Review

Reviewed Work(s): Palladio and Palladianism by Rudolf Wittkower

Review by: Staale Sinding-Larsen
Source: The Art Bulletin , Jun., 1976, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Jun., 1976), pp. 293-295
Published by: CAA

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 BOOK REVIEWS 293

now preserved only in the drawing of the villa in the RUDOLF

Metropolitan
WITTKOWER, Palladio and Palladianism
Museum.
George Braziller, 1974. Pp. 224; 218 figs. $22
Ray's catalogue of Raphael's architecture carefully considers all previous
scholarly contributions and judgments regarding the material. The
Its book under review contains a selection of essays b
principal
value is the assembling and weighing of this evidence, because it intro- and constitutes the first volume of his Coll
Wittkower
duces hardly any new material. The only important exception essay is directly
is that con- concerned with Andrea Palladio and two
cerned with the crypt of the Chigi Chapel in S. Maria del on the which
Popolo, Italian scene; nine essays treat of English classicis
has also just been published by Frommel (Kunstchronik, xxvn, "Palladianism,"
October, and one deals with 18th-century theory
1974), while this book was in press. To be added to the catalogueEleven
of drawings
of the essays were published earlier--two of them
related to the Chigi Chapel is the drawing in Smith College
from (Smith
Italian-and two are based on unpublished lectures.
College Museum of Art Bulletin, No. 40, 1960, fig. 20, drawingwas1951:
undertaken
200), by Margot Wittkower, who refers in th
which would furnish the answer to Ray's question (p. 141) astative"
to whereoutline
the drawn up by Wittkower himself for the pu
of essays.
statues of Jonah and Elijah were originally located before Bernini intro- Even with such an outline at hand, she mu
duced the figures of Daniel and Habakkuk. siderable difficulties both with respect to choice and ge
Because of the brevity of Raphael's architectural career andcisions. She should be congratulated upon her success by
particularly
surely beand
because of the involvement of other artists, such as the Sangallos grateful for a stimulating and most useful volum
pleasant
Giulio Romano, in his architectural projects, many puzzling and to read. There are next to no misprints (a li
frustrating
about
questions remain regarding much of his architecture. Perhaps thethe use of brackets and the alternatives of cap
most
after
irritating is the history of the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence, the onlycolons;
work on p. 26, read verum for vero) and just on
associated with Raphael that is not Roman. Unfortunately Raymishaps (on p. 26: ". . . Bernini was creating his juvenili
concentrates
solely on the elevation facing the Via S. Gallo and ignores Scamozzi
the otherdied in 1616"; on p. 132: "not only as . . . bu
Index is
prospects. Obviously the elevation on the narrow Via Salvestrina is in-
good for what it contains, but it is mostly
biographical;
complete. It is precisely the irregularities in any architectural design that the inclusion of terms and concepts, su
should be the major concern of the architectural historian, for module, etc., would have rendered the book even more u
they usually
Though
record changes in the creative process that a completely unified and realizedpleasant to read, the volume is certainly no
design will never convey. One wonders whether the explanation for the for eye.
the Some book designers apparently think, t
strange features of the Palazzo Pandolfini may not lie in thetome, that when one believes one is successful in doi
refashioning
of an older structure annexed to the Oratorio of S. Silvestroone should do as much of it as possible. In the present c
as specified
in the papal Bull of 1516. The Palazzo Pandolfini was really was left untouched by the designer, who apparently aim
a suburban
villa, and we have become aware of how frequently villas in of an old Sears & Roebuck sales catalogue. On the dustco
16th-century
Florence and Rome, such as the Villa Medici at Castello, tion of the central portion of the frontispiece to Pallad
the Palazzo
in yellowish and brown colors, colors now in vogue, wi
Pitti in Florence, the Villa Medici in Rome, and the Villa Aldobrandini
which
at Frascati, include several distinct building campaigns involving theone
re- may admire Chiswick in a rather grayish pho
tectural
fashioning of older structures. The Oratorio of S. Silvestro was actually peep-show
in- that comments banally upon the con
corporated into the main block of the Palazzo Pandolfini and, Fortunately
until the dust covers perish easily, for the binding (al
late 19th century, had its own small portal opening onto theenough. At the head of each essay a vignette from Palla
Via S. Gallo
next to the present large, rusticated portal. Such a refashioningincongruous
of an typography of "One," "Two," etc. wrestle
older structure might explain the divergent floor levels of Thethetreatment
ground of the illustrations in the text is unacce
unaccountable
floor of the palace and the unusual stair organization required by these levels. whim the designer in numerous cases h
Although only a structural or archaeological investigation of clean
the from
Palazzotheir graphic surroundings so as to give the
peculiar
Pandolfini would assist in such an interpretation, Ray does not consider effect of relief engraving: a technique that s
or note
any of these peculiar features. avoided for the reproduction of woodcuts, etchings, etc. (fi
It is in the later categories of the catalogue of Raphael's 42, 88, 93, 189, 194); at times the technique is applied
architecture,
one defined as "Rejected Works of Traditional Attribution" and of the
clarity
other (e.g., fig. 17). Some full-page illustration
as "Attributions," that Ray's effort to consider impartially allappearance
the previous of early photocopies. The typography in
scholarly judgments creates some doubt as to his own homogeneous
opinion. One without fanciful cursives.
One
might assume from the chapter headings of these two categories problem
that he confronting an editor in a case like th
clearly rejects the buildings discussed in the first category and question
is inclined of
to unity. For any sort of collection of essays one
accept those of the second. Nevertheless, in the first group, that no other kind of unity is aimed at than that which con
comprising
the portico of S. Maria in Domnica and the Ossoli and personality
Alberini- as a scholar; the volume may be given an hon
title,
Cicciaporci Palaces, he concludes by noting that if one must like
choose one16 Studies (H. W. Janson), or a rather m
interpretative
for possible attribution to Raphael, it would be the Palazzo Alberini- one, such as Likeness and Icon (H. P
Cicciaporci. Certainly of the two buildings analyzed in theWittkower
category of volume is somewhat peculiar in this res
deal
"Attributions" and, therefore, presumably more acceptable to the withall
author, English classicist architecture; they might satisf
the evidence regarding the Palazzo Caffarelli-Vidoni indicates assembled
that it shouldand published under just this heading. The es
not be associated with Raphael. Vasari had already ascribed it to theory
century the fits in sufficiently to advise inclusion in t
the other
sculptor Lorenzetto; the documentation regarding the building suggests work hand, the first three essays, on Palladio's use
after Raphael's death; and its design, which is a rather weak andon Palladian influences in the Veneto and on Bernini's work
monotonous
variation of Bramante's Palazzo Caprini, does not correspond the rest,
to the yet hardly justifying the mention of Palladio
archi-
tectural style of Raphael as Ray himself attempts to define it. publication. Their inclusion is probably due to publishin
"Palladio"
Many questions regarding Raphael's architecture are, therefore, left unre- presumably sells better than "Palladianism."
While reading
solved. The major contribution of this book lies in its interpretation of the essays, one is constantly reminded
dimensions
Raphael's architecture, in the differentiation between the classicism of theof Rudolf Wittkower. His particular sober wa
expression
older Bramante and the new classicism of Raphael and the rightful emphasisgives those of us who did not know him per
substitute.
on its close relationship to literary and archaeological sources. The book's One may say that Wittkower's oeuvre brings
art-historical
other contribution is its accumulating in one place all the source material, method we have been taught at school. Upo
impact of
bibliography, and critical comments regarding Raphael's architecture. such a culmination a new generation of scholar
The
book is thoroughly illustrated, but unfortunately many of the will tend to seek new concepts while questioning some of t
reproductions,
especially of the architectural drawings, are washed-out andthe traditional
gray so thatones.
they are often difficult to read. The first essay, "Palladio's Influence on Venetian Religious Architecture"
DAVID R. COFFIN (1963), brings out this situation strikingly. Perforce simplifying the issue
to some
Princeton University extent, Wittkower here describes the general morphology of

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294 THE ART BULLETIN

Architect
Palladio's churches, starting, one notices, with the fagades, rather thanand Man of Letters" (1953) Wittkower examines in technical de-
with plans and interiors. A description of some imitations in the tailVeneto
the relation between practice and theory, in particular theories of
follows. On reflection, one questions how instructive such tracing proportion,
of "in- and the essay not only contributes to our knowledge of Inigo
Jones
fluences" in purely morphological terms is. There is hardly a type of but also provides an interesting chapter on the development of the
church
architectural
plan that does not correspond to a specific kind of function, and the funda- profession. Jones, the author convincingly concludes, was the
mental question would seem to be why in some particular case afirst Englishman to whom the concept of a building as an organic whole,
specific
completely
plan or concept was later considered convenient and so borrowed from who-definable in terms of metrical relationships, had become an in-
ever had exploited it in an attractive manner. With regard toviolable truth. That Wittkower in one case seems to read too much out of
Palladio's
Church of the Redentore, Wittkower describes the changea in archi-
Serlio illustration, more than Jones presumably did, should be noted in
tectural articulation between the nave and the raised presbytery, a review;
and he but the observation does not affect the general argumentation of
declares that Palladio "has created a new type of connection the
. . .essay.
thatConcerning Serlio's drawing in the Libro estraordinario of Gate
No. XXII,
is optical and scenographic." Wittkower continues: "It is worth comparing theWittkower claims that Serlio did not intend the voussoirs to
Redentore with the most characteristic contemporary example in Rome, be geometrically
the coordinated in the sense that the prolongation lines of
church of the Gesui." One may ask, "Example of what?" Wittkower their has
sidesin
would meet at one point: "Nothing of this kind was intended by
mind the affinities in wall treatment in the naves of the two churches. Serlio, as we can see if we prolong the sides of the voussoirs in his
There is, he points out, a spatial caesura between nave and presbytery in the design," which Wittkower proceeds to do (fig. 87). Serlio's drawing of the
Redentore, while in the Gesui there is an uninterrupted continuity between gate is, however, a perspective sketch without scale; attempts at establish-
the nave and the crossing with the transepts. He does not, however, seem ing a grid of straight lines will reveal a general lack of consistency in
to have taken into account the circumstance that this difference between symmetry and parallelism.
the two buildings corresponds to a difference in function between them. The fifth essay, "Inigo Jones, Puritanissimo fiero" (1948), is based upon
The Gesih has a regular transept with altars in them, planned from the outset two contemporary statements that concern, as Wittkower believes, Jones's
and accessible to the public. The Redentore, by contrast, has a raised religious attitudes. Any reservations on the part of a non-philologist
presbytery with side exedras but no secondary altars; primarily it served reviewer should be taken with a grain of salt. There are two key texts in
to create space for government officials and clergy at the annual public which Wittkower sees "Inigo emerge with definite contours as a free-
ceremony. Wittkower's statements concerning both the alleged novelty of the thinker." (notes 10 and 13). In the first, Jones, having examined some
plan of Palladio's S. Giorgio and the tradition of "separation of archi- paintings, "Esagera mirabilmente la loro bellezza, e dice, che sono Quadri
tectural spaces" would also seem to need modification if tried out against da tener in una Camera con . . . cornici d'oro, e di gemme, e questo h'a
a more general study in the problems of liturgical architecture. detto publicamente nell'Anticamera della Regina nonostante ch'egli sia
The second essay, on "Palladio and Bernini" (1966), lists some cases in Puritanissimo fiero"; in the other, Jones, having worked rather unwillingly
on the Queen's Chapel at Somerset House, is classified as follows: "e di
which Bernini, according to Wittkower, borrowed architectural motifs from
Palladio, or was at least "influenced" by him. "To a superficial view, questi Puritani, o per dir meglio senza Religione." Wittkower translates
it might appear paradoxical that the greatest master of the Roman Baroque the first as: "He greatly exaggerates their beauty . . . in spite of being a
should have been indebted to the acknowledged father of European classicism very fierce Puritan." Yet, presumably, esagera here remains close to the
in architecture. Let us admit that terminological barriers erected by art his- Latin tropical significance, requiring the expression to be translated: "He
torians often divert from the discovery of truth"--this is a statement that greatly exalts." And one wonders if "puritanissimo fiero" means "a very
few would hesitate to endorse today. On the whole, however, the specific fierce puritan" or "strongly puritan and arrogant." Summerson, in his
comparisons, for example between St. Peter's Piazza and the Teatro Olimpico, monograph on Jones of 1966, interprets "puritanissimo" and "Puritano" in
remain rather vague; in several cases the reviewer suspects that Roman ruins this context in the sense that Jones was "simply a non-Catholic intellec-
rather than Palladian structures may have been relevant for Bernini. The tual." The two quotations, however, are neither very coherent passages nor
tracing of influences on the basis of morphological comparisons across dif- parts of the same context; they hardly have conclusive value when seen in
ferent periods, artistic milieus, and building functions is at best highly isolation as they are in Wittkower's essay: there must be vast evidence
complex and is usually inconclusive. In the case just referred to, Wittkower available for contemporary use of the word "puritan."
admits the difficulty: "Not that I want to derive the design of the Piazza Essays No. 6 and 7 are unpublished lectures (respectively of 1970 and
from the Teatro Olimpico. But it is reasonable to suggest that theatre design 1966 although they could have been printed in reverse order). These, of
and specifically that of the Teatro Olimpico had some formative influence on fundamental importance, treat of the literary basis for architectural practice
in England: "English Neoclassicism and the Vicissitudes of Palladio's
the development of Bernini's thought" (reviewer's italics). No method has
been developed for the handling of such problems with satisfactory 'Quattro Libri' " and "English Literature on Architecture." The two essays
precision. alone would justify the volume. The author asks the very pertinent ques-
The essay on "The Renaissance Baluster and Palladio" (1960) opens with tion of whom these books on architecture really served and investigates, at
the pertinent reflection that "historians of Renaissance architecture seem to times with entertaining insights into the more shady sides of the publish-
have neglected to make a sufficiently careful study of the specific ing business, the treatise-writing activity of the printers, of the architects
grammar of the style of the great masters, that is the individual forms themselves, and of dilettanti. Wittkower describes the main stages of "Pal-
that make up an entire structure." The reviewer, having always taken for ladian" publication in England. The reader is led to believe willingly in
granted that the baluster was a classical architectural element, was surprised the essential truth of the author's claim that "without the history of the
to read that this phenomenon was unknown to the Romans. (Note 4 English editions of Palladio the history of Neoclassicism in English archi-
refers to balusters in ancient furniture; one might add such isolated repre- tecture cannot be written." Contributions such as these are especially
sentations of balusters as the one on the Haterii Tomb in the Vatican.) timely in a period when scholarly inventiveness, iconographic or other-
Wittkower affirms: "It is certain that Palladio was aware of this fact, since wise, supported by the thinnest literary, linguistic, and text-critical back-
there is not a single baluster to be found in his reconstructions of Roman ground, seems often to be the major criterion for certain journals to
architecture." Nevertheless, Palladio's reconstructions of the "Piazze de i publish new papers. Wittkower, however, does not limit himself to a
Greci" and the "Piazze de' Latini" in the Quattro libri do include regular scrupulous presentation of texts. Almost at every turn he makes thought-
balusters of the type described by Wittkower as the symmetrical double provoking suggestions, as for instance: ". . . one can reasonably argue
baluster. The essay surveys different types of balusters, to some extent that dogmatic Neo-Platonism opened the way to a radical volte-face
clarifying the terminology and defining the morphology of Palladian balusters. of Renaissance hierarchy [in architecture] and thus to the modern con-
Numerous outline drawings are supplied, unfortunately without a scale. Witt- ception of the architectural profession.
kower himself stresses the need for a more accurate survey than he has been The next two essays, "Lord Burlington and William Kent" (1945) and
in the position to present. Since this is so, one wonders if it were "Lord Burlington's Work at York" (1954), yield highly instructive insights
necessary to include numerous drawings of, e.g., the symmetrical double into Burlington's attitude towards theory and his conception of building prac-
balusters of almost identical shape (figs. 65- 69, 75- 77). tice. The two essays amount almost to a monograph on Burlington as archi-
The fourth essay takes us into English architecture, and the reader stays tect and patron, concluding as follows: "In contrast to the view generally held,
happily within this field almost till the end of the book. In "Inigo Jones, but in agreement with Fiske Kimball, Burlington must be assigned a decisive

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 BOOK REVIEWS 295

share in the development of English Neo-Classicism, not only as a patronSCHLEIER, Tabula Cebetis, oder "Spieg
REINHART
of artists but mainly as a practicing architect." On the rather troublesome
Menschlichen Lebens darin Tugent und untugent ab
subject of artistic "influences" a reviewer again may raise some objections.
Berlin, Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1973. Pp. 188; 135
A single example will suffice (pp. 128f). Wittkower argueswhite
that inills.
the hall
of Holkham "the columns, arranged in a semicircle above the stairs,
are . . . a screen through which the farther part of the apse picturesquely
appears, an idea which was borrowed from Palladio's churches It is at
strange that the single ancient literary work that deal
Venice."
so universal
Yet one wonders why we should be compelled to look for sources for Burling- a theme as the allegorical journey of human l
little
ton's secular buildings among Palladio's churches when similar known
motifs aboundto readers of the 20th century. Earlier reade
in Roman imperial architecture. Burlington himself publishesinformed;
examples infrom
his the reappearance of the work in Italy
century, the Tabula Cebetis was for centuries a literary
Fabbriche antiche disegnate da Andrea Palladio of 1730 (from Roman thermae).
The eleventh essay probes into the Englishness of English In Palladianism
fact, its ubiquitousness, aided by its mediocre literar
("Pseudo-Palladian Elements in English Neoclassicism," 1945).principal cause of its eventual obscurity. As a text read by
Wittkower
English schoolboys, the Tabula was not suitable materia
calls attention to two specific motifs, the so-called Venetian window and the
allusion. Erwin Panofsky accounted for the puzzling silence
so-called "temple front" for fagades. English architects modified such features
fable, Hercules
to vernacular taste, particularly in the sense of an accentuation of the at the Crossroads, during much of Western
observation that because the content was so close to that of Christian
decorative character. English architects "had no eye for the intricacy of
the motif and saw in it a decorative pattern which could parables,be
theadvan-
work simply filled no need. An analogous case might be made
tageously employed to enliven a bare wall." "In English for the Tabula
academic Cebetis since the Renaissance. The subject matter was so
archi-
familiar, and so elegantly stated in more sophisticated literary works like
tecture flat surface patterns replace Italian functional elements. Italian archi-
Spenser's
tecture must always be judged for its plastic values; an English Faerie Queene, that there was no point in dragging out old
eighteenth-
Cebes.
century building should be seen from a distance like a picture." This is an
Most
excellent description, also applicable perhaps to much Italian modem Classical scholars believe the present obscurity of the
18th-century
Tabulacompares
architecture. One cannot fail to observe that Wittkower here to be well merited.
an On account of the eclectic language and
English 18th-century approach with one of the Italian 16th use of century.
extended allegory,
At they usually date it to the 1st century A.D. A
more serious reproach,
the least the question could be raised whether the development out- in the view of historically-minded critics, is the
lined by the author might also have something to do fact that the
with Tabula is apparently a forgery. The Cebes to whom author-
develop-
ship etc.
ments in building practice and operations, building economy, of the text is traditionally ascribed was a Pythagorean philosopher
The Wittkower volume on Palladianism supplies extremely of Thebes and an interlocutor in Plato's Phaedo. Genuine Pythagorean
valuable
material and argumentation concerning English adoption philosophy died out in the 4th century B.c. Revivers of Pythagorean
of an Italian,
thought and
often specifically Palladian, classical conception of architecture. Thereligion
next in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, however, were
not above composing
important task would seem to be not to trace possible influences from ersatz Pythagorean works and attributing them
Italian prototypes on English buildings but to explore the to venerable members
consequent basic of the school. Frequent allusion to the Phaedo
issues. For example, we want to know which specific cultural,and a philosophical
social,eclecticism that runs the gamut of Pythagoreanism,
Platonism, Cynicism, Stoicism, et alia make the text of the Tabula as we
and economic circumstances the architects and their patrons responded to
when they invested so much energy in this conception ofknow it susceptible
architecture. Into this charge. (See most recently, R. Joly, Le
order to follow through, we should have to know more about Tableau de Cebas
the et la philosophie religieuse, Brussels-Berchem, 1963.) Ex-
role this
concept may have played in ordinary building practice and ternal evidence, too,
technology in seems to support a date of the 1st century A.D. for
the Tabula,
England, that is, in the works of minor architects and minor patrons.
although here there is some ambiguity. The rhetorician Lucian
of Samosata, writing in the 2nd century A.D., was the first to make fre-
The twelfth essay, though a short one, deals with an impressive series of
terms: "English Neo-Palladianism, the Landscape Garden, quent reference
China and to the Tabula; he nonetheless assumed that his audience
the
Enlightenment" (1966). Wittkower finds that the matching was of
thoroughly familiar with the fable, a fact that suggests an analogy to
Neoclassical
architecture and a garden expressive of romantic appreciationthe Tabula's fate since the Renaissance. As Panofsky has noted
of nature
represented two aspects of political and cultural ideas of (Gazette des beaux-arts,
"liberty." The 1966, 323, n. 30), the description of Fortune that
literary support to this hypothesis would seem to have its weak points, is clearly related to a verse fragment by the Latin
appears in the Tabula
poet drawn
for in a recent essay a literary historian, John Dixon Hunt, has Pacuviusa of the 3rd century B.C. Thus a case for an authentic oral
dif-
ferent conclusion ("Gardening, and Poetry, and Pope," tradition might still be argued.
Art Quarterly,
The Greek
1, 1974, 1-30). Hunt observes: "It was, we might then say, Locketext and
(properly, the Pinax of the pseudo-Kebes) runs forty-odd
Montaigne as much as any stylistic programmes that changed the edition. The form is that of a dialogue between
pages in the Teubner
some
English garden by furnishing an epistemology that called for new young visitors to a sanctuary of Cronus and an old man who happened
subtleties
to be
of scene to mirror their new mental perspectives." He also says: there. The young
"In visitors marvel over a mysterious painting that de-
picts
designing garden landscapes for himself, as in recommending a landscape with three concentric walled enclosures and figures moving
improvements
in them. Each enclosure
in his friends' schemes, Pope is less concerned with 'artificiality' or is entered by a gate; the third enclosure
'natural styles' than with the matching of the scenerycontains
to an acropolis reached by a narrow path. In answer to the visitors'
human
psychology." As far as this reviewer can see, the evidencequestions,
brought theout
old man
in interprets the image for them. The three enclosures
represent
Wittkower's thirteenth essay has a certain bearing upon the increasing degrees of moral purification. On the acropolis the
phenomenon
referred to by Hunt. blessed find their reward. In each of the enclosures various personifications
hold sway:
The main problem treated in this last essay of the volume, Deception (Apat?) at the entrance to the first and blind Fortune
"Classical
(TycheM)
Theory and Eighteenth-Century Sensibility" (1966), is, and the Opinions (Doxai) within; False Discipline (Pseudo-
as Wittkower
paideia) at
phrases it, "the encounter and conflict of the classical doctrine the entrance
with the to the second and the Liberal and Mechanical
Arts within;
new sensibility, that is, of contradictory approaches embodied in such andanti-
True Discipline (Al/thin. Paideia) at the entrance to the
third and Blessedness (Eudaimonia) herself within. In all there are more
thetical terms as reason and feeling, rule and freedom, objectivity and
thanof
subjectivity." Though not strictly within the Palladian sphere a hundred figures and almost the entire dialogue is devoted to a
problems,
description of them and of their deeds.
this last essay beautifully completes a monument to a man who involved
himself with equal intensity in the tiny technical detail and The scope of Schleier's book is indicated by the subtitle, Studien zur
in complex
problems in the history of ideas; he consistently sawRezeption the one einer
inantiken
the Bildbeschreibung im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. No
light of the other, thereby giving us perennial inspiration. illuminated manuscripts of the Tabula are known. The iconography of the
Tabula was created in prints and books during the course of the 16th and
17th centuries. Schleier attempts to treat the subject in an admirably
comprehensive form. After a brief introductory chapter, Chapter II presents
STAALE SINDING-LARSEN

The Norwegian State Institute of Technology

objectively the history of printed editions and commentaries on the text and

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