PINAKITA MO YAN  Cytology

 Histology
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
 Embryology –
Human anatomy and physiology - is the study of the study of development of human body from
structure and function of the human body. fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine
life.
 The human body has many intricate parts with
 Pathophysiology/ Morbid Physiology
coordinated functions maintained by a complex
– disordered functions or in diseased tissues are
system of checks and balances.
studied.
 The coordinated function of all parts of the human
body allows us to interact with our surroundings by Terminologies and Body Planes
adjusting how the body responds to changes in the
Anatomical Position
environmental information.
 This information comes from inside and outside the - Person standing erect
body. These changes serve as stimuli. - Face directed forward
Anatomy - Upper limbs hanging at the side
- Palm facing forward
is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of
the body.

 means to dissect, or cut apart and separate the

parts of the body for study.
 Anatomy covers a wide range of studies including
the structure of the body parts, their microscopic
organization, and the processes by which they
develop.
 In addition, anatomy examines the relationship
between the structure of a body part and its
function. Just as the structure of a hammer makes it
weak suited for pounding nails, the structure of Planes
body parts allows them to perform specific functions
effectively. a. Sagittal Plane

Approaches in the Study of Anatomy a plane runs lengthwise or longitudinal down the length of
the body. Divided to right and left half.
1. Systemic Anatomy –
- If equal it is called Midsagittal
is the study of the body by systems, such as the
cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems.
2. Regional Anatomy –
is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within
each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all
systems are studied simultaneously.
Division of Human Anatomy
1. Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy –
it involves examination of structures and features usually
visible with unaided eyes.

 Systemic Anatomy
 Regional Anatomy b. Transverse or Horizontal
 Surface Anatomy – runs parallel to the ground divided to superior or inferior.
2.Microscopic Anatomy –
very small structures. It can only be viewed with microscope
 - Nine Subdivisions: two horizontal and two vertical

C. Frontal or Coronal
plane runs vertical divides the body to anterior and
posterior.
Body Cavity
a. Dorsal

 Cranial Cavity – brain

 Spinal Cavity – spinal cord
b. Ventral

 Thoracic Cavity – surrounded by rib cage,

separated by diaphragm
 Abdominal Cavity – bounded by abdominal muscle
and contains GI tract
 Pelvic Cavity – small space enclosed by bones of
pelvis, contains urinary bladder and large intestine
Mesentery
Two layers of peritoneum that fuse together
Functions:
1. Anchors the organ to the abdominal wall
2. Pathway of nerves and blood vessels to reach the organ
Retroperitoneal
Terminologies and Body Planes - Closely attached to abdominal wall, with no
mesentery
 Superior – higher
- Examples: Adrenal glands, kidneys, urinary bladder
 Inferior – lower
and pancreas
 Anterior/Ventral – towards the front of the body
 Posterior/Dorsal – towards the back of the body
 Proximal – closer to the point of attachment
 Distal – away the point of attachment
 Lateral – away from the midline
 Medial – towards the midline
 Superficial – towards the surface
 Deep – away to the surface
Subdivision of Abdomen

- Four Quadrants: one horizontal and one vertical


Physiology (study of nature) –
is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or
functions of living things. It is important in physiology to
recognize structures as dynamic rather than fixed and
unchanging. The major goals for studying physiology are
(1) to understand and predict the body’s responses to
stimuli (2) to understand how the body maintains internal
conditions within a narrow range of values in the presence of
continually changing internal and external environments.
Human physiology is the study of a specific organism, the
human, whereas cellular physiology and systemic physiology
are subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational
levels.
Anatomical Imaging Technique
1. X-ray – this extremely shortwave electromagnetic
radiation moves through the body exposing a photographic
plane to form a radiograph.
2. Ultrasound – second oldest imaging technique. It uses
high-frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a
transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over back to a
receiver on the skin.
3. Computed Tomographic (CT Scans) – computer
developed in 1972 which analyze x-ray images.
4. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) – is one step
beyond CT scanning. A 3D radiographic image of an organ,
such as brain is made and stored in a computer.
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – directs radio waves
at a person lying inside a large electromagnetic field.
6. Positron Emission Tomographic (PET) Scans – can
identify the metabolic states of various tissues.
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF
HUMAN BODY
Six Levels of Organization
1. Chemical Level – it involves interactions between atoms
which are tiny building blocks of matter. Atoms combine to
form molecules such as water, sugar, lipids, and proteins.
2. Cell Level – Cells are the basic structural and functional
units of plants and animals. Molecules are combined to form
organelles which are small structures inside cells.
Ex: Nucleus is an organelle that contains the cell’s hereditary
information.
Mitochondria are organelles that manufacture
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), molecule cells use for
energy.
3. Tissue Level – A tissue is composed of a group of similar 6. Reproduction – is the formation of new cells or new
cells and materials that surrounding them. organisms. Without reproduction of cells, growth ND tissue
repair are impossible. Without reproduction of organism, the
Four basic tissue types:
species become extinct.
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous
4. Organ Level – An organ is composed of two or more
tissue types that perform one or more common function.
5. Organ System Level – An organ system is a group of
organs that together perform a common function.

- The digestive system takes in food, processing it

into nutrients that are carried by the blood of the
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
cardiovascular system to the cells of the other
system.
- These cells use the nutrients and produce waste
products that are carried by blood to the kidneys of
the urinary system, which removed waste products
from the blood.
- Because of the organ systems are so interrelate,
dysfunction in one organ system can have profound
effects in other systems.
- For example a heart attack can result in inadequate
circulation of blood. Consequently, the organs of
other systems such as brain and kidneys can 1. Integumentary System – provides protection, regulates
malfunction. temperature, prevents water loss and helps produce vitamin
6. Organism Level – An organism is any living thing D. Consists of skin hair, nails, and sweat glands.
considered as a whole-whether composed of one cell such
as bacterium or trillions of cells such as human.
SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization – refers to the specific interrelationships
among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact
to perform specific function.
2. Metabolism – is the ability to use energy to perform vital
functions such as growth, movement, and reproduction.
2. Skeletal System – provides protection and support, allows
3. Responsiveness – is the ability of an organism to sense body movements produces blood cells and stores minerals
the changes in the environment and make the adjustments and adipose. Consists of bones associated by cartilages,
that help maintain its life. ligaments, and joints.
4. Growth – refers to an increase in size of all parts of the
organism. It can result from an increase in cell number, cell
size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells.
5. Development – It includes the changes an organism
undergoes through time. Human development begins when
the egg is fertilized by the sperm and ends with death. The
greatest developmental changes occur before birth or may
continue after birth and some continue throughout life.
2 Types of development
a. Differentiation
b. Morphogenesis
3. Muscular System – produces body movements, maintains
posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles
attached to the skeleton by tendons.

7. Nervous System – detects sensation and controls

movements, physiological processes and intellectual
function. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and
sensory receptors.
4. Lymphatic System – removes foreign substances from the
blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue, fluid
balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract.
Consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other
lymphatic organs.

8. Endocrine System – a major regulatory system that

influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many
other functions. Consists of glands such as pituitary that
secrete hormones.
5. Respiratory System – exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and aye and regulates blood Ph.
Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

9. Cardiovascular System – transport nutrients, waste

products, gases and hormones throughout the body; plays a
role in the immune response and regulation of body
6. Digestive System – performs the mechanical and temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and
elimination of wastes. Consists of mouth, stomach,
esophagus, intestines, and accessory organs.

- It is continually being disrupted by:
10. Urinary System –removes waste products from the blood
Ph., ion balance, and water balance. Consists of kidneys,
urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine.
11. Female Reproductive System – produces oocytes and is
the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk
for newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual
function. Consists of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands, and associated structures.
12. Male Reproductive System – produces and transfers
sperm cells to female and produces hormones that influence
sexual functions. Consists of testes, accessory structures,
ducts, and penis.
HOMEOSTASIS
- The self-sustaining mechanisms in organisms that
tries to maintain stable internal conditions.
- Without homeostasis, organisms would not be able
to have stable internal conditions and therefore
would not be able to survive.
- Homeostasis is a dynamic condition in response to
changing conditions.
- The two body systems that control the body’s
homeostatic state:
a. Nervous System
b. Endocrine System
A. external stimuli
Ex. intense heat, cold and lack of oxygen
B. internal stimuli
Ex. Psychological stresses & exercise
- Disruption are usually mild and temporary.
- If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result.
- If one does not understand this self-regulating
process, then it is not possible to comprehend fully
the function of the body in health and in disease.
- The disruption of homeostatic mechanisms is what
leads to disease, and effective therapy must be
directed toward reestablishing these homeostatic
conditions, working with rather than against nature.
2 Feedback Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Feedback System – is a closed loop structure in which
the results of past actions (changes in internal
environment) of the system are fed into the system. (Via
information feedback) to control future action.
1. Negative feedback – seeks a goal and responds as a
consequence of failure to meet this goal (maintains a
stable range of values)
a. Receptor – monitors the value of a variable.
B. Control Center – establishes the set point around
which the variable is maintained through communication
with receptor and effector.
c. Effector – which adjust the value of a variable, usually
back toward the set point.
Examples:

a.Child Birth

a. Regulation of Body Temperature

b. Fruit Ripening

c. Blood Clotting
Why is feedback important?

- Without feedback, homeostasis cannot occur. This

means that an organism loses the ability to self-
regulate its body. Negatice feedback mechanisms
are more common in homeostasis, but ppositive
feedback loops are also important. Changes in
feedback loops can lead to various issues including
b. Osmoregulation diabetes mellitus, hypertension and fever.

c. Blood Pressure Regulation

2. Positive Feedback – it produces growth processes
wherein the actions build on the results that then
generate still greater action (a growth cycle)
Examples:
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
Cell Structure Cell – basic unit of life
Organelles – specialized structures
1. Nucleus – contains genetic material
2. Cytoplasm – living material
3. Plasma membrane – encloses the cytoplasm
and nucleus.
Functions of the Cell (CSCR)
1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
2. Synthesis of molecules.
3. Communication.
4. Reproduction and inheritance.
Cell Membrane
§ Outer boundary of the cell
§ Determines what enters and leaves the cell
Extracellular – substances outside the cell
Intracellular – substances inside the cell Fluid-
Mosaic Model – arrangement of molecules in the
cell membrane Selectively permeable – allows
some substances to pass into or out of the cells
Movement Through the Cell Membrane Diffusion
§ Movement of a solute from an area of higher to
lower concentration gradient
Concentration gradient – difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent minus the
concentration of the solute at another point
Leak channels – allow ions to pass through
Gated channels – limit the movement of ions
across the membrane
Osmosis
§ Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane
Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent
movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane
Hypotonic – lower concentration
Isotonic – same concentration
Hypertonic – higher concentration
Lysis – when cells swell, then ruptures
Crenation – cell shrinking
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
Carrier-mediated transport – movement of a
substance across a membrane by means of a
carrier molecule
Facilitated diffusion – moves substances from a
higher to lower concentration; does not require ATP
Active transport – moves substances from a lower
to higher concentration; requires ATP
Ø Cystic fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects the
active transport of Cl- into cells
Secondary active transport – moving concentration
gradient to move another substance
Cotransport – same direction
Counter transport – opposite direction
Endocytosis and Exocytosis Endocytosis –
movement of materials into cells by formation of
vesicles
 Phagocytosis – cell eating; solid particles
are ingested
 Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller
vesicles are formed and contains liquid
Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells
Organelles Nucleus
Nuclear envelope – two-layered membrane that
bounds the nucleus
Nuclear pores – where materials can can pass into
or out the nucleus
Chromatin – loosely coiled chromosomes Nucleoli –
consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins Ribosomes
§ Site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum
§ Forms tubules/sacs throughout the cell
Rough E.R. – protein synthesis and modification;
contains ribosomes
Smooth E.R. – lipid synthesis, detoxification, and
Ca storage
Golgi Apparatus
§ Modifies, packages, and distributes lipids and
proteins
Secretory vesicles Translation – converting that copied information into
 Transports and stores materials within a protein
cells Translation RNA (tRNA) – carry the amino acids
Anti-codon – series of three nucleotides of tRNA
Lysosomes
Nucleotide Pairs
 Membrane bound sacs containing Cytosine Guanine
hydrolytic enzymes Thymine Adenine
Peroxisomes Uracil Ad
§ Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids UAA – stop codon
§ Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide Cell Life Cycle
Proteasomes Two Phases of the Cell Life Cycle
§ Not bound by membranes 1. Interphase – non-dividing phase
§ Digest selected proteins 2. Cell Division – formation of daughter cells from a
Mitochondria single parent cell
§ Major site of ATP production 46 Chromosomes – diploid no. of chromosomes
Cytoskeleton 2 X Chromosome = Female
§ Holds organelles in place; enables the cell to X + Y Chromosome = Male
change shape Autosomes – 22 remaining pairs of chromosomes
§ Microtubules – support the cytoplasm; assist in Mitosis
cell division 1. Prophase – chromatin condenses
Microfilaments – involved in cell movement 2. Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center
Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical
support 3. Anaphase – chromatids separate at the
Centrioles Centrosome – where microtubule centromere and migrate to opposite poles
formation occurs 4. Telophase – chromosomes unravel to become
Centrioles – specialized zone of the cytoplasm chromatin
Spindle fibers – involved in separation of Differentiation
chromosome during mitosis § Cells develop specialized structures and
Cillia, Flagella, and Microvilli functions
Cilia – moves substances over the surface Flagella Apoptosis
– propel sperm cells § Programmed cell death
Microvilli – increase the surface area of cells; aids Cellular Aspects of Aging
in absorption 1. Cellular clock.
Whole-Cell Activity 2. Death genes.
Gene Expression 3. DNA damage.
Gene – sequence of nucleotides 4. Free radicals.
Transcription – making a copy of a gene 5. Mitochondrial damage.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the copy itself
Codons – groups of three nucleotides