Aztecs

Aztec culture flourished in the highlands

of central Mexico between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries, AD. As the last in a series of
complex urban civilizations in Mesoamerica, the Aztecs adopted many traits and institutions
from their predecessors such as the Maya and Teotihuacan. The Aztecs also devised many
innovations, particularly in the realms of economics and politics. Aztec civilization was destroyed
at its height by the invasion of Spanish conquerors under Hernando Cortés in 1519. The Aztec
peoples, who spoke the Nahuatl language, survived and intermarried with the Spaniards; today
there are still over one million speakers of Nahuatl in rural areas of central Mexico.

Human sacrifice was practiced extensively by the Aztecs, although the actual extent is difficult
to gauge because early Spanish observers systematically exaggerated the number of sacrifices
as part of their attempts to make the Aztecs seem more savage-like. The most common form of
sacrifice involved cutting open the chests of victims on altars atop tall temple-pyramids. Special
sacrifice priests removed the heart and offered it to the gods, and then the body was thrown
down the pyramid steps. Most victims were enemy soldiers captured in battle. They were
dressed in the clothing of a god, and lived their last weeks being worshipped as that god.

Aztec civilization came to an end by Hernando Cortés and his invading army between 1519 and
1521. The primary cause of the Aztec defeat was the introduction of smallpox from Spain;
millions of Aztecs died during the final months of resistance in 1521 and for the first five
decades of the Spanish Colonial period. Although the Mexica empire was quickly extinguished
by the Spaniards, life for the Aztec peasants continued with little interruption well into the
Colonial period. Many surviving Aztecs married Spaniards. Nahuatl is still a vital language in
rural central Mexico, and aspects of many traditional village customs today can be traced back
to Aztec times. Source: “Aztec Culture: An Overview,” Dr. Michael E. Smith, Arizona State
University.
 Powhatan

By 1607, the Powhatan Chiefdom numbered approximately 15,000. Chief Powhatan, whose
given name was Wahunsunacock, was the mamanatowick (paramount chief) of the Powhatan
Chiefdom. In the sixteenth century, he inherited six tribes from his mother or someone related to
her; Powhatan society was matrilineal so descent was passed through the mother's line. By
1607, the Powhatan Chiefdom had more than 30 different tribes, each of which had its own
chief (weroance/weroansqua). All had been gained through marriage alliance or coercion and
were "ruled" by and had to pay "tribute" to Powhatan.The Powhatan Indians lived in towns
located on high ground near rivers by the Chesapeake Bay (in the middle of the East Coast),
which were sources of food and transportation.

[M]any of the conflicts [occurred] between the Powhatan Indians and the English. At first, the
Powhatan Indians tried to help the newcomers, but the English overstayed their welcome and
overstepped the Powhatan's hospitality. By 1609, Chief Powhatan was tired of the constant
English demands for food and officially told his people not to help them. The relationship
deteriorated between the two peoples. It was not mended until Powhatan's favorite daughter
Pocahontas was captured by the English in 1613. While in captivity, she met John Rolfe.
According to English accounts, the two fell in love and wanted to get married. Powhatan gave
his approval and, after she was converted and renamed Rebecca, peace was solidified by the
marriage of Pocahontas and John Rolfe in April 1614. Within a year the couple had a son,
Thomas. In 1616, the Virginia Company paid to send the Rolfe family to England to gain more
English interest in Jamestown.
Navajo

Scholars still debate when the Navajo entered the Southwest. Some argue that by the fourteenth
century, the Dine, or the People, were migrating into the Four Corners region as the Anasazi departed.
Navajo lore is replete with stories of interaction between the two native groups. Most anthropologists
agree that by the end of the 1500s the Dine were spread throughout northern New Mexico, a portion of
southern Utah, and part of northern Arizona. They also concur that the Navajos migrated from northern
Canada with other Apachean peoples, who are linguistically related to Athapaskan speakers. Studies
suggest the separation between northern groups and those migrating south occurred around A.D. 1000,
and that the division between Apaches and Navajos happened about three to four hundred years ago.
However, these are only rough estimates and often vary widely.

Navajo economy from the 1600s to the first third of the 1900s depended on two primary sources--
agriculture learned from the pueblo peoples and livestock such as sheep, goats, and horses obtained
initially from the Spaniards. Because the San Juan River was one of the few reliable sources of water in
Navajo territory, during the summer months many Dine planted fields of corn, beans, and squash on its
floodplains or tributaries and pastured their sheep in the mountains. Winter camps were usually at
lower elevations where wood, water, and protection from cold winds were available. Hunting and
gathering occurred in a variety of ecological zones according to the location of the foodstuffs being
sought.
Chinook

It’s difficult to say who the earliest European was to spot our coastline from the deck of his
sailing ship. Whoever that first European was, it is possible that there had already been
significant changes our people had undergone, because of hemisphere-wide epidemics
resulting from Columbus' contact with native people on the east coast in 1492.

There is currently a debate going on about whether Sir Francis Drake's vessels made it this far
north in 1579. There is some pretty compelling evidence (Elizabethan coins found in this area,
etc.) and there are also lots of first hand accounts & "pioneer folk tales" of fifteenth century
English swords and other paraphernalia being found here locally. Whatever the earliest
provable direct contact with our people was, it is clear that if the people weren't already
impacted by the influences (diseases) that contact on the East Coast had transmitted, our
ancestors were very soon to experience the ravages of catastrophic deadly pandemics.

In an epidemic, there is a significant number of the population affected. In a pandemic, all or

nearly all of the population is affected. Beginning by at least the 1770's there were a good
number of direct contacts made between our people on the coast and the trade & exploration
ships. Smallpox was one of several diseases transmitted during these visits. Our people had no
resistance to these diseases, we have all heard this, but I don't know if any of us can really
understand the physical, social, cultural & political devastation that was the effect. It is estimated
that during each of the major pandemic episodes, from 75% to 90% of the population was killed.
In some localized areas, whole villages disappeared.