See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/288667557

Shrinkage stoping of narrow veins-Problem or profit?

Article · January 1998

CITATIONS READS

4 2,058

4 authors, including:

Simon Dominy Godfrey Simon Camm

University of Exeter University of Exeter
105 PUBLICATIONS   1,042 CITATIONS    58 PUBLICATIONS   590 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Mine value chain sampling optimisation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Simon Dominy on 21 July 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Mine planning and Equipment Selection 1998, Singhal (ed.) A 1998 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5809 011 6

Shrinkage stoping of narrow veins - Problem or profit?

SimonC.Dominy Christopher J. S. Sangster

M GRG - SEES, tJ niv ersity of Gre enw ich, Caledonia Mining Corporation, Tyndrum, UK
Chatham Maritime, UK G.SimonCamm
RolandFG.Phelps EXMIN Geological Services, Hayle, UK
Welsh Gold plc, Dolgellau, UK

because of associated high

ABSTRACT: Shrinkage stoping has a long history, though has fallen out of favour
it is based on the upward advance of the stope drilling from the muckpile'
costs. An entry-method of e*traction,
is reliant on the back-filling of the stope by ore, which offers sidewall suppod. In general the
The method
which will not oxidize within
orebody must have a dip in excess of 60o, have strong wallrocks and a composition
allowing the geologist constant access as work progresses and the
the stope.The technique has many advantages
geometry, particularly strike,
flexibiiity to leave behind low grud. or". It is also able to respond to changes in vein
to 2.5 m are common' Wider veins are
dip and width. The minimum sioping width is 1 m, however widths of up
g.*rufly more suited to longhoie olen stoping. Lifts between levels of 50 m are possible where orebodv and
ivallrock conditions allow. The disadvantages are that up to 60% of the ore is locked up until work in the stope is
resources and time. Optimum
completed, this may take several weeks or months and is expensive in terms of
The effectiveness
rock fragrnentationis vital to minimise the effects of hang-ups within boxholes and drawpoints.
of shrinkage stoping is controlled by the skill and experience of the miners in collaboration with the geologist.

l INTRODUCTION until it has been substarrtially mined because of

Narrow vein mining no longer holds a pre-eminent
position in the mining world, but is still a significant
source of silver, gold, tin and uranium. Gold however
is of particular importance because of its relatively
high unit value, with vein-gold operations in Europe,
geological uncertainties (Dominy & Phelps 1997).
This places pressure on geologists and engineers to
produce more reliable reserves, grade control
procedures and effective mine designs (Dominy et al.
1998a).
Traditionally shrinkage stoping has been

Australia, Canada, South America and Africa. To
corporate financiers and managers this style of
mineralization is viewed as high risk because of the
often small target areas, the associated high cost of
resource definition and tight profit margins. For the
purpose of this paper we consider narrow veins to be
those with widths of <6 m, but are commonly <3 m'
There are a number of problems which narrow vein
mine operators must address to be successful; (1)
complex geology and grade distribution, hence
reserves are often difficult to assess, (2) high
percentage of wallrock dilution, (3) low ratio of stope
tonnage per metre developed, (4) low overall
efficiencies due to relatively small tonnages involved
and (5) inapplicability for a large amount of
mechanisation (Dominy et al. 7997;1998c). Mining
costs can represent tp to 70Yo of the total operating
costs. The fuIl nature ofan orebody is often unknown
classified by some as an unsupported and by others as
a supported method. Each classihcation is justified
because the back ofthe stope, which is usually ore, is
unsupported during mining whereas the walls are
supported by the broken ore. More recently Rossouw
& Fourie (1996) classified shrinkage stoping as an
non-caving st e ep- s t ope -spec ifi c method. Because of
its simplicity and original smal1 operating scale'
shrinkage stoping was formerly very popular method.
Rising costs, the scarcity of skilled labour and the
trend toward bulk mining and mechanization have
largely displaced shrinkage stoping.
2 DESIGN CzuTERIA
The selection of a mining method for narrow vein
deposits depends upon orebody geometry and
physical characteristics. The method must be

105
adaptable to irregular ore limits and yield good
recovery and minimal dilution. Consideration should
be given to: (1) vein strike and dip; (2) vein widtfu (3)
the dimensions and regularity of oreshoots and; (4)
geomechanical properties of wallrocks and ore
(Hartman 1992; Hustrulid 1982).
Vein dip controls stope drawdown, where
below 45o broken ore will not move down the
footwall and scrapers become necessary. In the 45-55o
range the behaviour of broken ore is often
unpredictable with the possibilities of increased costs
and reduced production. Above 55" few diffrculties
are generally encountered as broken ore will run
under gravity. The geometry of vein walls are rarely
planar and vary both laterally and vertically. The
minimum stoping width of 1 m represents the thinnest
opening permissible with respect to safety. If the
orebody is narrower than this, then inclusion of
barren/low grade material will result in high planned
dilution (Dominy et al. 1998a/b).
Method selection must consider the nature of
grade distribution which may be relatively uniform
throughout the vein or restricted to discrete oreshoots.
A choice must be made between a small-scale,
selective method of mining the oreshoots only (e.g.
shrinkage or reefopen stoping), or a more bulk, high
tonnage method which incorporates some low grade
(e.g. longhole open stoping).
3 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Shrinkage stoping has many advantages as it allows
the geologist constant access to the vein as work
progresses and the flexibility to leave behind low
grade ore, or extract rich areas. Selectivity is good for
wall/assay limits, but not for intemal dilution unless a
complete panel is abandoned. The method is able to
respond to relatively rapid changes in vein geometry,
particularly warps along strike or up-dip. Splits within
the vein structure can also be accommodated with
care. If both ore and wallrocks are strong stopes can
be quickly developed. The amount of development
required is relatively small which is advantageous to
small operations with limited capital. The broken ore
in the stope supports the wallrocks and generally
eliminates the need for timber stulls. The minimum
practical stoping width is 1 m, however up to 2.5 m is
possible, wider veins being often more suited to
longhole open stoping (Dominy et al. 1997,1998c).
Lifts between levels of 50 m are possible where
strong orebody and wallrock conditions allow. An
empty shrinkage stope may be filled with waste which
106
will impart wallrock stability and solve potential
environmental problems.
The disadvantages are that up to 60% of the
ore is locked up until work in the stope is completed,
this may take several months and is expensive in
terms of inventory costs. If wallrocks are
unexpectedly weak then substantial additional dilution
may occrrr during drawdown. Treatment of hang-ups
is hazardous and requires entry into the stope and the
use of water or compressed air jets and./or secondary
blasting. Boxhole blockage is similarly common and
may in some cases require total removal and rebuild.
This is an extremely dangerous task as it requires men
to work under the open finger raise with broken rock
on either side. Highly sulphidic ore within the stope is
often prone to oxidation, particularly if wet and may
result in a low recovery due to cementation. High
levels of clay-like minerals will impart a high
viscosity to the broken rock and may lead to problems
during drawdown.
4 STOPE DEVELOPMENT
As a consequence of being a vertical stoping method,
shrinkage stoping operations are carried out over a
considerable vertical distance. Several levels are
required, the main or haulage levels being spaced up
to 50 m apart. The two main tasks of vertical-stope
preparation are to construct a means of drawing the
ore in which the muck flows by gravity and an
undercut into which the ore initially falls.
Two draw systems are commonly used at
present. The oldest, a small-scale method, consists of
finger raises terminating in chutes or boxhoies
through which wagons are loaded directly (Figure 1).
This traditional shrinkage method is simple in
concept, where gravity flow and boxholes replaced
hand loading. Blockages within boxholes are colnmon
and delay production. Where veins are sinuous the
method often results in tramming trough crooked
haulages which are often obstructed by the boxholes
reducing transport efficiency. Finger raises are carried
up through sufficient thickness (e.g. 3-6 m) of ore to
make pillars and connected laterally to form a stope
sublevel from which mining commences. Pillars offer
sfuong support and can generally be recovered after
stope drawdown if ground conditions allow. Crown
pillars are left below the main levels to ensure
accessibility after stoping.
The modem and generally preferred system
uses drawpoints which eliminate the bottleneck of
boxholes and utilizes loading machines at drawpoints.
 manway drive / nauEge
lode orlve
loog haulage
Figure 1. Longitudinal section showing traditional
shrinkage stope design.
The foonvall haulage drive is placed 7-8 m off the
vein with drawpoints every 8 m or so (Dominy &
Camm 1996; Dominy et al. 1998d; Figure 2),
ensuring fast and effective mucking. The technique
negates the use of sill pillars as the foolwall drives
provide a permanent access. Mining commences
directly off the lode drive Raises at the ends of the
stope block to the level above provide miners with
access to the stope.
In all draw systems the spacing of boxholes
and drawpoints ranges from 5-15 m. Close spacing
requires more development, but minimises the
tonnage of ore stranded in the stope after emptying
and maintains a more even work platform in the
stope. Wide spacings economise on development at
the expense of even draw control and ore loss.
Mining is based upon the drilling of 29-33
mm diameter holes with compressed air stoper or
jackleg machines. Two types of hole are commonly
placed. In the first case holes are drilled up to 3.5 m
horizontally or at a slight angle to the horizontal to
break the ore in benches (breasting). The second
method uses vertical or steeply inclined holes up to
2.5 m long. It is suggested that vertical holes have a
greater shattering effect than horizontal holes and tend
to weaken the back and make it unstable. Long
horizontal or flatly inclined holes are likely to break
the ore into large pieces which require secondary
reduction. Compaction of the shrink may be
exacerbated by horizontal holes as the blast force is
downwards, verticai holes allow the sideways force of
the blast minimising compaction effects.
107
Figure 2. Block diagram showing the design of a
shrinkage stope with footwall drive and diawpoints.
The production rate of a shrinkage stope per
day is dependent upon stope width, lift height' drill
pattem (uppers or breast holes), number of shifts per
day and man utilization during the shift(s). A small
25-30 m long panel using 1.8 m lifts and a single
machine-man on one shift can yield about 30 t/day A
larger 50-60 m long panel employing two machine-
men per shift over two shifts can yield up to 120
Vday. Only 40o/o ofthe daily production can be drawn
off. It is generally not practical for safety reasons to
have more than two drillers operating in any one stope
at once.
In small high-grade shrinkage stopes some
sorting of the ore can be undertaken. Ore or waste
may be removed by hand or shovelled into chutes
built up through the shrink pile' In rare cases a resue
technique is employed where waste and ore are
blasted and mucked separately. This is an extremely
labour intensive activity and only viable for high-
grade pockets of ore containing perhaps coatse flree-
gold (Dominy & Phelps 1997). Shrinkage stoping is
essentially a method in which no sorting is done in
stopes, though ore can be preferentially drawn from
various stopes and blended.
In-stope support can be facilitated by leaving
vertical piilars which are placed one below another to
give continuous support. The pillars may be undercut,
or drilled and blasted from raises and sublevels'
Pillars of waste material can also be left. The
effectiveness ofshrinkage stoping is controlled by the be ahead ofproduction as only one stope can operate
skill and experience of the miners (e.g. minimal in drive. Recovery and diiution are acceptable with
overbreak and optimum fragmentation) in geological control possible during mining. A similar
coliaboration with the geologist (e.g. understanding of method was used at Wheai Jane tin mine (Comwall,
vein geometry and effective communication with UK; Figure 4) and Gwynfynydd gold mine
miners). Additional dilution is usually 15% or less, (Gwynedd, LrI() where the stope was developed
though this is dependant upon wailrock conditions directly offthe lode drive (Dominy et al. 1998c).
and the qualiry of mining. The piacing of rock- and
cable-bolts in Lode drives and stopes provides a higher
degree ofsafety. They give support during drawdown
V
when hangingwall collapse is most likely. Once the
ore is removed then some degree of coilapse can be
tolerated.

Figure 3. Longitudinal section showing rise and pillar

shrinkage stoping design.

5 MODIFIED SHRN{KAGE METHODS

Over the past years a number of modified shrinkage Figure 4. Block diagram showing the design of the
methods have been developed (Dominy et al. rill shrinkage stoping method.
1997.1998c). Of note is rise and pillar shrinkage
stoping developed at the Golden Crown gold mine
(Westem Australia) in response to the need for a a
faster. safer and controllable stoping method (Beilby
et al. 1993; Figure 3). A drive is developed and fwo I

raises (rearings) at the ends of the panel link to the

level above. A series of blind finger raises are placed
along the dnve and corurected to each other via a l

stope sublevel. Mining commences from one of the

l
rearings so that a 45" dip rill is established, the stope
is rhen continued as high as possible with the miner /
i'-
throwrng his dirt towards the empty raises below. The I^ broken ore ] --\
ore pile can be reduced by mechanized mucking from t_
the drive allowing the miner to drill. The method has
a number of advantages including no boxholes mid-stope strlke Pillar
required, fewer hang-ups in the stope, quicker
extraction time and safe drive access after completion. Figure 5. Longitudinal section showing gallery
The drawbacks of the method are development must shrinkage stoping design

108
Gallery stoping at the Paringa gold mine (Western drilling/blasting 13%
Australia) involves the working of the lower half of ground support 2Yo

the block as a traditional shrinkage stope and the services 3%

upper halfas a leading stope (Upton 1985; Figure 5).
The method has some benefit as broken ore in the
lower stope can be removed once the sublevel has
commenced and the mid-stope pillars give protection
from poor ground.
6 SAFETY
The safety of any mining operation is of prime
concem. In the narrow vein environment the greatest
dangers come from falling rock as shrinkage stoping
is an entry method. After blasting mining crews bar-
down the backs and walls which can lead to
unexpected collapse. Problems during mining are less
marked in shallow deposits (e.g. <500 m) but can
become problematic at depths in excess 1,000 m'
Increased shesses within wallrocks can result in
pinching of the ore within the stope and lead to hang-
ups during drawdown. Wallrock failure during
drawdown cannot usually be remediated, resulting in
additional dilution and possible abandonment of the
stope. The greatest risk to life is from settlement of
the shrink pile after drawdown (during stoping), this
results in the ground running-away beneath miners.
This risk can be markedly reduced by careful
engineering design and control. The most important
factors are control and order of drawdown,
boxhole/drawpoint placement, fragmentation, use of
water, vein dip and height of stope lift. It is a good
general rule to make miners responsible for drawing
their own stopes, thus they have a control on their
own safety.
7 ECONOMICS
Shrinkage stoping has been used in the mining
industry for many years, but in recent times has fallen
out of favour because of the its associated costs.
Compared to the more common longhole open
stoping method, shrinkage costs in the order of
UKf,25-65ltonne as opposed to UKfl5-45/tonne.
Much of the shrinkage cost, up to 40"/o, is labour. A
typical distribution of mining costs would be:
in-stopeevaluation 4Yo
development 45Yo
labour 33%
however these will be highly variable and dependent
upon the particular case in question. Factors
effecting an increase in mining costs are iikely to be:
lower tonnage factor
lower grade ore
increased development
poor ground conditions
reduced stope width
excessive dilution
high water influx
and those related to a decrease in mining costs:
higher tonnage factor
higher grade
greater ore width
The apparent cost of mining by shrinkage
stoping is not necessariiy the true cost of the method.
Allowances should be made for interest on capital
spent in breaking ore surplus to immediate
requirement and locked-up in stopes. The extra cost
of tramming, hoisting and processing waste within
the ore accounted for as additional dilution should
also be considered. Of particular importance is the
cost of down-time as a result of stope and/or
boxhole/drawpoint hang-ups etc.
8 CONCLUSIONS
Under most economic evaluations, the labour
intensive nature of shrinkage stoping precludes its
widespread use in modern mining applications. It
may be the only possible method applicable in the
case of a mine in which the orebody is narrow and
cannot be extracted by other means. It is of
particular relevance to operations whose
stoping/vein width is below 2 m and where complex
geology negates the use of longhole open stoping
(Larsen et al. 1990). Small-medium sized high-value
commodity mines (e.g. gold; >12 g/t recovered Au)
whose annual production is less than 100,000 tonnes
show particular applicability to the method. The
introduction of footwall drives and drawpoints with
mechanical muckers leads to increased production
and efficiency. Similarly, the use of small single or
twin boom drillrigs for development drivages can

109
 also reduce costs and improve efficiency. Elsewhere
shrinkage stoping can also be used in situations
where small blocks cannot be removed by other
methods. The effectiveness of shrinkage stoping is
controlled by the skill and experience of the miners
(e.g. minimal overbreak and optimum fragmentation)
in collaboration with the geologist (e.g. understanding
of vein geometry and effective communication with
miners).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This contribution results from an on-going research
programme by the Mining Geology Research Group
of the School of Earth & Environmental Sciences.
Work is supported by the University of Greenwich,
Welsh Gold plc, Caledonia Mining Corporation,
Clogau Gold Mines Ltd, Elenith Mining Ltd and the
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy (1996 G.
Vemon Hobson Bequest Grant). Dr Ian Platten
(University of Greenwich) and Dr Alwyn Annels
(University of Wales) are thanked for
discussions and review of the manuscript. The
figures were drafted by Hilary Foxwell and Clare
Guard-
REFERENCES
Beilby, P., Rogers, M. & Sullivan, B. 1993. Rise and
pillar rill stoping at Golden Crown mine.
Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurg,, Special Publication, 4193, 79-82.
Dominy, S.C. & Camm, G.S. 1996. The nature and
exploitation ofnarrow tin-bearing veins: a
case study from South Crofty mine,
Comwall, UK. British Mining, 57 , I 50- 170.
Dominy, S.C. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1997. Small-scale
vein-gold exploitation in Gwynffnydd mine,
Wales, UK. In'. Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection 1997. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam. 133-139.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, G.S. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1997.
Narrow vein mining - a challenge to the
operator. Inl. Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection 1997. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
125-132.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, G.S., Wheeler, P., Annels,
A.E. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1998a. Geology in the
reserve estimation ofnarrow vein deposits.
Exploration and Mining Geologgr, submitted.
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G. & Sangster, C.J.S.
1998b. The nature ofdilution in narrow vein
View publication stats
mining operations. In: Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection 1998. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam. This volume.
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G., Sangster, C.J.S. &
Camm, G.S. 1998c. Problems and solutions
associated with narrow vein mining
operations - a review. Transactions ofthe
Institution of Mining and Metallurgt (Section
l), submitted.
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G., Sangster, C.J.S. &
Camm, G.S. 1998d. Nanow vein mining
techniques in the United Kingdom.
Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgt Special Publicatior, in press.
Hartman, H.L. 1992. Mining Engineering
Handbook. Society of Mining Engineers
(American Institute of Mining Engineers),
Littleton. 2260 p.
Hustrulid, W.A. 1982. Underground Mining
Methods Handbooft. Society of Mining
Engineers (American Institute of Mining
useful Engineers), New York. 1754 p.
Larsen, P., Cyr, R. & Quesnel, W. 1990. Application
of longhole drilling methods for narrow vein
mining. Canadian Mining and Metallurgical
Bulletin,937,35-40.
Rossouw, P.A. & Fourie, G.A. 1996. Classification
of underground mining methods.
Transactions of the Institution of Mining and
Metallurgt (Section A), 105, 162-165.
Upton, B.S. 1985. Gallery stoping at Gold
Resources Paringa operations. Aus tralas ian
Institute of Mining and Metallurg,, Special
Publication, 2185, 85-87 .
Corresponding author:
S.C. Dominy, MGRG, School of Eartrr. &
Environmental Sciences, University of
Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham
Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK.
110