BECM 4201

Transportation Engineering in Construction

Faruque Abdullah
Assistant Professor, Dept. of BECM, RUET Class Lecture – 01
11 March 2023
Reference Book
Introduction of Transportation
Engineering in Construction
Transportation
Transportation is the system by which humans and goods, or animals can be shifted
from one place to another by means of any kind of vehicle. It involves the use of
various modes of transportation, such as cars, buses, trains, ships, airplanes, and other
vehicles, as well as infrastructure like roads, railways, airports, and seaports. The
purpose of transportation is to facilitate trade, commerce, and other forms of human
activity that require the movement of goods and people over long distances.
Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to
the planning, functional design, operation and maintenance of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible movement of peoples and goods.
Roles of Transportation
 Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
 Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region.
 Every commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs
transport at all stages from production to distribution.
 In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal,
steel etc.
 In the distribution stage, transportation is required from the production centres viz.; farms and
factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers for distribution.
 The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-economic development of the
country.
 The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social development.
Roles of Transportation in Rural Development
 With over 75 percent of the population of the country living in the villages, the development in urban
centres alone do not indicate the overall development of the country.
 Only with the improvement in transportation facilities in rural areas, there could be faster
development of the rural centres.
 The fertilizers and other inputs for agriculture and cottage industries could reach the rural population
easily.
 Similarly the products can be sold at the nearest marketing centres for more remunerative price
resulting in faster economic growth and decreased wastage.
 With improved facilities for education, health care and other social needs in the villages, the urge for
the migration to urban centres decreases, thus helping in balance development of the country as a
whole.
Different Modes of Transportation
Three basic modes of transportation are:
 Land: Land has given scope for development of road and rail transport.
 Water: Water has developed waterways.
 Air: Air has developed Airways.
Apart from these major transportation, other modes include:
 Pipelines
 Elevators
 Belt cars
 Aerial rope ways and
 Monorails
So the four major modes of transportation are:
||Roadways or highways || Railways || Waterways || Airways ||
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Modes of Transport
Road Transport
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 It has less capital outlay.  Seasonal.
 It provides door to door service.  Accidents and breakdowns.
 It gives service in Rural areas.  Unsuitable for long distance.
 It is a flexible service.  Bulky traffic.
 It is suitable for short distance.  Lack of organization.
 It has lesser risk of damage in transit.
 It saves packing cost.
 Less cot.
 Rapid speed.
 Private owned vehicles.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Modes of Transport
Railway Transport
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Dependable.  Huge capital outlay.
 Better organized.  Lack of flexibility
 High speed over long distance.  Lack of door to door service.
 Cheaper transport.  Monopoly.
 More safety.  Unsuitable for short distance.
 Larger capacity.  Booking formalities.
 Suitable for bulky and heavy goods.  No rural service.
 Public welfare.  Under utilized capacity.
 Administrative facilities of government.  Centralized administration.
 Employment opportunities.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Modes of Transport
Air Transport
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 High speed.  Very costly.
 Comfortable and quick service.  Small carrying capacity.
 No investment in construction of track.  Uncertain and unreliable.
 Easy access.  Large investment.
 Emergency service.  Breakdowns and accidents.
 Quick clearances.  Specialized skill.
 National defense.  Unsuitable for cheap and bulky goods.
 Space exploration.  Legal restrictions.
 Most suitable for carrying light goods of high value.
 No physical barriers.
Characteristics of Road Transportation
 Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycles and
animal drawn vehicles.
 Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government.
 Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than that of railway tracks, docks and airports.
 Road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to
another and from one road to another according to the need and convenience.
 In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time.
 Road transport is subjected to a high degree of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offered
to the road users.
 Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community alike.
Elements of Transport
Movement of goods or passengers traffic, through rail, sea, air or road transport requires adequate infrastructure
facilities for free flow from place of origin to place of destination. Irrespective of modes, every transport system has
some common elements:
 Vehicle: Vehicle or carrier is to carry passenger or goods. Dimension of vehicle, its capacity and type are some of
factors, which influence selection of a transport system for movement of goods from one place to another.
 Route: Route or path is for movement of carriers from one place to another. This route may be surface ways,
airways, water ways. Hence route plays an important role. Route should be well designed and well planned. It is
very important and effective because initial cost, maintenance cost, vehicle operation cost should be economical.
 Terminal facilities: Objectives of transportation can not be fulfilled if there is no proper facilities for loading and
unloading of goods and passengers from carriers.
 Prime Mover: Power or fuel is used for moving of vehicles for transportation.
 Transit time and cost: Transportation involves time and cost. Time element is a valid factor for determining
effectiveness of a particular mode of transport.
 Cargo: Nature and size of cargo depends on the types of goods. It also influences the effectiveness of modes of
transport
 BECM 4201
Transportation Engineering in Construction

Faruque Abdullah
Assistant Professor, Dept. of BECM, RUET Class Lecture – 02
11 March 2023
Highway Development and Planning
Necessity of Highway Planning
Highway planning is necessary for several reasons, including:
 Efficient transportation: Proper highway planning ensures efficient transportation of people and goods, reducing
travel time and costs.
 Safety: Highway planning includes measures to enhance safety for all users of the road, including drivers,
pedestrians, and cyclists.
 Economic development: Highways are vital to the economic development of a region or country, as they provide
connectivity between markets and facilitate the movement of goods and services.
 Environmental considerations: Highway planning includes consideration of environmental impacts such as air
pollution, noise pollution, and the destruction of natural habitats. Proper planning can help mitigate these
impacts.
 Resource allocation: Highway planning helps allocate resources effectively to ensure the most efficient use of
materials, equipment, and labor in constructing and maintaining highways.
Overall, highway planning is crucial to ensuring a safe, efficient, and sustainable transportation system that supports
economic development and improves quality of life for people.
Objectives of Highway Planning
 To provide safe, efficient, and convenient transportation facilities to the public.
 To optimize the utilization of available resources, including land, materials, and finances.
 To minimize environmental impacts and ensure sustainable development.
 To ensure the integration of highways with other modes of transportation, such as rail and air.
 To promote economic development by providing better access to markets and improving the flow of goods and
services.
 To ensure that highways are designed and built to meet current and future transportation demands.
 To enhance the safety and security of highway users, including pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists.
 To promote social equity and ensure that all members of the community have access to transportation services.
 To facilitate emergency response and evacuation in times of natural disasters or other emergencies.
 To ensure that highway planning is conducted in a transparent and participatory manner, with input from all
stakeholders.
Historical Development of Road Transport
The history of road transport dates back to ancient civilizations when people built roads for transportation purposes.
One of the earliest known roads is the Via Appia, built by the Romans in 312 BC to connect Rome to its southern
colonies. Over time, roads were improved and expanded, and by the 18th and 19th centuries, road transport had
become an important means of transportation for both goods and people.

Fig.: Via Appia

Historical Development of Road Transport
The development of the steam engine in the 18th century led to the emergence of horse-drawn carriages and
eventually, the automobile. The first self-propelled vehicle, a steam-powered road vehicle, was built by Nicolas-
Joseph Cugnot in France in 1769. The development of the internal combustion engine in the late 19th century led to
the mass production of automobiles and the expansion of road networks worldwide.

Fig.: Steam-powered vehicle by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot

Historical Development of Road Transport
In the 20th century, road transport became increasingly important with the growth of cities, suburbanization, and the
rise of automobile culture. Governments began investing heavily in road infrastructure, and highways became the
backbone of transportation systems in many countries. Today, road transport remains an essential means of
transportation, with billions of people and goods traveling by road every day.
Roman Roads
Roman roads were an extensive network of roads built during ancient Rome's period of expansion and conquest,
from about 300 BC to 500 AD. They were primarily built for military purposes, to allow the rapid movement of
troops and supplies throughout the Roman Empire. Roman roads were known for their durability and engineering
sophistication, using a layered structure of gravel, sand, and lime mortar to create a strong and stable foundation. The
roads were often built in straight lines, with milestones indicating distances and providing a means of measuring
travel time.
Tresaguet Construction
The Tresaguet Construction method is a historical road construction technique that was developed in the late 18th
century by French engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet. It involved laying a foundation of large stones, followed
by a layer of smaller stones, and finally a layer of gravel or crushed stone. The road was then compacted using heavy
rollers to create a smooth and durable surface. This method was widely used throughout Europe and the United
States in the 19th century, and it laid the foundation for modern road construction techniques.
Metealf Construction
Metal road construction, also known as gravel road construction, is the process of building a road using layers of
compacted gravel, crushed stone, or other aggregates as the primary road surface. The construction process typically
involves grading the roadbed, adding layers of gravel or stone, and compacting each layer to create a firm and
durable surface. This type of road construction is often used in rural areas and low-traffic roads due to its lower cost
and ease of maintenance. However, metal roads may require frequent grading and may not be suitable for heavy
traffic or high-speed travel.
Telford Construction
Telford road construction refers to a method of road construction developed by Scottish engineer Thomas Telford in
the early 19th century. This method involves building a solid foundation of large stones or boulders, followed by
several layers of smaller stones and gravel, and then a surface layer of crushed stone or gravel. The layers are
compacted using a heavy roller, creating a durable and long-lasting road surface. Telford roads were an improvement
over earlier road construction methods, and were widely used in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world
during the 19th century.
Macadam Construction
Macadam construction is a method of road construction that was invented by Scottish engineer John Loudon
McAdam in the early 19th century. Prior to this, roads were typically made of dirt or gravel, which made travel
difficult and uncomfortable.
McAdam's technique involved using layers of crushed stone of various sizes, which were carefully compacted and
then covered with smaller stones and gravel. The top layer was then compacted again to create a smooth and durable
surface. This method was revolutionary at the time, as it created a much smoother and more durable road surface
than was previously possible.
Macadam construction quickly gained popularity and was widely used throughout Europe and North America. It
paved the way for the development of modern road construction techniques and helped to make travel faster and
more comfortable for people around the world.
Classification of Roads
Based on uses:
 All weather roads: All weather roads are those which are negotiable during all weather, except at major
river crossing where interruption to traffic is permissible up to a certain extent.
 Fair weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather.
Based on carriageway:
 Paved roads with hard surface: Provided with a hard pavement course [stones, water bound macadam
(WBM), concrete roads].
 Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM layer [earth or gravel
roads].
Based on pavement surface:
 Surface roads: Provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
 Unsurfaced roads: Roads which are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
Classification of Roads Based on Location & Function
Based on location and function roads are classified into following categories:
 Expressways:
 This is a separate class of highway with superior facilities, design standards and high speeds.
 Meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic.
 Provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separators at cross roads and fencing.
 Should permit only fast moving vehicles.
 Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian or traffic is not allowed.
 National highways (NH): These are main highways running through the length and breadth of a country,
connecting major ports, foreign highways, capital of large states including roads required for strategic
movement.
 State highways (SH): These are arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of
adjacent state. Also serve as main arteries for traffic to and from district roads.
Classification of Roads Based on Location & Function
 Major district roads (MDR):
 These are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and connecting
those with each other or with the main highways of a district.
 Has lower speed and geometric design specifications than NH/SH.
 Other district roads (ODR):
 These are roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers.
 Lower design specifications than MDR.
 Village roads (VR): These are roads connecting village with each other to the nearest road of a higher
category.
Classification of Roads Based on Traffic Volume
 Light traffic road: Equivalent axle load (EAL) is less than 104 or commercial vehicle per day (CVPD) is
less than 50.
 Medium traffic road: Equivalent axle load (EAL) is less than 104 to 106 or commercial vehicle per day
(CVPD) is less than 50 to 300.
 Heavy traffic road: Equivalent axle load (EAL) is greater than 106 or commercial vehicle per day (CVPD)
is greater than 300.
Classification of Roads Based on Urban Road
 Arterial roads:
 City roads which are meant for through traffic usually on continuous route.
 Generally spaced at less than 15 km in developed business where as in less important areas may be 8
km apart.
 Also divided highways with gully or partially controlled access, loading and unloading, parking
activities are carefully done.
 Pedestrians are permitted to cross the road at intersection.
 Sub-arterial road:
 City roads provide low level of travel mobility than arterial street.
 Their spacing may vary between 0.5 km in the central urban area and 3-5 km in sub-urban area.
 Loading and unloading are restricted.
 Pedestrians are allowed to cross the road at intersection.
Classification of Roads Based on Urban Road
 Collectors roads:
 City roads which are constructed for collecting and distributing traffic to and from local streets and
also to provide an access for arterial and sub-arterial roads.
 Located in residential , business and industrial areas.
 Accessible from building along them.
 There are few parking restriction except during peak hour.
 Local road:
 City roads which are provided an access to residence, business and buildings.
 Traffic carried either originates or terminates along local streets.
 Depending upon importance of adjoining area a local street may be residential, commercial or
industrial.
 Pedestrians may move freely, parking is permitted without restriction.
Highways || Freeways
 Highways:
 Superior type of roads in a country.
 Two types: (i) Rural highways (ii) Urban highways.
 Rural highways which are passing through the rural areas like villages.
 Urban highways which are passing through large city and town.
 Freeways:
 Access control divided highways.
 Most freeways are four lanes, two lanes each direction but many freeways widen to incorporate more
lanes as they enter urban areas.
 Access is controlled depend on kind of interchanging road way.
Road Patterns
1. Rectangular or block pattern:
 Whole area is divided into rectangular blocks of plots with
streets intersecting at right angles.
 Main roads which passing through centre of area should be
sufficiently wide and other branch roads may be
comparatively narrow.
 Main road is provided a direct approach to outside city.
 May be further divided into small rectangular blocks for
construction of building placed back to back adding road on
their front.
 Construction and maintenance is easier.
 But from traffic point of view this pattern is not very much
convenient because of number of intersections present here.
Road Patterns
2. Radial or star and block pattern
 Entire area is divided into a network of road radially from business area to outward.
 In between radiating main roads, built up may be planned with rectangular block.
Road Patterns
3. Radial or star and circular pattern
 Main radial roads radiating from central business area are connected together with concentric roads.
 In these areas boundary by adjacent radial roads and corresponding circular roads, built up area is
planned with a curved block system.
Road Patterns
4. Radial or star and grid pattern: Radial or star and grid pattern involves the use of a grid system that connects
to a central hub. This pattern is useful for managing traffic flow and providing access to multiple areas within a
city.
Road Patterns
5. Hexagonal pattern
 In this pattern central area is provided with a network of road forming hexagonal figures.
 At each corner of hexagonal three roads meet.
 Built up area bounded by sides of hexagon is further divided into suitable sides.
Road Patterns
6. Minimum travel pattern: In this pattern, city is connected by sector centers by road which required minimum
travel to connect city centre.
Planning Surveys Consisting of Following Studies:
 Economic studies:
 Population and its distribution in each village, town or other locality with the area classified in groups.
 Trend of population growth.
 Agricultural and industrial products and their listing in classified groups, area wise.
 Industrial and agricultural development and future trends.
 Existing facilities with regard to communication, recreation and education etc.
 Per capita income.
 Financial studies:
 Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport.
 Living standards.
 Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.
 Future trends in financial aspects.
Planning Surveys Consisting of Following Studies:
 Engineering studies:
 Engineering studies:
 Topographic surveys.
 Topographic surveys.
 Soil surveys.
 Soil surveys.
 Location and classification of existing
 Location and classification of existing roads.
roads.
 Estimation of possible developments in all
 Estimation of possible developments in all
aspects due to the proposed highway
aspects due to the proposed highway
development.
development.
 Road life studies.
 Road life studies.
 Traffic studies, Origin and Destination
 Traffic studies, Origin and Destination
studies.
studies.
 Special problems in drainage, construction
 Special problems in drainage, construction
and maintenance of roads.
and maintenance of roads.
 BECM 4201
Transportation Engineering in Construction

Faruque Abdullah
Assistant Professor, Dept. of BECM, RUET Class Lecture – 03
11 March 2023
Highway Location and Surveys
Highway Alignment
Highway alignment refers to the route and orientation of a highway or road. It is the process of selecting a path along
which a highway or road is constructed. Highway alignment is important because it determines the smoothness,
safety, and cost-effectiveness of a road or highway.
Classification of highway alignment is as follows:
 Horizontal Alignment: It refers to the layout of the roadway plan view in a horizontal plane. It is the arrangement
of the centerline of the road in a horizontal plane. The primary objective of horizontal alignment is to provide a
safe and comfortable driving experience for road users. It includes the design of curves, tangents, and
intersections.
 Vertical Alignment: It refers to the layout of the roadway plan view in a vertical plane. It is the arrangement of
the centerline of the road in a vertical plane. The primary objective of vertical alignment is to provide a safe and
comfortable driving experience for road users. It includes the design of grades, crests, and valleys.
 Cross-Sectional Alignment: It refers to the arrangement of the roadbed in a cross-section, including the roadway
width, lane width, shoulder width, and median width. The primary objective of cross-sectional alignment is to
provide a safe and comfortable driving experience for road users.
Highway Alignment
Basic Requirements of Ideal Alignment
The basic requirement of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that it should be:
 Short: It is desirable to have a short (or shortest) alignment between two terminal stations. A straight
alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several practical considerations which would cause
deviations from the shortest path.
 Easy: The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should also be easy for the operation of
vehicle with easy gradients and curves.
 Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of
stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes. It should also be safe for the traffic operation
with safe geometric features.
 Economical: The alignment should be economical. The alignment could be considered economical only if
the total cost; including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest.
Factors Affecting Alignment
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
 Obligatory points: These are controlled points governing highway alignment. These control points may be
divided into two categories:
 Points through which alignment is to pass:
 Bridge site:
 Bridge can be located only where river has straight and permanent path and also where
abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
 Road approach to bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as
possible.
 Thus to locate a bridge highway alignment may be changed.
Factors Affecting Alignment
 Mountain:
 While alignment passes through a
mountain, various alternatives are to
either construct a tunnel or to go round
hills.
 Suitability of alternatives depends on
factors like topography, site conditions
and construction and operation cost.
 Intermediate town:
 Alignment may be slightly divided to
connect an intermediate town or village
nearby.
Factors Affecting Alignment
 Points through which alignment should not pass:
 Religious places:
 These have been protected by law from being acquired for any purpose.
 Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
 Very costly structure:
 Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which would result in an increase in
initial cost.
 So alignment may be deviated not to pass through that point.
 Lakes/ponds:
 Presence of a lake or pond on alignment path would also necessitate deviation of alignment.
Factors Affecting Alignment
 Traffic :
 The alignment should suit traffic requirements.
 Origin and Destination study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing
the trend of traffic flow.
 The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic flow patterns and future
trends.
 Geometric Design :
 Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also govern the final
alignment of the highway.
 To keep radius of curve minimum, it may be required to change alignment of highway.
 Alignments should be finalized such that abstraction to visibility don’t restrict minimum requirements
of sight distance.
 Design standards vary with class of road and terrain and according highway should be aligned.
Factors Affecting Alignment
 Economy :
 The alignment finished based on the above factors should also be economical.
 In working out the economics, the initial cost the cost, of maintenance and vehicle operation should be
taken into account.
 Need to avoid high embankment and deep cutting to decreases initial cost.
 Alignment is chosen in a manner to balance cutting and filling.
 Other Considerations:
 Drainage considerations, hydrological factors, political considerations and monotony govern
alignment.
 Subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood level are factors to be kept in view.
Special Consideration on Hilly Areas
 Stability :
 While aligning hill roads, special care should be taken to align road along side of hill which is
stable.
 A common problem in hill roads is that of land slides.
 Cutting and filling of earth to construct roads on hill-side causes steepening of existing slopes and
affect its stability.
 Drainage:
 Numerous hill-side drains should be provided for adequate drainage facility across road.
 Cross drainage structure being costly, attempts should be made to align road such a way where
number of cross drainage structures are minimum.
Special Consideration on Hilly Areas
 Geometric standards of hill roads :
 Different sets of geometric standards are followed in hill roads with reference to gradient curves and speed.
 They consequently influence sight distance, radius of curve and other related featres.
 Rate should enable ruling gradient to be attracted in most of length, minimizing steep gradients, hair pin
bends and needless rise and fall.
 Resisting length:
 Resisting length of a road is its effective length taking into consideration for total work done against
resistance.
 Resisting length of a road may be calculated from total work done to move the loads along the route taking
horizontal length, actual difference in levels between two stations and sum of in effective rise and fall in
excess of floating gradient.
 Resisting length of alignment should be kept as low as possible.
 In effective rise and executive fall should be kept minimum.
Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
The stages of engineering surveys are:
 Map Study: The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the
map.
 Alignment avoiding valleys, pond or lakes.
 When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain pass.
 Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if any.
 Reconnaissance: Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given below.
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, hills and other obstructions along the route which are not available in the map.
 Approximate values of gradient. length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate alignments.
 Number and type of cross drainage structures.
 Soil type along the routes.
Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
 Preliminary survey: The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
 To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance.
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earth work materials.
 To finalise the best alignment from all consideration.
 Final location and detailed survey: In this survey two operation are involved.
 To layout the final center line of the alignment by means of continuous transit survey.
 Detailed levelling.
 BECM 4201
Transportation Engineering in Construction

Faruque Abdullah
Assistant Professor, Dept. of BECM, RUET Class Lecture – 04
11 March 2023
Highway Geometric Design
Elements of Geometric Design
 Cross-sectional elements – includes cross slope, various width of road and features in road margins.
 Sight distance consideration – includes cross slope, various width and features in the road margins.
 Horizontal alignment detail’s – includes features like super elevation, transition curve, extra widening
and set back distance, etc.
 Vertical alignment distance and design of length of curve.
 Intersection features – includes layout, capacity, etc.
Factors Affecting Geometric Design
 Design Speed:
 Defined as highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel with safety on the
highway when weather conditions are conducive.
 Different from legal speed limit which is imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel
beyond an accepted safe speed.
 Also different from desired speed which is maximum speed at which a driver would travel when
unconstrained by either traffic or local geometry.
 Single most important factor that affects geometric design.
 Directly affects sight distance, horizontal curve and length of vertical curves.
 Since speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc. a design speed is adopted for all geometric
design.
Factors Affecting Geometric Design
 Topography:
 It is easier to contract roads with required standard for a plan terrain.
 However for a given design speed, construction cost increases multiform with gradient and
terrain.
 Therefore, geometric design standards are different for different terrain to keep cost of
construction and time of construction under control.
 This is characterized by sharper curves and steeper gradients.
 Traffic factors:
 It is of crucial importance in highway design, is traffic data both current and future estimates.
 Traffic volume indicates level of service (LOS) for which highway is being planned and directly
affects geometric features such as width, alignment, grades, etc.
 Without traffic data it is very difficult to design any highway.
Factors Affecting Geometric Design
 Vehicles:
 Dimensions, weight of axle and operating characteristics of a vehicle influence design aspects
such as width of pavement, radii of curve, clearance, parking geometric etc.
 A design vehicle which has standard weight, dimensions and operating characteristics are used to
establish highway design controls to accelerate vehicles of a designated type.
 Human:
 Important human factors that influence geometric design are physical, mental and psychological
characteristics of driver and pedestrian like reaction time.
 Environment:
 Environment factors like air pollution, noise pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global
conditions should be given due considerations in geometric design of roads.
Factors Affecting Geometric Design
 Design hourly volume and capacity:
 General unit for measuring traffic on highway is annual average daily traffic volume, abbreviated
as AADT.
 Traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with times from a low value during off peak hours to
highest value during peak hour.
 It will be uneconomical to design road-way facilities for peak traffic flow.
 Economy:
 Design adopted should be economical as far as possible.
 It should match with funds allotted for capital cost and maintenance cost.
 Other factors:
 Geometric design should be such that aesthetics of region is not affected.
Cross Sectional Elements
 Features of cross-section of pavement influences life of pavement as well as riding comfort and
safety.
 Pavement surface characteristics affect both of these.
 Camber, kerbs and geometry of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be
considered in this regard.
Friction
 Friction between wheel and pavement surface is a crucial factor in design of horizontal curves and
safe operating speed.
 Further it also affect acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles.
 Lake of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
 Frictional force that develops between wheel and pavement is load acting multiplied by a factor called
co-efficient of friction and denoted as f.
 Choice of the value of f is very complicated issue since it depends on many variables.
 Co-efficient of longitudinal friction is 0.35 to 0.40 depending on speed and co-efficient of lateral
friction is 0.15.
 Former is useful in sight distance calculation and latter in horizontal curve design.
Pavement Surface Characteristics
For a safe and comfortable four aspects of pavement surface are important:
 Friction between wheels and pavement surface.
 Smoothness of road surface.
 Light reflection characteristics of top of pavement surface.
 Drainage of water.
Skid
Longitudinal skid:
 Occurs when wheels slide without revolving or when wheels partially revolves.
 Skidding happens when path travelled along road surface is more than circumferential movement
of wheel due to their rotation.
 When brakes are applied, wheels are locked partially or fully and if vehicles moves forward,
longitudinal skid takes places.
 May vary from 0% to 100%
Lateral skid:
 Takes place while a negotiate a horizontal curve, if centrifugal force is greater than counteracting
forces (Lateral friction and components of gravity due to superelevation).
 Considered dangerous as vehicle goes out of control leading to an accident.
Importance of Geometric Design
 Geometric design of highway deals with dimensions and layout of visible features of highway.
 Features normally considered are cross-sectional elements, sight distance considering horizontal
curvature, gradients and intersection.
 Design of these features is to a great extend influenced by driver behaviour and psychology, vehicle
characteristics, traffic characteristics such as speed and volume.
 Proper geometric design will help in reducing of accidents and their severity.
 Therefore objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation and
maximum safety at reasonable cost.
 Planning can’t be done stage wise like that of a pavement but has to be done well in advance.
Slip
 Slip occurs when wheel revolves more than corresponding longitudinal movement along road.
 Usually occurs in driving wheel of a vehicles when vehicle rapidly accelerate from stationary position
or from slow speed on pavement surface which is slippery and wet.
L < 2πR
Factors Affecting Friction or Skid Resistance
 Type of pavement surface (cement concrete, bituminous, WBM, earth surface, etc.)
 Micro-texture of pavement surface or its relative roughness.
 Conditions of pavement (wet or dry, smooth or rough, oil, spilled, mud or dry sand on pavement)
 Types of condition of tire (new with good threads or smoothed and worn out)
 Speed of vehicle.
 Element of brake application or brake efficiency.
 Load and tire pressure.
 Temperature of tire and pavement.
 Type of skid, if any.
Pavement Unevenness
 Always desirable to have an even surface but it is seldom possible to have such one.
 Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to tends to pavement failure.
 Unevenness affect vehicle operating cost, speed, comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and tear
of tires.
 Unevenness index is a measure of vertical undulation of pavement surface recorded per unit
horizontal length of road.
 An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good.
 A value less than 2500 mm/km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 km/hr.
 Value greater than 3200 mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55 km/hr.
Light Reflecting Characteristics
 Light visibility very much depends upon light reflecting characteristics of pavement surface.
 Glare caused by reflection of head lights is considerable high on wet pavement surface than on dry
pavement.
 Light colored or white pavement surface give good visibility at night particularly during rains and
they produces glare and eye strain during bright sunlight.
 Black top pavement surface on other hand provides very poor visibility at nights, especially when
surface is wet.
Drainage of Water
 Pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into pavement
layers.
 Further, both geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in draining out water from
surface in less time.
Cross Slope or Camber
 Slope provided to road surface in transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
 Drainage and quick disposal water from pavement surface by providing cross slope is considered
important because of
 To prevent entry of surface water into subgrade soil through pavement (stability, surface
condition and life of pavement) get adversely affected if water enters in subgrade and soil gets
soaked).
 To prevent entry of water into bituminous pavement layers continued contact with water causes
stripping of bitumen from aggregates and results in deterioration of pavement layer).
 To remove rain water from pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow pavement to get
dry soon after rain (skid resistance of pavement gets considerably decreased under wet condition,
rendering it slippery and unsafe for vehicle operation at high speed).
Cross Slope or Camber
 Usually camber is provided on straight roads by raising centre of carriage way with respect to edges,
forming a crown or highest point on center line.
 Rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in n, which means that transverse slope is in
ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal.
 Camber is also expressed as a percentage.
 If camber is x% cross slope is x in 100.
 Required camber of a pavement depends on type of pavement surface and amount of rainfall.
 A flat camber of 1.7% to 2.0% is sufficient on relatively impervious pavement surface like cement
concrete or bituminous concrete.
 In pervious surface like WBM or earth road which may allow surface water to get into sub-grade soil,
steeper cross slope is required.
 Steeper camber are also provided in areas of heavy rainfall.
Effect of too Steep Slope
Too steep slope is note desirable because of following reasons-
 Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and a drag on steering of automobile,
unequal wear of tier and road surface.
 Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing the crown during overtaking operations.
 Problems of toppling over of highly laden bullock cans and trucks.
 Formation or cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
 Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the center line.
Types of Camber
Common types of camber are-
 Parabolic shape
 Straight line camber
 Combination of straight and parabolic shape

Parabolic Shape Straight line camber Combination of straight

and parabolic shape
Carriage Way || Traffic Lane
Carriage Way:
 Metaled portion of road over which vehicles are intended to move.
 Different types of carriage according to material which used for construction.
Traffic Lane:
 Carriage intended for one lane of traffic movement is called a traffic lane.