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Principles of Soil Science

Chapter 5 SOIL CONSERVATION: AN INTEGRATED

STUDY

Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage, or
other chemical soil contamination. Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are
practiced in some lesser developed areas. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion, loss of soil
nutrients and sometimes total desertification. There are some techniques that helps to improved soil conservation
includes crop rotation, cover crops, conservation tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility.

Conservation Practices

Keyline Design
• It is an enhancement of contour farming, where the total watershed properties are taken into
account in forming the contour lines.
Perimeter Runoff Control
• A special form of this perimeter or inter-row treatment is the use of a “grass way” that both
channels and dissipates runoff through surface friction, impeding surface runoff and encouraging
infiltration of the slowed surface water.
Windbreaks
• Windbreaks are sufficiently dense rows of trees at the windward exposure of an agricultural field
subject to wind erosion. Evergreen species provide year-round protection; however, as long as
foliage is present in the seasons of bare soil surfaces, the effect of deciduous trees may be adequate.
Maintenance of vegetation/Cover Crops/Crop Rotation
• Fallowing, using pasture legumes or just grass is also recommended when a sloping area is left
untilled to rejuvenate its natural fertility. The legume and grass covers serve to dissipate the energy
of raindrops thereby reducing the detachment of soil particles. It also serves as to reduce the
velocity of runoff reducing its scouring effect and entrainment of soil particles.
• Mulching, this is the practice of spreading plant residues (leaves, stalks, stovers, straw and roots) or
other organic materials on the ground between crop rows or around the base of fruit trees to cover
the surface of the soil during rainy seasons.
• Physical Barriers :
▪ Contour Plowing, Orients crop furrows following the contour lines of the farmed area.
Furrows move left and right to maintain a constant altitude, which reduces runoff. Contour
plowing was practiced by the ancient Phoenicians, and is effective for slopes between two
and ten percent. It can increase crop yields from 10-50 percent, partially as a result of
greater soil retention.

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

▪ Terracing/Terrace Farming, it is the practice of creating nearly level areas in a hillside area.
The terraces form a series of steps, each at a higher level than the previous. Terraces are
protected from erosion by the other soil barriers.
• Cover Cropping,
• Vegetative Barriers (Biological Methods). These methods include the following: 1) Alley Cropping, 2)
natural vegetative strips (NVS) and 3) Strip Cropping.
• Multiple Cropping, This involves growing of several crop species on a piece of land in spatial
arrangement. In sloping lands where farmers grow mostly row crops, corn can be grown in alternate
strips with legume intercrops and grown sequentially. This scheme reduces the impact of raindrops
and transport of detached soil particles.
Soil-conservation Farming, it involves no-till farming “green manure” and other soil-enhancing practices. They
can revive damaged soil, minimize erosion, encourage plant growth, eliminate the use of nitrogen fertilizer or
fungicide, produce above-average yields and protect crops during droughts or flooding. The result is less labor
and lower costs that increase farmer’s profits.
Salinity Management, use of humic acids may prevent excess salination, especially given excessive irrigation.
Humic acids can fix both anions and cations and eliminate them from root zones. Planting species that can
tolerate saline conditions to produce surface cover can preserve soil salinity can be reduced.
Soil Organisms, when worms excrete egesta in the form of cats, a balanced selection of minerals and plant
nutrients is made into a form accessible for root uptake. Earthworm casts are five times richer in available
nitrogen, seven times richer in available phosphotes and eleven times richer in available potash than the
surrounding upper 150 millimetres (5.9 in) of soil. By burrowing, the earthworm improves soil porosity,
creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage. Other important soil organisms
include nematodes, mycorrizha and bacteria. Each one percent increases in soil organic matter helps soil
hold 20, 000 gallons more water per acre.
Mineralization, involve adding crushed rock or chemical soil supplements. In either case the purpose is to
combat mineral depletion. A broad range of minerals can be used, including common substances such as
phosphorus and more exotic substances such as zinc and selenium.

Soil Formation
Rock Soil
Soil
Formation
The formation of the soils with special references to the processes or soil and Soil
Development
forming factors are responsible for the development of the true soil from
unconsolidated parent material.

Soils have different features because of differences or changes in these five Landscape
factors. These different effects show up as different soil horizons and soil profiles.

The study of soil formation is called SOIL GENESIS. This means interpreting the origin of soil. It is important to
understand the beginning of anything so that you have a foundation for the future. A thorough understanding of soil
formation processes is a valuable tool to use in interpreting soils for specific uses.

Five factors control the formation of soils (concepts of Hans Jenny):

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

• Parent material (texture, structure, chemical composition)

• Climate (temperature and precipitation)
• Topography (slope position, relief, slope gradient)
• Biotic (vegetation and animals) factor or Living Organisms
• Time (relative time or absolute time)

The relationship of each of these factors to each other is seen in the following sentence:

"Soil is a product of climate, living organisms, and topography acting on parent material over a period of time."

• Soil = f (function) (parent material[p], climate[c], relief/topography[r], living organisms[l], time[t])

• Soil = f (clorpt)

Five factors control the formation of soils (concepts of Hans Jenny):

1. PARENT MATERIAL
“The parent material determines the mineralogy and the nutrition status of the soil.”

Example : SiO2 (quartz) – does not contribute to the fertility status of the soil.
KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2 - (Biotite) – contributes K, Mg and Fe

General categories of parent materials:

1. Residual/Sedentary
• Rocks and minerals that are original to a location that gave rise to a soil
(via physical and chemical processes)
2. Transported
• Alluvial –transported by rivers
• Collovial - transported by gravitational action
• Eolian –wind deposits
• Lacustrine –lake deposits
• Marine -sea or ocean bottom deposits
• Terminal and lateral moraines
3. Cumulose
• Organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place.
2. CLIMATE AND LIVING ORGANISMS are considered the “ACTIVE FACTORS” of soil formation and greatly
determine the degree and rate of soil formation. Most important climatic parameters are:
• Temperature
o Temperature changes can cause enough expansion and contraction to crack hard rock.
o Temperature has a direct effect on the amount of organic matter that is produced. Organic
matter production increases as temperature increases, provided there is rainfall for good plant
growth.
• Precipitation:

Rainfall affects weathering and the amount of organic matter production and decomposition. As
rainfall increase, the possibility of erosion losses increases. When rainfall increases, organic matter
production increases provided the temperature is high enough for good plant growth.

i. Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation and soils show the distinctive characteristics of the
climate zones in which they form. The principal climatic variable influencing soil formations are

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

effective precipitation and temperature, both of which affect the rates of chemical, physical and
biological processes. The temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of
soil through their effects on the balance between plant growth and microbial decomposition.
1. Temperature
a. Warmer = Faster
b. Cooler = Slower --> Soil Development
2. Precipitation
a. Higher rainfall = greater leaching
b. Leaching Zone - determined by location of CaCO3 in the soil profile
c. Leaching Index = Pcpt. - Evapotranspiration= the amount of effective rainfall that can
cause soil leaching
ii. Living Organisms, includes plants, animals,
fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil
formation. Animals, soil meso-fauna and
micro-organisms mix soils as they form
burrows and pores, allowing moisture and
gases to move about. In the same way, plant
roots open channels in soils. Plants with deep
taproots can penetrate many meters through
the different soil layers to bring up nutrients
from deeper in the profile. Plants with fibrous
roots that spread out near the soil surface
have roots that are easily decomposed,
adding organic matter. Microorganisms,
including fungi and bacteria, affect chemical
exchanges between roots and soil and act as
a reserve of nutrients. Human activities widely
influence soil formation. Earthworms ingest
soil particles and organic residues, enhancing
the availability of plant nutrients in the
material the passes through their bodies. They
aerate and stir the soil and increase the
stability of soil aggregates, thereby assuring
ready infiltration of water. In addition, as ants
and termites build mounds, they transport soil
materials from one horizon to another.

3. Topography or relief of the location of the parent material influences the effect of the “active factors”.
Soil formation is less extensive in steep slopes where soil disturbance is extensive (erosion) and degree
downward water flow (through the soil surface) is low.

Summit will have minimum erosion and maximum soil development

Backslope will be similar to summit unless slope is > 20%.
Shoulder, will have the greatest erosion - least water infiltration-greatest runoff - minimal soil
development.
Footslope, the deposition of materials from upslope - may be near water table - may have greatest
leaching due to water from upslope and rainfall.

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

Hillslope

4. Time, vegetation and Climate act on the Parent Material and Topography over Time. The age of a soil is
determined by its development and not the actual number of years it has been developing. How long it
takes for a soil to become old depends on the intensity of the soil forming processes or intensity of the
other 4 soil forming factors.

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

When Everything Else Is Held Equal (Sequences)

Toposequence / Catenas
• When soils are developed on the same parent material and the soils only differ on the basis of
drainage due to variations in relief
Chronosequence
• A sequence of related soils that differ in certain properties primarily as a result of time as a soil-
forming process
Lithosequence
• A group of related soils that differ as a result of parent material
Climosequence
• A sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes in climatic regimes (temperature and
precipitation)
Biosequence
• A group of related soils that differ primarily due to variation in kinds and numbers of plants and soil
organisms

SOIL WATER

Water that enters a field is removed from a field by runoff, drainage, evaporation or transpiration. Runoff is
the water that flows on the surface to the edge of the field; drainage is the water that flows through the soil
downward or toward the edge of the field underground; evaporative water loss from a field is that part of the water
that evaporates into the atmosphere directly from the field’s surface; transpiration is the loss of water from the field
by its evaporation from the plant itself.

Water affects soil formation, structure, stability and erosion but is of primary concern with respect to plant
growth. Water is essential to plants for four reasons:

1. it constitutes 80% - 95% of the plant’s protoplasm.

2. It is essential for photosynthesis.
3. It is the solvent in which nutrients are carried to, into and throughout the plant.
4. It provides the turgidity by which the plant keeps itself in proper position.

WATER RETENTION FORCES

Water is retained in a soil when the adhesive force of attraction that water’s hydrogen atoms have for the
oxygen of soil particles is stronger than the cohesive forces that water’s hydrogen feels for other water oxygen
atoms. When a field is flooded, the soil pore space is completely filled by water. The field will drain under the force
of gravity until it reaches what is called field capacity, at which point the smallest pores are filled with water and the

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

largest with water and gases. The total amount of water held when field capacity is reached is a function of the
specific surface area of the soil particles. As a result, high clay and high organic soils have higher field capacities. The
total force required to pull or push water out of soil is termed suction and usually expressed in units of bars which is
just a little less than one-atmosphere pressure. Alternatively, the terms “tension” or “moisture potential” may be
used.

MOISTURE CLASSIFICATION
The forces with which water is held in soils determine its availability to plants. Forces of adhesion hold water
strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces. A plant’s root may penetrate a
very small volume of water that is adhering to soil and be initially able to draw in water that is only lightly held by
the cohesive forces. But as the droplet is drawn down, the forces of adhesion of the water for the soil particles make
reducing the volume of water increasingly difficult until the plant cannot produce sufficient suction to use the
remaining water the remaining water is considered unavailable. The amount of available water depends upon the
soil texture and humus amounts and the type of plant attempting to use the water.

WATER FLOW IN SOILS

Water moves through soil due to the force of gravity, osmosis and capillarity. At zero to one-third bar
suction, water is pushed though soil from the point of its application under the force of gravity and the pressure
gradient created by the pressure of the water; this is called saturated flow. At higher suction, water movement is
pulled by capillarity from wetter toward dryer soil. This is caused by water’s adhesion to soil solids, and is called
unsaturated flow.

Water infiltration and movement in soil is controlled by six factors:

1. Soil texture
2. Soil structure. Fine-textured soils with granular structure are most favorable to infiltration to water.
3. The amount of organic matter. Course matter is best and if on the surface helps prevent the destruction of
soil structure and the creation of crusts.
4. Depth of soil to impervious layers such as hardpans or bedrock.
5. The amount of water already in the soil.
6. Soil temperature. Warm soils take in water faster while frozen soils may not be able to absorb depending on
the type of freezing.

SATURATED FLOW

Water applied to a soil is pushed by pressure gradients from the point of its application where it is saturated
locally, to less saturated areas. Once soil is completely wetted, any more water will move downward, or
percolate, carrying with it clay, humus and nutrients, primarily cations, out of the range of plant roots. In order
of decreasing solubility, the leached nutrients are:

• Calcium
• Magnesium, sulfur, potassium; depending upon soil composition.
• Nitrogen; usually little, unless nitrate fertilizer was applied recently.
• Phosphorus; very little as its forms in soil are of low solubility.

UNSATURATED FLOW

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor
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Principles of Soil Science

At suction less than one-third bar, water moves in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is
dependent on the square

Reference:

Nyle C. Brady and Ray R. Weil, 2002. The Nature Properties and of soil, 13/e. Penson Education, Inc. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 97458.

Ian Menard, 2018. Principles of Soil Mechanics. ISBN: ISBN 978-1-64116-002-5

ACTIVITY 5: Answer the following questions. Justify your answer in 10 sentences.

1. How can you conserve the land which was damaged by too much fertilizer and chemical?

2. Explain how does the soil formed. Cite the factors that affect the formation of it.

3. What are functions of the water to the soil?

a. Is it advantage or disadvantage to have water in the soil?

b. Justify your answer. Maximum of 10 sentences.

STO. TOMAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY DAISY L. MORALA, LAgri
Feeder Road 4, Brgy. Tibal-og, Santo Tomas, DDN, 8112, Philippines Course Instructor