Professional Documents
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Pak Study Project 3
Pak Study Project 3
Frank S. Brandick
BM1
BUSINESS
MATHEMATICS
BM1
MATHEMATICS PROJECT
Contents
Chapter 1: Preliminaries.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations.................................................................................................................................... 3
Step to solve............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Solving second-degree Equations:............................................................................................................................... 4
Steps to solve:.......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Inequalities and their solution:..................................................................................................................................... 5
Example..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Absolute value relationships.......................................................................................................................................... 6
Example..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System................................................................................................................................... 7
Example:.................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Linear Equations...................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Characteristics of linear equations:............................................................................................................................ 9
Examples:.................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs:....................................................................................................... 10
Example.................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3: Slope intercept form...................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.4: Equation of a straight line.......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables............................................................................................... 18
Definition................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables.............................................................................................. 18
Example.................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations............................................................................................................................. 19
3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variables......................................................................................................................... 19
Definition................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables.............................................................................................. 19
Example: 5x + 3y = 30....................................................................................................................................................... 19
Gauss Elimination Method................................................................................................................................................... 20
Solving two variable linear system via GEM........................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions..................................................................................................................................... 21
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Example:................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Linear Cost functions........................................................................................................................................................ 37
Linear Revenue Functions............................................................................................................................................... 37
Linear Profit Functions.................................................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions.......................................................................................................... 38
6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics.................................................................................................. 38
6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications........................................................................................................................... 38
Using the Parabola............................................................................................................................................................. 38
6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions......................................................................................................................... 39
Polynomial Functions....................................................................................................................................................... 39
Rational Functions............................................................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions..................................................................................................... 42
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions...................................................................................................... 42
Exponential Function Formula.......................................................................................................................................... 43
Exponential Function Graph............................................................................................................................................... 44
Exponential Function Derivative...................................................................................................................................... 46
Exponential Series................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Exponential Function Properties...................................................................................................................................... 47
Exponential Function Rules............................................................................................................................................ 49
Exponential Functions Examples................................................................................................................................. 50
Solved Problems.................................................................................................................................................................. 50
7.3 Applications of Exponential Functions............................................................................................................ 51
Applications of Exponential Functions...................................................................................................................... 51
7.4 Logarithms.................................................................................................................................................................. 53
7.5 Properties of logarithms........................................................................................................................................ 54
CHAPTER 8 Mathematics of finance..................................................................................................................................... 54
8.1 Interest and Its Computation...................................................................................................................................... 54
Simple Interest..................................................................................................................................................................... 54
What is Simple Interest?................................................................................................................................................. 54
Simple Interest Formula.................................................................................................................................................. 55
Compound Interest............................................................................................................................................................. 55
How to Calculate Interest on Interest............................................................................................................................. 55
8.2 Single Payment Computations.................................................................................................................................... 56
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Chapter 1: Preliminaries
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations
A linear equation is an equation that represents a line on the quadratic system.
The general form of this equation is ax + b = 0 in which a and b are integers and x is the variable.
This type of equation has only one solution and represents a parallel line with the y-axis.
Equations are first-degree when they can be written in the form ax + bc, where x is a variable and a.
b, and c are known constants.
Step to solve
Firstly let’s write the basic Axioms that we apply when solving an equation:
1. Addition axiom: When two equal quantities are added on both sides of an equation, the
equation will remain equal.
3. Multiplication axiom: When we multiply both sides of an equation with the same value,
the equation will remain equal.
4. Division axiom: When we divide both sides of an equation with the same value (≠0), the
equation will remain equal.
Examples
Simplify.
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Example
For example, consider the equation 2x2+9x+5=−4.
Change the equation to the form ax2+bx+c=0 by adding 4 to each side of the equality.
2x2+9x+5=−4 → 2x2+9x+9=0
2x2+9x+9=0 → (x+3) (2x+3) =0
x+3=0 ⇒ x=−3 or 2x+3=0⇒ x=−32
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Solving an equation or an inequality consists of finding all the values of the variable that
validate the starting equation. Certain rules must be followed when solving equations and
inequalities. It is always possible to check if the answer obtained is true by a simple method
of validation.
Each type of function has different features, which change the way to solve them. However,
they all respect the general rules for transforming an equation. It is possible to solve them
by following means.
Example
2x+3=6 where the solution is 32
2x+3+5=6+5
2x+8=11 where the solution is 32
The two equations are equivalent since they have the same solution.
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In a graph, the basic absolute value function has the following characteristics.
The vertex of the graph of the basic absolute value function is the point (0,0).
Example
1. Determine the properties of the absolute value function f(x)=−12∣x+1∣+2.
The vertex is (−1, 2) and the function opens downwards since a<0.
2. The domain of the function is the set of real numbers denoted as R.
3. The range of the function corresponds to the interval (−∞,2].
4. To calculate the y-intercept, simply replace x with 0. f(0)=−12∣0+1∣+2f(0)=32
To calculate the zeroes of the function, just replace f(x) with 0 and isolate x.
5. 0=−12∣x+1∣+2−2=−12∣x+1∣4=∣x+1∣
Here, use the definition of the absolute value.
6. 4=x+1−4=x+13=x−5=x
Therefore, the two zeroes are −5 and 3.
7. Variation: the function is increasing over (−∞,−1]
8. and decreasing over [−1,+∞). Extrema: a is negative, thus, the function has a
maximum of 2.
9. Sign — Positive and Negative Intervals: using the direction the function opens
and the zeroes found, the positive and negative intervals of of the function are the
following:
it will be positive over [−5,3];
it will be negative over (−∞,−5]∪[3,+∞).
The equation for the axis of symmetry is x=−1.
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Figure 3.1.1
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Example:
Calculate the distance between (−3,−1) and (−2,4)
Solution:
x1,y1(−3,−1)x2,y2(−2,4)
solution
before substituting values for the variables. This improves readability and reduces the
chance for errors.
d=√[(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2 ]
=√ [(−2−(−3))2+(4−(−1))2]
=√[ (−2+3)2+(4+1)2]
=√[ (1)2+(5)2]
=√(1+25)
=√26
A linear equation is made up of two expressions set equal. There are some key features
common to all linear equations:
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A linear equation in two variables can be described as a linear relationship between x and y,
that is, two variables in which the value of one of them (usually y) depends on the value of
the other one (usually x). In this case, x is the independent variable, and y depends on it, so
y is called the dependent variable.
Examples:
Example 1: distance = rate × time
In this equation, for any given steady rate, the relationship between distance and time will
be linear. However, distance is usually expressed as a positive number, so most graphs of
this relationship will only show points in the first quadrant. Notice that the direction of the
line in the graph below is from bottom left to top right. Lines that tend in this direction
have positive slope. A positive slope indicates that the values on both axes are increasing
from left to right.
In this equation, since you won't ever have a negative amount of water in the bucket, the
graph will show points only in the first quadrant. Notice that the direction of the line in this
graph is top left to bottom right. Lines that tend in this direction have negative slope. A
negative slope indicates that the values on the y-axis are decreasing as the values on the x-
axis are increasing.
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For example, 10x+4y = 3 and -x+5y = 2 are linear equations in two variables.
The solution for such an equation is a pair of values, one for x and one for y which further
makes the two sides of an equation equal.The solution of linear equations in two variables,
ax+by = c, is a particular point in the graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a
and y-coordinate is multiplied by b, then the sum of these two values will be equal to
c.
Basically, for linear equation in two variables, there are infinitely many solutions.
Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to
us.For Example,
5x + 3y = 30 ---- 1
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6
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5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
The graph of the linear equation y = mx + c is a line with m as slope, m and c as the y-
intercept. This form of the linear equation is called the slope-intercept form, and the
values of m and c are real numbers.
The slope, m, represents the steepness of a line. The slope of the line is also termed as gradient,
sometimes. The y-intercept, b, of a line, represents the y-coordinate of the point where the graph of
the line intersects the y-axis.
Consider a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance of c units from the origin.
So, the coordinate of a point where the line L meets the y-axis will be (0, c).
That means, line L passes through a fixed point (0, c) with slope m.
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We know that, the equation of a line in point slope form, where (x 1, y1) is the point and
slope m is:
y – c = m(x – 0)
y – c = mx
y = mx + c
Therefore, the point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and
only if y = mx + c
Note: The value of c can be positive or negative based on the intercept is made on the
positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively.
As derived above, the equation of the line in slope-intercept form is given by:
y = mx + c
Here,
Usually, x and y have to be kept as the variables while using the above formula.
We can write the formula for the slope-intercept form of the equation of line L whose slope
is m and x-intercept d as:
y = m(x – d)
Here,
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Sometimes, the slope of a line may be expressed in terms of tangent angle such as:
m = tan θ
We can derive the slope-intercept form of the line equation from the equation of a straight
line in the standard form as given below:
Ax + By + C = 0
By = -Ax – C
⇒y = (-A/B) x + (-C/B)
Here, (-A/B) represents the slope of the line and (-C/B) is the y-intercept.
When we plot the graph for slope-intercept form equation we get a straight line. Slope-
intercept is the best form. Since it is in the form “y=”, hence it is easy to graph it or solve
word problems based on it. We just have to put the x-values and the equation is solved for
y.
The best part of the slope-intercept form is that we can get the value of slope and the
intercept directly from the equation.
Examples
Example 1:
Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 3 and passes through the point (–2,
–5).
Solution:
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y = mx+c
Given,
m=3
y = -5 and x = -2
-5 = 3(-2) + c
-5 = -6+c
c = -5 + 6 = 1
y = 3x+1
y=mx+c
m is the gradient and c is the height at which the line crosses the y-axis, also known as the
y-intercept. The gradient m is the slope of the line - the amount by which the y-coordinate
increases in proportion to the x-coordinate. If you have two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) on
the line, the gradient is m=y2−y1x2−x1
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on the line as well as its gradient m, the equation of the line is (y−y1)=m(x−x1)
and (x2,y2)
, we must first work out the gradient using the gradient formula above, and then choose
either point to substitute into the straight line equation with this gradient.
Worked Examples
Example 1
Solution
Put m=−2
y−y1=m(x−x1)
y+4=−2(x−3)
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y+4=−2x+6
y=−2x+2
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For example, 10x+4y = 3 and -x+5y = 2 are linear equations in two variables.
The solution for such an equation is a pair of values, one for x and one for y which further
makes the two sides of an equation equal.
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the
graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b,
then the sum of these two values will be equal to c.
Basically, for linear equation in two variables, there are infinitely many solutions.
Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to us.
5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
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Linear equations in two variables, explain the geometry of lines or the graph of two lines,
plotted to solve the given equations. As we already know, the linear equation represents a
straight line. The plotting of these graphs will help us to solve the equations, which consist
of unknown variables. Previously we have learned to solve linear equations in one variable,
here we will find the solutions for the equations having two variables.
Definition
For example, 10x+4y = 3 and -x+5y = 2 are linear equations in two variables.
The solution for such an equation is a pair of values, one for x and one for y which further
makes the two sides of an equation equal.
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the
graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b,
then the sum of these two values will be equal to c.
Basically, for linear equation in two variables, there are infinitely many solutions.
Example: 5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6 and
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
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Gauss elimination method is used to solve a system of linear equations. Let’s recall the
definition of these systems of equations. A system of linear equations is a group of linear
equations with various unknown factors. As we know, unknown factors exist in multiple
equations. Solving a system involves finding the value for the unknown factors to verify all
the equations that make up the system.
In mathematics, the Gaussian elimination method is known as the row reduction algorithm
for solving linear equations systems. It consists of a sequence of operations performed on
the corresponding matrix of coefficients. We can also use this method to estimate either of
the following:
Swapping two rows and this can be expressed using the notation ↔, for example, R 2
↔ R3
Multiplying a row by a nonzero number, for example, R 1 → kR2 where k is some
nonzero number
Adding a multiple of one row to another row, for example, R 2 → R2 + 3R1
The obtained matrix will be in row echelon form. The matrix is said to be in reduced row-
echelon form when all the leading coefficients equal 1, and every column containing a
leading coefficient has zeros elsewhere. This final form is unique; that means it is
independent of the sequence of row operations used. We can understand this in a better
way with the help of the example given below.
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Functions are written as” f(x)= an algebraic expression”. Since y=f(x), f(x) is the same thing
as y. This notation expresses x as the input into the function, and f(x) as the output from the
function.
A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the
property that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A & B be any two non-empty
sets; mapping from A to B will be a function only when every element in set A has one end,
only one image in set B.
Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A” is
mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also in a function, there can’t be two
pairs with the same first element.
In a function, a particular input is given to get a particular output. So, A function f: A->B
denotes that f is a function from A to B, where A is a domain and B is a co-domain.
For an element, a, which belongs to A, a ∈ A, a unique element b, b ∈ B is there such that
(a,b) ∈ f.
The unique element b to which f relates a, is denoted by f(a) and is called f of a, or the
value of f at a, or the image of a under f.
A real-valued function has either P or any one of its subsets as its range. Further, if its
domain is also either P or a subset of P, it is called a real function.
Vertical line test is used to determine whether a curve is a function or not. If any curve cuts
a vertical line at more than one points then the curve is not a function.
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(i) t = 0
(ii) t = 2
Solution:
Example:
If A={1,2,3,4} and B={r,s,t,u,v} then "f(1)=t,f(2)=s,f(3)=u,f(4)=t'' defines a function from A to
B. The assignment can be done quite arbitrarily, without recourse to any formula.
There are various types of functions in mathematics which are explained below in detail.
The different function types covered here are:
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If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-domain, the
function is said to be one – one function.
On the other hand, if there are at least two elements in the domain whose images are same,
the function is known as many to one.
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A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at least one pre –
image in the domain.
Into – function
If there exists at least one element in the co-domain which is not an image of any element in
the domain then the function will be Into function.
(Q) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 1} = B be a mapping f : A B, find the nature of the given function (P).
F(x) = |x|
f (x) = |1|
Hence, it is many one the Range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1], which is not equal to the co-
domain.
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For different values of Input, we have different output hence it is one – one function also it
manages is equal to its co-domain hence it is onto also.
Polynomial function
N = a non-negative integer.
The degree of the Polynomial function is the highest power in the expression.
If the degree is zero, it’s called a constant function.
If the degree is one, it’s called a linear function. Example: b = a+1.
Graph type: Always a straight line.
The highest power in the expression is known as the degree of the polynomial function.
The different types of polynomial functions based on the degree are:
Linear Function
All functions in the form of ax + b where a, b ∈ R & a ≠ 0 are called linear functions. The
graph will be a straight line. In other words, a linear polynomial function is a first-degree
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polynomial where the input needs to be multiplied by m and added to c. It can be expressed
by f(x) = mx + c.
f(1) = 2.1 + 1 = 3
f(1) = 3
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Identical Function
But
is not defined of x = 0
Quadratic Function
, we will get its maximum on minimum value depends on the leading coefficient and that value will
be -D/4a (where D = Discriminant)
In simpler terms,
A Quadratic polynomial function is a second degree polynomial, and it can be expressed as;
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If x = 2, f(2) = 2.22 + 2 – 1 = 9
For Example: y = x2
Rational Function
where f (a) and g (a) are polynomial functions of a defined in a domain, where g(a) ≠ 0.
is a rational function.
Graph type: Asymptotes (the curves touching the axes lines).
Algebraic Functions
For Example,
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Cubic Function
A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of degree three and can be expressed as;
In other words, any function in the form of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d ∈ R & a ≠
0
For example: y = x3
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ R
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Modulus Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = |a| = a when a ≥ 0. and f(a) = -a when a < 0 ∀ a
∈ P is called the modulus function.
Domain of f = P
Range of f = P+ U {0}
Domain: R
Signum Function
is called the signum function or sign function. (gives the sign of real number)
Domain of f = P
Range of f = {1, 0, – 1}
signum (log 1) = 0
signum (x21) =1
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = [a], a ∈ P assumes the value of the greatest
integer less than or equal to a, is called the greatest integer function.
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The greatest integer function always gives integral output. The Greatest integral value that
has been taken by the input will be the output.
[6.99] = 6
[1.2] = 2
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ Integers
{x} = x – [x]
= 4.5 – 4 = 0.5
= 6.99 – 6 = 0.99
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{7} = 7 – [7] = 7 –7 = 0
If f(x) = f(-x) then the function will be even function & f(x) = -f(-x) then the function will be
odd function
Example 1:
f(x) = x2sinx
f(-x) = -x2sinx
Here, f(x) = -f(-x)
It is an odd function.
Example 2:
and
f(x) = f(-x)
It is an even function.
Periodic Function
A function is said to be a periodic function if a positive real number T exists, such that f(u –
t) = f(x) for all x ε Domain.
Composite Function
Let f: A → B & g : G → C be two functions, then gof : A → C. This function is called the
composition of f and g given gof (x) = g(f(x)).
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Constant Function
Domain of f = P
Range of f = {D}
Graph type: A straight line which is parallel to the x-axis.
In simple words, the polynomial of 0th degree where f(x) = f(0) = a 0 = c. Regardless of the
input, the output always results in a constant value. The graph for this is a horizontal line.
Identity Function
The function f : P → P defined by b = f (a) = a for each a ∈ P is called the identity function.
Domain of f = P
Range of f = P
Graph type: A straight line passing through the origin.
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A linear function is defined as a function that has either one or two variables without
exponents. It is a function that graphs to the straight line. In case, if the function contains
more variables, then the variables should be constant, or it might be the known variables for
the function to remain it in the same linear function condition .Graph has a straight line
whose expression or formula is given by;
y = f(x) = px + q
It has one independent and one dependent variable. The independent variable is x and the
dependent one is y. P is the constant term or the y-intercept and is also the value of the
dependent variable. When x = 0, q is the coefficient of the independent variable known as
slope which gives the rate of change of the dependent variable.
A function which is not linear is called nonlinear function. In other words, a function which
does not form a straight line in a graph. The examples of such functions are exponential
function, parabolic function, inverse functions, quadratic function, etc. All these functions
do not satisfy the linear equation y = m x + c. The expression for all these functions is
different.
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1. Firstly, we need to find the two points which satisfy the equation, y = px+q.
2. Now plot these points in the graph or X-Y plane.
3. Join the two points in the plane with the help of a straight line.
See the below table where the notation of the ordered pair is generalized in normal form
and function form.
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Using the table, we can verify the linear function, by examining the values of x and y. For
the linear function, the rate of change of y with respect the variable x remains constant.
Then, the rate of change is called the slope.
The expression for the linear function is the formula to graph a straight line. The
expression for the linear equation is;
y = mx + c
where m is the slope, c is the intercept and (x,y) are the coordinates. This formula is also
called slope formula.
Let’s move on to see how we can use function notation to graph 2 points on the grid.
Example:
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• y−y−intercept
• x−x−intercept(s)
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Let’s look at a throw made by a shot-putter. Notice that `x = 0` when the shot-putter has the
shot (a heavy metal ball) in his hand—the shot hasn't gone anywhere yet. The shot-putter
usually starts with the shot at his shoulder, so `y` (height) is not `0` when `x = 0`:
A polynomial function is a function that can be expressed in the form of a polynomial. The
definition can be derived from the definition of a polynomial equation. A polynomial is
generally represented as P(x). The highest power of the variable of P(x) is known as its
degree. Degree of a polynomial function is very important as it tells us about the behavior
of the function P(x) when x becomes very large. The domain of a polynomial function is
entire real numbers (R).
A polynomial function has only positive integers as exponents. We can even perform
different types of arithmetic operations for such functions like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
x2+2x+1
3x-7
7x3+x2-2
All three expressions above are polynomial since all of the variables have positive integer
exponents. But expressions like;
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5x-1+1
4x1/2+3x+1
(9x +1) ÷ (x)
are not polynomials, we cannot consider negative integer exponents or fraction exponent
or division here.
Rational Functions
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions and Q(x) is a non-zero polynomial.
R(x) =
, Q(x) ≠ 0
From the given condition for Q(x), we can conclude that zeroes of the polynomial function
in the denominator do not fall in the domain of the function. When Q(x) = 1, i.e. a constant
polynomial function, the rational function becomes a polynomial function.
One very important concept for graphing rational functions is to know about their
asymptotes. An asymptote is a line or curve which stupidly approaches the curve forever
but yet never touches it. In fig. 1, an example of asymptotes is given.
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Figure 1: Asymptotes
1. Horizontal Asymptotes
2. Vertical Asymptotes
3. Oblique Asymptote
Horizontal Asymptotes
This literally means that the asymptote is horizontal i.e. parallel to the axis of the
independent variable. R(x) can only have a horizontal asymptote if
To determine the asymptotes, divide the numerator and the denominator of R(x) by
. After that, find the value R(x) approaches as x tends to a very large value. This value gives the
height of the asymptote.
Vertical Asymptotes
R(x) will have vertical asymptotes at the zeros of Q(x). This is because at the zeros of Q(x),
Q(x)=0. This means that just towards the left and right of the zero of Q(x), the value of Q
will be very small negative and positive number respectively. Value of R(x) will be a largely
negative and positive number respectively, towards just left and right of that point.
Oblique Asymptotes
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.
When Q(x) ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ T(x). The curve or line T(x) hence becomes an oblique asymptote.
Here, the degree of P(x) is greater than that of Q(x). So, it can’t have a horizontal asymptote.
But it will have a vertical asymptote at x=-1. This is because that point is the zero of its
denominator polynomial.
. So, when x ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ x + 2. So, y = x + 2 will be an oblique asymptote. The graph of the function
and all the asymptotes are shown in fig. 2.
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An exponential function is defined by the formula f(x) = ax, where the input variable x
occurs as an exponent. The exponential curve depends on the exponential function and it
depends on the value of the x.
f(x) = ax
Here,
“x” is a variable
An exponential curve grows, or decay depends on the exponential function. Any quantity
that grows or decays by a fixed per cent at regular intervals should possess either
exponential growth or exponential decay.
Exponential Growth
In Exponential Growth, the quantity increases very slowly at first, and then rapidly. The
rate of change increases over time. The rate of growth becomes faster as time passes. The
rapid growth is meant to be an “exponential increase”. The formula to define the
exponential growth is:
y = a ( 1+ r )x
Exponential Decay
In Exponential Decay, the quantity decreases very rapidly at first, and then slowly. The rate
of change decreases over time. The rate of change becomes slower as time passes. The
rapid growth meant to be an “exponential decrease”. The formula to define the exponential
growth is:
y = a ( 1- r )x
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The following figure represents the graph of exponents of x. It can be seen that as the
exponent increases, the curves get steeper and the rate of growth increases respectively.
Thus, for x > 1, the value of y = fn(x) increases for increasing values of (n).
From the above, it can be seen that the nature of polynomial functions is dependent on
their degree. The higher the degree of any polynomial function, the higher its growth. A
function which grows faster than a polynomial function is y = f(x) = ax, where a>1. Thus, for
any of the positive integers n the function f (x) is said to grow faster than that of f n(x).
Thus, the exponential function having base greater than 1, i.e., a > 1 is defined as y = f(x) =
ax. The domain of exponential function will be the set of entire real numbers R and the
range are said to be the set of all the positive real numbers.
It must be noted that the exponential function is increasing and the point (0, 1) always lies
on the graph of an exponential function. Also, it is very close to zero if the value of x is
mostly negative.
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The value of this series lies between 2 & 3. It is represented by e. Keeping e as the base of
the function, we get y = ex, which is a very important function in mathematics known as a
natural exponential function.
For base a = 10, this function is known as a common logarithm and for the base a = e, it is
known as a natural logarithm denoted by ln x. Following are some of the important
observations regarding logarithmic functions which have a base a>1.
The domain of log function consists of positive real numbers only, as we cannot interpret
the meaning of log functions for negative values.
For the log function, though the domain is only the set of positive real numbers, the range is
a set of all real values, i.e. R
When we plot the graph of log functions and move from left to right, the functions show
increasing behaviour.
The graph of log function never cuts the x-axis or y-axis, though it seems to tend toward
them.
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It is noted that the exponential function f(x) =ex has a special property. It means that the
derivative of the function is the function itself.
Exponential Series
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The properties of the exponential function graph when the base is greater than 1 are given
below.
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The graph of function y=2-x is shown above. The properties of the exponential function and
its graph when the base is between 0 and 1 are given.
If a>0, and b>0, the following hold true for all the real numbers x and y:
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o ax ay = ax+y
o ax/ay = ax-y
o (ax)y = axy
o axbx=(ab)x
o (a/b)x= ax/bx
o a0=1
o a-x= 1/ ax
f(x) = 2x
f(x) = 1/ 2x = 2-x
f(x) = 2x+3
f(x) = 0.5x
Solved Problems
Question 1:
Solution:
2x-2x+1 = 2x-2x. 2
2x-2x+1 = 2x(-1)
2x-2x+1 = – 2x
Therefore, the simplification of the given exponential function 2x – 2x+1 is – 2x.
Question 2:
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Solution:
(¼)x = 64
1x/4x = 43
(1)(4-x) = 43
4-x = 43
x = -3
7.2
For her eighth birthday, Shelley’s grandmother gave her a full bag of candy. Shelley counted
her candy and found out that there were 160 pieces in the bag. As you might suspect,
Shelley loves candy, so she ate half the candy on the first day. Then her mother told her that
if she eats it at that rate, the candy will only last one more day—so Shelley devised a clever
plan. She will always eat half of the candy that is left in the bag each day. She thinks that
this way she can eat candy every day and never run out.
How much candy does Shelley have at the end of the week? Will the candy really last
forever?
You can see that if Shelley eats half the candies each day, then by the end of the week she
only has 1.25 candies left in her bag.
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Let’s write an equation for this exponential function. Using the formula , we can see that is
160. The number of candies she starts out with and is , so our equation is
Now let’s graph this function. The resulting graph is shown below.
So, will Shelley’s candy last forever? We saw that by the end of the week she has 1.25
candies left, so there doesn’t seem to be much hope for that. But if you look at the graph,
you’ll see that the graph never really gets to zero. Theoretically there will always be some
candy left, but Shelley will be eating very tiny fractions of a candy every day after the first
week!
This is a fundamental feature of an exponential decay function. Its values get smaller and
smaller but never quite reach zero. In mathematics, we say that the function has an
asymptote at ; in other words, it gets closer and closer to the line but never quite meets it.
Problem-Solving Strategies
We can use this plan to solve application problems involving exponential functions.
Compound interest, loudness of sound, population increase, population decrease or
radioactive decay are all applications of exponential functions. In these problems, we’ll use
the methods of constructing a table and identifying a pattern to help us devise a plan for
solving the problems.
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Suppose $4000 is invested at 6% interest compounded annually. How much money will
there be in the bank at the end of 5 years? At the end of 20 years?
Assign variables:
Let
time in years
Let
We start with $4000 and each year we add 6% interest to the amount in the bank.
The pattern is that each year we multiply the previous amount by the factor of 1.06.
We see that at the end of five years we have $5352.90 in the investment account
7.4 Logarithms
logarithm, the exponent or power to which a base must be raised to yield a given
number. Expressed mathematically, x is the logarithm of n to the base b if bx = n, in
which case one writes x = logb n. For example, 23 = 8; therefore, 3 is the logarithm of
8 to base 2, or 3 = log2 8. In the same fashion, since 102 = 100, then 2 = log10 100.
Logarithms of the latter sort (that is, logarithms with base 10) are called common,
or Briggsian, logarithms and are written simply log n.
Invented in the 17th century to speed up calculations, logarithms vastly reduced the
time required for multiplying numbers with many digits. They were basic in
numerical work for more than 300 years, until the perfection of mechanical
calculating machines in the late 19th century and computers in the 20th century
rendered them obsolete for large-scale computations. The natural logarithm (with
base e ≅ 2.71828 and written ln n), however, continues to be one of the most useful
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Simple interest is a method to calculate the amount of interest charged on a sum at a given
rate and for a given period of time. In simple interest, the principal amount is always the
same, unlike compound interest where we add the interest of previous years principal to
calculate the interest of the next year.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the concept of borrowing money and the simple
interest that is derived from borrowing. You will also be introduced to terms such as
principal, amount, rate of interest, and time period. Through these terms, you can calculate
simple interest using the simple interest formula.
Simple interest is a quick and easy method to calculate interest on the money, in the simple
interest method interest always applies to the original principal amount, with the same
rate of interest for every time cycle. When we invest our money in any bank, the bank
provides us interest on our amount. The interest applied by the banks is of many types one
of them is simple interest. Now, before going deeper into the concept of simple interest,
let's first understand what is the meaning of a loan.
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A loan is an amount that a person borrows from a bank or a financial authority to fulfill
their needs. Loan examples include home loans, car loans, education loans, and personal
loans. A loan amount is required to be returned by the person to the authorities on time
with an extra amount, which is usually the interest you pay on the loan.
Simple interest is calculated with the following formula: S.I. = P × R × T, where P =
Principal, R = Rate of Interest in % per annum, and T = Time, usually calculated as the
number of years. The rate of interest is in percentage r% and is to be written as r/100.
Principal: The principal is the amount that initially borrowed from the bank or invested.
The principal is denoted by P.
Rate: Rate is the rate of interest at which the principal amount is given to someone for a
certain time, the rate of interest can be 5%, 10%, or 13%, etc. The rate of interest is denoted
by R.
Time: Time is the duration for which the principal amount is given to someone. Time is
denoted by T.
Amount: When a person takes a loan from a bank, he/she has to return the principal
borrowed plus the interest amount, and this total returned is called Amount.
A = P + S.I.
A = P + PRT
A = P(1 + RT)
Compound Interest
Interest on interest also referred to as compound interest is the interest earned when
interest payments are reinvested. Compound interest is used in the context of bonds.
Coupon payments from bonds are assumed to be reinvested at some interest rate and held
until the bond is sold or matures.
Compound interest refers to the interest owed or received on an investment, and it grows
at a faster rate than simple interest.
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The formula to calculate compound interest is to add 1 to the interest rate in decimal form,
raise this sum to the total number of compound periods, and multiply this solution by the
principal amount. The original principal amount is subtracted from the resulting value.
With an investment that pays simple interest, the amount of interest accumulated each
period depends solely on the amount invested, not on prior interest earned and left in the
account. The following single payment equation applies to simple interest: F = P (1 + I * n)
The future value of an annuity is the value of a group of recurring payments at a certain
date in the future, assuming a particular rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the
discount rate, the greater the annuity's future value. As long as all of the variables
surrounding the annuity are known such as payment amount, projected rate, and number
of periods, it is possible to calculate the future value of the annuity.
Key Takeaways
The future value of an annuity is a way of calculating how much money a series of payments
will be worth at a certain point in the future.
By contrast, the present value of an annuity measures how much money will be required to
produce a series of future payments.
In an ordinary annuity, payments are made at the end of each agreed-upon period. In an
annuity due, payments are made at the beginning of each period.
To calculate the future value of an annuity, you must know the annuity payment amount,
number of periods, and projected rate of return.
Because annuity due payments often entail having an additional compounding period, the
future value of an annuity due will usually be higher than the future value of an annuity.
Because of the time value of money, money received or paid out today is worth more than
the same amount of money will be in the future. That's because the money can be invested
and allowed to grow over time. By the same logic, a lump sum of $5,000 today is worth
more than a series of five $1,000 annuity payments spread out over five years.
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Ordinary annuities are more common, but an annuity due will result in a higher future
value, all else being equal.
The formula for the future value of an ordinary annuity is as follows. (An ordinary annuity
pays interest at the end of a particular period, rather than at the beginning, as is the case
with an annuity due.)
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)rwhere:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of eac
h annuity paymentr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods in wh
ich payments will be madeP=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)where:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of each annuity
paymentr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods in which paym
ents will be made
With an annuity due, where payments are made at the beginning of each period, the
formula is slightly different. To find the future value of an annuity due, simply multiply the
formula above by a factor of (1 + r). So:
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)r×(1+r)P=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)×(1+r)
Assume someone decides to invest $125,000 per year for the next five years in an annuity
they expect to compound at 8% per year. In this example, the series of payments is a
regular annuity in which the payments are made at the end of each period. The expected
future value of this payment stream using the above formula is as follows:
Future value=$125,000×((1+0.08)5−1)0.08=$733,325Future value=$125,000×0.08
((1+0.08)5−1)=$733,325
Assume the same example as above was an annuity due. This means each of the $125,000
payments was made at the beginning of each period. Its future value would be calculated as
follows:
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Future value=$125,000×((1+0.08)5−1)0.08×(1+0.08)=$791,991Future value
=$125,000×0.08
((1+0.08)5−1)×(1+0.08)=$791,991
All else being equal, the future value of an annuity due will be greater than the future value
of an ordinary annuity because it has had an extra period to accumulate compounded
interest. In this example, the future value of the annuity due is $58,666 more than that of
the ordinary annuity.
The present value of an annuity is the current value of future payments from an annuity,
given a specified rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the discount rate, the lower the
present value of the annuity.
Present value (PV) is an important calculation that relies on the concept of the time value of
money, whereby a dollar today is relatively more "valuable" in terms of its purchasing
power than a dollar in the future.
Key Takeaways
The present value of an annuity refers to how much money would be needed today to fund a
series of future annuity payments.
Because of the time value of money, a sum of money received today is worth more than the
same sum at a future date.
You can use a present value calculation to determine whether you'll receive more money by
taking a lump sum now or an annuity spread out over a number of years.
1:08
Present Value of an Annuity
Understanding the Present Value of an Annuity
Because of the time value of money, money received today is worth more than the same
amount of money in the future because it can be invested in the meantime. By the same
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logic, $5,000 received today is worth more than the same amount spread over five annual
installments of $1,000 each.
The discount rate is a key factor in calculating the present value of an annuity. The discount
rate is an assumed rate of return or interest rate that is used to determine the present
value of future payments.
The discount rate reflects the time value of money, which means that a dollar today is
worth more than a dollar in the future because it can be invested and potentially earn a
return. The higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the annuity, because the
future payments are discounted more heavily. Conversely, a lower discount rate results in a
higher present value for the annuity, because the future payments are discounted less
heavily.
In general, the discount rate used to calculate the present value of an annuity should reflect
the individual's opportunity cost of capital, or the return they could expect to earn by
investing in other financial instruments. For example, if an individual could earn a 5%
return by investing in a high-quality corporate bond, they might use a 5% discount rate
when calculating the present value of an annuity. The smallest discount rate used in these
calculations is the risk-free rate of return. U.S. Treasury bonds are generally considered to
be the closest thing to a risk-free investment, so their return is often used for this purpose.
It's important to note that the discount rate used in the present value calculation is not the
same as the interest rate that may be applied to the payments in the annuity. The discount
rate reflects the time value of money, while the interest rate applied to the annuity
payments reflects the cost of borrowing or the return earned on the investment.
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Introduction to Matrices
In mathematics, a matrix is also known as matrices. It is a rectangular array of
numbers, figures, or expressions, organized in rows and columns. Matrices are
usually written in box brackets. In matrices, the horizontal and vertical lines of
entries are rows and columns. The size of a matrix is determined by the number of
rows and columns that it holds. A matrix with m rows and n columns is named an m
× n matrix or M-by-N matrix, while m and n are described its dimensions. The
dimensions of the resulting matrix are 2 × 3 up (read “two by three”) as there are 2
rows and 3 columns.
A=
[19−2013]
[15−6]
The individual parts that are the numbers, symbols, or expressions in a matrix are
named as their entries.
Given that they are the equivalent size-means having the same number of rows and
the equal number of columns), 2 matrices can be plus or minus part by part. The
rule for matrix multiplication, though, is that 2 matrices can be multiplied only when
the number of columns in the 1st matches the number of rows in the second. Any
matrix can be multiplied partwise by a scalar from its related area.
Matrices that have a singular row are named row vectors, and those which have a
single column are described column vectors. A matrix that has an equal number of
rows and columns is defined as a square matrix. In some connections, like
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We use matrices to list information or to represent systems. Because the entries are
numbers, we can apply methods on matrices. We plus or minus matrices by adding
or subtracting corresponding entries.
To do this, the entries must correspond. Therefore, the plus and minus of matrices
are only applicable when the matrices have equal dimensions.
Adding matrices is very simple. Just add each element in the first matrix to the
corresponding element in the second matrix. One of the basic methods that can be
done on matrices is the addition process. Just as we plus two or more integers, two
or more matrices can also be added similarly. This is identified as the Addition of
Matrices.
When the number of columns of the 1st matrix should match the number of rows of
the 2nd matrix. In other words, To multiply an m × n matrix by an n × p matrix, the
ns need to be the equivalent, and the result is an m×p matrix.
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(m × n) × (n × p) → m × p
Scalar multiplication is usually multiplying a value through all the parts of a matrix,
whereas matrix multiplication is multiplying every part of each row of the first
matrix times every element of each column in the second matrix. Scalar
multiplication is much more manageable than matrix multiplication; though, a
pattern does exist.
When multiplying matrices, the parts of the rows in the 1st matrix are multiplied
with corresponding columns in the 2nd matrix. Each note of the resultant matrix is
estimated one at a time.
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Matrix operations mainly involve three algebraic operations which are addition of
matrices, subtraction of matrices, and multiplication of matrices. Matrix is a rectangular
array of numbers or expressions arranged in rows and columns. Important applications of
matrices can be found in mathematics.
All these operations on matrices are covered in this article along with their properties and
solved examples.
Operations on Matrices
Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on the matrix. To add or
subtract matrices, these must be of identical order and for multiplication, the number of
columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the second matrix.
Addition of Matrices
Subtraction of Matrices
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices
Addition of Matrices
If A[aij]mxn and B[bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order, then their sum A + B is a matrix,
and each element of that matrix is the sum of the corresponding elements. i.e. A + B = [a ij +
bij]mxn
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the sum is given by:
(b) Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(d) Additive Inverse: A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A, where (-A) is obtained by changing the sign of
every element of A which is additive inverse of the matrix,
(e)
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(g) If A + B = 0 = B + A, then B is called additive inverse of A and also A is called the additive
inverse of A.
Subtraction of Matrices
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the difference is given by:
We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element of one matrix from the
corresponding element of the second matrix. i.e. A – B = [a ij – bij]mxn
If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k any number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying
the elements of A by k is called the scalar multiplication of A by k and it is denoted by k A
thus if A = [aij]m×n.
Then
Properties of Scalar Multiplication: If A, B are matrices of the same order and λ and μ are
any two scalars then;
(a) λ(A + B) = λA + λB
(b) (λ + μ)A = λA + μA
Multiplication of Matrices
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when the
number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.
If
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(c) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, i.e. A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C and
(A + B)C = AC + BC.
(e) The product of two matrices can be a null matrix while neither of them is null, i.e. if AB =
0, it is not necessary that either A = 0 or B = 0.
i.e. the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
(g) If AB = 0 (It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again the product of two non-zero
matrices may be a zero matrix).
(j) There exist a multiplicative identity for every square matrix such AI = IA = A
The determinant of a n × n matrix can be defined in several equivalent ways. Leibniz formula
expresses the determinant as a sum of signed products of matrix entries such that each
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summand is the product of n different entries, and the number of these summands is the
factorial of n (the product of the n first positive integers). The Laplace expansion expresses the
determinant of a n × n matrix as a linear combination of determinants of submatrices. Gaussian
elimination expresses the determinant as the product of the diagonal entries of a diagonal
matrix that is obtained by a succession of elementary row operations.
Cramer’s rule is one of the important methods applied to solve a system of equations. In
this method, the values of the variables in the system are to be calculated using the
determinants of matrices. Thus, Cramer’s rule is also known as the determinant method.
Consider a system of linear equations with n variables x₁, x₂, x₃, …, xₙ written in the matrix
form AX = B.
Here,
B = Column matrix with the constants (which are on the right side of the equations)
Here, Dxi for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n is the same determinant as D such that the column is replaced
with B.
Thus,
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