / (2a)

where a, b, and c are coefficients in the equation of the form:

Write the equation in the standard form: ax^2 + bx + c = 0

Simplify the formula and solve for x.

Evaluate the discriminant b2−4ac,

where a=2, b=9 and c=9. b2−4ac= (9)2−4(2)(9) =9

We can continue since the discriminant is positive.

2x2+9x+9 can be factored using the product-sum method.

Apply the zero-product rule.

Therefore, the starting equation’s two solutions are −3 and −32.

1.3 Inequalities and their solution:

There are several types of inequalities, including:

Greater than: a > b

Less than: a < b

Greater than or equal to: a >= b

Less than or equal to: a <= b

Then, you can divide both sides by 2 to get:

1.4 Absolute value relationships

Here are some examples of absolute value relationships:

1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System

An ordered pair (x,y)represents the position of a point relative to the origin

Use the distance formula

distance = √((x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2)

distance = √((-6 - (-3))^2 + (4 - (-2))^2

distance = √(3^2 + 6^2)

distance = √(9 + 36)

Chapter 2: Linear Equations

 They have at most one solution

Example 2: amount of water in a leaky bucket = rate of leak × time

2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs:

An equation is said to be linear equation in two variables if it is written in the form of ax + by +

The above equation has two variables namely x and y.

Graphically this equation can be represented by substituting the variables to zero.

The value of x when y=0 is

and the value of y when x = 0 is,

2.3: Slope intercept form

Here, the distance c is called the y-intercept of the given line L.

(y – y1) = m(x – x1)

Here, (x1, y1) = (0, c)

Substituting these values, we get;

Slope Intercept Form Formula

(x, y) = Every point on the line

m = Slope of the line

c = y-intercept of the line

Slope Intercept Form x Intercept