TRADE PROJECT

INSTITUTION: RIFT VALLEY TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

PRESENTER: SOISOI MOSES

PROJECT TITLE: METAL DETECTOR

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

. ENGINEERING (POWER OPTION)

INDEX NO:

INSTITUTE CODE:

COURSE CODE:

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR

SERIES: JULY 2023

PRESENTED TO: KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(POWER OPTION

1
Contents
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................6
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................6
Background study................................................................................................................................6
Statement of problem.........................................................................................................................8
Aim and objectives..............................................................................................................................8
Scope of the project............................................................................................................................9
Project limitations...............................................................................................................................9
Project report organizations................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................10
LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................................10
2.1 Origin of the project....................................................................................................................10
2.1 Overview......................................................................................................................................11
The First Metal Detector Appears..................................................................................................11
Improving the Original Metal Detector Design.............................................................................12
The 1950s to Present Day Metal Detectors....................................................................................13
History and development....................................................................................................................14
Modern developments.....................................................................................................................15
Further refinements........................................................................................................................16
Discriminators..................................................................................................................................17
New coil designs...............................................................................................................................18
Pulse induction.................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................21
DESIGN METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................21
3.1 Project specification....................................................................................................................21
3.2 Concept review............................................................................................................................21
3.3 Analysis of operations..................................................................................................................21
3.4 Block diagram of the project........................................................................................................21
3.5 circuit diagram.............................................................................................................................23

2
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................24
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING.............................................................................................24
4.1 Design procedures.......................................................................................................................24
4.2 Circuit diagram of the design.......................................................................................................25
4.3Design implementation steps.......................................................................................................25
4.3 Component description...............................................................................................................26
Diode Bridge.............................................................................................................................................44
Simplified operation..............................................................................................................................46
Types.....................................................................................................................................................47
4.3.4 Electromagnetic coil.........................................................................................................................54
Transducer coils.................................................................................................................................55
4.5 Component testing......................................................................................................................57
4.6 Design Steps................................................................................................................................58
4.7 Component soldering..................................................................................................................58
4.8 Circuit test...................................................................................................................................59
4.9 Packaging.....................................................................................................................................59
4.10 Final test....................................................................................................................................59
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................60
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION...............................................................................................60
5.1 Summary......................................................................................................................................60
5.2 Problem encounter......................................................................................................................60
5.3 Solutions to those problems........................................................................................................61
5.4 Recommendation........................................................................................................................61
5.5 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................62

3
 ABSTRACT
The project work titled Design and construction of a metal detector. When fully

design and implemented would be able to detect any metallic material that is

passing or coming close. This function would serve as a security check for

dangerous metallic material as an alarm. Going by the sophisticated means of

armed robbers adopt these days in the breaking into bank supermarkets offices and

highly secured area. No security system will be optimized or complete without the

installation of metal detector. This will stop or reduce to the bearest minimum the

activities of men of the underworld. The device we then build we function as a

metal detector that can scout out metal objects, such as coins, nails, keys such as

car keys you may not be able to fine, and even gold if you’re looking for it in a

beach (through this one may not have industrial strength). This metal detector can

detect certain kinds of metal- especially iron –containing metals, which are called

ferrous meat, even if under a half-inch of drywell or sand.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I give thanks to the Lord God almighty for his love, mercy,
protection he has showered in my life and for keeping me this far.
The project could not have come to completion successfully without the input of
the following people:-
My gratitude goes to my dedicated supervisor who helped me in identifying the
project and was available to guide me through and to offer his assistance whenever
I approached her. She selflessly supported and gave me professional, technical and
motivational advice. I am greatly indebted.

5
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

A metal detector or a weapon detector is a device which responds to metal or any

metallic weapon that may not be readily apparent. The simplest form of a metal

detector consists of an oscillator producing an alternating current that passes

through a coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically

conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced in the metal,

and this produces an alternating magnetic field of its own. If another coil is used to

measure the magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the change in the magnetic

field due to the metallic object can be detected.

Background study

Metal detectors or weapon detectors work by transmitting an electromagnetic field

from the search coil into the ground. Any metal objects (targets) within the

electromagnetic field will become energized and retransmit an electromagnetic

field of their own. The detector’s search coil receives the retransmitted field and

alerts the user by producing a target response. Special metal detectors are capable

of discriminating between different target types and but this design cannot be set to

ignore unwanted targets. So any metal can be detected.

6
Radio Transmission and Reception

Half of a metal detector is the common radio. Metal Detection is achieved,

basically, by the transmission and “reception” of a radio wave signal. The block

diagram on the facing page illustrates the basic components of a typical metal

detector. The battery is the power supply. The transmitter electronic oscillator at

the extreme left of the diagram generates a signal. The transmitter signal current

travels from the transmitter oscillator through a wire (search coil cable), to the

search coil’s transmitter winding (antenna), and the transmitter antenna is a few

turns of electrical wire, generally wound in a circular fashion.

Fig 1.1 Preview of the existing system

Electromagnetic Field Generation

As the current circulates in the transmitter antenna, an invisible electromagnetic

field is generated that flows out into the air (or other surrounding medium, i.e.: air,

wood, rock, earth materials, water, etc.) in all directions. If this electromagnetic

7
field were visible, it would appear to be in the shape of a gigantic, three

dimensional doughnut, with the transmitter antenna embedded in its center.

Electromagnetic field theory states that field lines cannot cross one another.

Consequently, they crowd together as they pass through the circular antenna, but

they are not crowded on the outside. It is fortunate this crowding takes place,

because the intensity (density) of the field lines is the very phenomenon that

enables metal detection in the area adjacent to the search coil to take place. In the

drawing at the bottom of the next page note the area indicated as the two

dimensional detection patterns. This is the site of maximum field crowding; it is

here that metal detection occurs as a result of two major phenomena…eddy current

generation and electromagnetic field distortion.

Statement of problem

Security is one of the vital need of every man, both in homes and offices, so

metal detectors where invented to be used in monitoring weapons and any

metal weapon found on people when entering through the entrance of the

environment such as door or gate.

Aim and objectives

The aim of this project is to design and construct a weapon or metal detector

which is used to monitor of detect metallic objects in a hiding environment.

8
 This work also shows the design and implementation of a locally made weapon

or metal detector and the various stages use in designing it.

Scope of the project

In this project a student should be able to illustrate the operation metal detector

or weapon system, how it can be used for security implementation, features and

requirement of a metal detector and also can improve the workability principals

of a security system to assure security dependent.

Project limitations

a. As a fast way to increase security intrusion protection

Project report organizations

Chapter one carries the introduction, aim and objective, scope of study, limitation

of the work, significance and the project report organization of the work. Chapter

two carries the literature review of the work along with other reviews of the

project. Chapter three carries the project design methodology and steps which lead

to the construction of the project. Chapter four testing the project design,

observation and Bill of engineering. Chapter five carries summary and conclusion.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin of the project

A metal detector or metallic weapon detector is an electronic instrument which

detects the presence of metal nearby. Metal detectors are useful for finding metal

inclusions hidden within objects, or metal objects buried underground. They often

consist of a handheld unit with a sensor probe which can be swept over the ground

or other objects. If the sensor comes near a piece of metal this is indicated by a

changing tone in earphones, or a needle moving on an indicator. Usually the device

gives some indication of distance; the closer the metal is, the higher the tone in the

earphone or the higher the needle goes. Another common type are stationary "walk

through" metal detectors used for security screening at access points in prisons,

courthouses, and airports to detect concealed metal weapons on a person's body.

The simplest form of a metal detector consists of an oscillator producing an

alternating current that passes through a coil producing an alternating magnetic

field. If a piece of electrically conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents

will be induced in the metal, and this produces a magnetic field of its own. If

another coil is used to measure the magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the

change in the magnetic field due to the metallic object can be detected.

10
The first industrial metal detectors were developed in the 1960s and were used

extensively for mineral prospecting and other industrial applications. Uses include

de-mining (the detection of land mines), the detection of weapons such as knives

and guns (especially in airport security), geophysical prospecting, archaeology and

treasure hunting. Metal detectors are also used to detect foreign bodies in food, and

in the construction industry to detect steel reinforcing bars in concrete and pipes

and wires buried in walls and floors.

2.1 Overview

The First Metal Detector Appears

Back in the mid-1800s, after the invention of electricity, many scientists, scholars,

and gold miners began experimenting with the idea of developing a machine that

could locate metal buried underground. A device like this would be incredibly

useful to the many prospectors still looking for gold after the “Gold Rush” and, as

a result, could make the first person to perfect a metal detector very, very rich.

The first metal detector mentioned in history, however, actually has nothing to do

with finding gold. Instead, it was used in an attempt to save President James

Garfield after he was shot in Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1881, at the Baltimore

and Potomac Railroad Station by Charles J. Guiteau. The President had been shot

11
in the back, but, luckily, the wound did not kill him. Unfortunately though, doctors

couldn’t locate the bullet and Garfield continued to suffer.

One of his visitors during that time, Alexander Graham Bell, built a metal detector

specifically to try to help find this bullet, but, sadly, his attempts were

unsuccessful. It turns out the metal springs in the bed President Garfield was lying

on confused the machine and rendered it essentially useless. President Garfield

finally died of infection from his wound September 19, 1881.

Improving the Original Metal Detector Design

Although the first metal detector didn’t help save the 20th President of the United

States, the machine Alexander Graham Bell made was a viable metal detector and

it went on to be the prototype for which all other metal detectors from that time

forward have been based. Initially, these machines were really big, complicated,

and ran on vacuum tubes. But, they were useful and continued to rise in popularity

as a result. Most importantly these early metal detectors were used to find and clear

landmines, and unexploded bombs across Europe after WWI and WWII.

At about the same time Gerhard Fisher, the founder of Fisher Metal Detectors,

made an important discovery in his work on navigational systems. The radio beams

he was using were being distorted every time there was an ore bearing rock in the

12
area. As he was trying to work out the kinks in his system, he reasoned that this

type of technology on a smaller scale might be useful as a metal detector. In 1925

Fisher was granted the patent on the first portable metal detector and he sold his

first Fisher machine to the public in 1931.

The 1950s to Present Day Metal Detectors

Even though Fisher was granted the first patent on a metal detector, he’s just one

of many who refined and perfected the technology currently being used in your

metal detector. Another major player in the development of today’s metal detectors

is Charles Garrett, the founder of Garrett Metal Detectors. An electrical engineer

by trade, Garrett started metal detecting as a hobby in the early 1960s. After trying

a variety of the machines on the market he couldn’t find one that was able to do all

he wanted. So he began work on his own metal detector. After much research he

was able to create a machine that eliminated oscillator drift, as well as several

unique search coils he patented all of which essentially revolutionized metal

detector design up to that point.

Other factors that have greatly influenced the development of metal detectors as

we know them today include transistors - invented in 1947 by John Bardeen,

Walter Brattain, and William Shockley - as well as discriminators, new search coil

designs, and wireless technology. All of these things and more have allowed the

13
metal detector to become the lightweight, portable, easy to use, deep seeking

machines we know today.

With the number of players involved both professional and amatuer, as well as the

rapid pace of technological advancement as a whole, the future of metal detectors

is anyone’s guess. What can be almost guaranteed though is that metal detectors

will continue to evolve and change in order to find even more treasure. Treasure

hunters just don’t quit and, as you can see by the history of the metal detector up to

this point, it’s these passionate, inventive people who’ve made metal detectors the

machines they are today; and who’ll continue to influence the future of metal

detecting.

History and development

Early metal detector, 1919, used to find unexploded bombs in France after World

War 1. Towards the end of the 19th century, many scientists and engineers used

their growing knowledge of electrical theory in an attempt to devise a machine

which would pinpoint metal. The use of such a device to find ore-bearing rocks

14
would give a huge advantage to any miner who employed it. Early machines were

crude, used a lot of battery power, and worked only to a very limited degree. In

1874, Parisian inventor Gustave Trouvé developed a hand-held device for locating

and extracting metal objects such as bullets from human patients. Inspired by

Trouvé, Alexander Graham Bell developed a similar device to attempt to locate a

bullet lodged in the chest of American President James Garfield in 1881; the metal

detector worked correctly but the attempt was unsuccessful because the metal coil

spring bed Garfield was lying on confused the detector.[1]

Modern developments

The modern development of the metal detector began in the 1920s. Gerhard Fisher

had developed a system of radio direction-finding, which was to be used for

accurate navigation. The system worked extremely well, but Fisher noticed that

there were anomalies in areas where the terrain contained ore-bearing rocks. He

reasoned that if a radio beam could be distorted by metal, then it should be possible

to design a machine which would detect metal using a search coil resonating at a

radio frequency. In 1925 he applied for, and was granted, the first patent for a

metal detector. Although Gerhard Fisher was the first person granted a patent for a

metal detector, the first to apply was Shirl Herr, a businessman from

Crawfordsville, Indiana. His application for a hand-held Hidden-Metal Detector

15
was filed in February 1924, but not patented until July 1928. Herr assisted Italian

leader Benito Mussolini in recovering items remaining from the Emperor

Caligula's galleys at the bottom of Lake Nemi, Italy, in August 1929. Herr's

invention was used by Admiral Richard Byrd's Second Antarctic Expedition in

1933, when it was used to locate objects left behind by earlier explorers. It was

effective up to a depth of eight feet. [2] However, it was one Lieutenant Józef

Stanisław Kosacki, a Polish officer attached to a unit stationed in St Andrews, Fife,

Scotland, during the early years of World War II, who refined the design into a

practical Polish mine detector.[3] They were heavy, ran on vacuum tubes, and

needed separate battery packs.

The design invented by Kosacki was used extensively during the clearance of the

German mine fields during the Second Battle of El Alamein when 500 units were

shipped to Field Marshal Montgomery to clear the minefields of the retreating

Germans, and later used during the Allied invasion of Sicily, the Allied invasion of

Italy and the Invasion of Normandy.[4] As it was a wartime research operation to

create and refine it, the knowledge that Kosacki created the first practical metal

detector was kept secret for over 50 years.

Further refinements

16
Many manufacturers of these new devices brought their own ideas to the market.

White's Electronics of Oregon began in the 1950s by building a machine called the

Oremaster Geiger Counter. Another leader in detector technology was Charles

Garrett, who pioneered the BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator) machine. With the

invention and development of the transistor in the 1950s and 1960s, metal detector

manufacturers and designers made smaller lighter machines with improved

circuitry, running on small battery packs. Companies sprang up all over the USA

and Britain to supply the growing demand.

Modern top models are fully computerized, using integrated circuit technology to

allow the user to set sensitivity, discrimination, track speed, threshold volume,

notch filters, etc., and hold these parameters in memory for future use. Compared

to just a decade ago, detectors are lighter, deeper-seeking, use less battery power,

and discriminate better.

Larger portable metal detectors are used by archaeologists and treasure hunters to

locate metallic items, such as jewelry, coins, bullets, and other various artifacts

buried shallowly underground.

Discriminators

17
The biggest technical change in detectors was the development of the induction-

balance system. This system involved two coils that were electrically balanced.

When metal was introduced to their vicinity, they would become unbalanced. What

allowed detectors to discriminate between metals was the fact that every metal has

a different phase response when exposed to alternating current. Scientists had long

known of this fact by the time detectors were developed that could selectively

detect desirable metals, while ignoring undesirable ones.

Even with discriminators, it was still a challenge to avoid undesirable metals,

because some of them have similar phase responses e.g. tinfoil and gold,

particularly in alloy form. Thus, improperly tuning out certain metals increased the

risk of passing over a valuable find. Another disadvantage of discriminators was

that they reduced the sensitivity of the machines.

New coil designs

Coil designers also tried out innovative designs. The original induction balance

coil system consisted of two identical coils placed on top of one another. Compass

Electronics produced a new design: two coils in a D shape, mounted back-to-back

to form a circle. This system was widely used in the 1970s, and both concentric

and D type (and wide scan as they became known) had their fans. Another

development was the invention of detectors which could cancel out the effect of

18
mineralization in the ground. This gave greater depth, but was a non-discriminate

mode. It worked best at lower frequencies than those used before, and frequencies

of 3 to 20 kHz were found to produce the best results. Many detectors in the 1970s

had a switch which enabled the user to switch between the discriminate mode and

the non-discriminate mode. Later developments switched electronically between

both modes. The development of the induction balance detector would ultimately

result in the motion detector, which constantly checked and balanced the

background mineralization.

Pulse induction

A pulse induction metal detector with an array of coils

19
At the same time, developers were looking at using a different technique in metal

detection called pulse induction. Unlike the beat frequency oscillator or the

induction balance machines which both used a uniform alternating current at a low

frequency, the pulse induction machine simply magnetized the ground with a

relatively powerful, momentary current through a search coil. In the absence of

metal, the field decayed at a uniform rate, and the time it took to fall to zero volts

could be accurately measured. However, if metal was present when the machine

fired, a small eddy current would be induced in the metal, and the time for sensed

current decay would be increased. These time differences were minute, but the

improvement in electronics made it possible to measure them accurately and

identify the presence of metal at a reasonable distance. These new machines had

one major advantage: they were mostly impervious to the effects of mineralization,

and rings and other jewelry could now be located even under highly mineralized

black sand. The addition of computer control and digital signal processing have

further improved pulse induction sensors.

20
 CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project specification

This is the design and construction of a metallic object detector which can detect

changes in frequency of the oscillatory unit when any metallic object or any

material carrying metallic object comes close to it.

This also blinks LED to show increase in frequency and closeness of metal to the

devices.

3.2 Concept review

The design and construction of the project didn't just come, many designs of a

weapon detecting devices has already existed long ago.

3.3 Analysis of operations

When the devices is powered using a 9volts battery it powers the led on showing

that the system is now on, when the and metallic component comes close to it will

automatically blinks an led show the closes of metal on the device.

21
3.4 Block diagram of the project

POWER
SUPPLY

3.4.1 Functions of each block

a. The LC Circuit comprises the twin coil use to sense the metal in its wire loop

b. the Proximity sensor is use to detect voltage level when any metallic weapon

comes close to it.

c. Led and Buzzer are the two output signal that indicates to the user of a metal

being detected

d. Power supply supplies voltage to the entire circuit network

22
3.5 circuit diagram

23
 CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING

4.1 Design procedures

4.1.1 Information gathering

The knowledge of how to design a weapon detector system did not just came from

anywhere even due a lot of information came through inspirations of different

ways (bio devices: Magxim Electronics journal on Electronics & psychological

effects 3 Edition 2012 “for things to be down there is a source of information via

knowledge which is not only on teachings but also with metal physical

inspiration”). Different sources where visited in other to get the clear view of how

to design a metal detector (weapon detector), this ways include internet sites where

a lot of information of different designs can be archived. Come to school premises

where the knowledge is being passed from teachers to students. Others include pea

groups and book reading etc.

4.1.2 Project resource centers

This includes:

a. internet resource centers

24
 b. experimental aids and observation

c. Teachers and lectures

d. And digital electronics by J.K Mehta

4.1.2 Choice of Materials

The materials I used were from the information I got from the internet and I

have to develop the work through the source I found online that is treating

the same case.

The circuit diagram used is the diagram which was design as a prototype but

also works to revive some information about the circuit analysis of the

devices which I later entered more design like the alarm unit and the led

blinking to give a better operation of the device.

4.2 Circuit diagram of the design

4.2.1 Circuit diagram analysis

When the device is power, the power supply unit supplies voltage and current to

the entire circuit which initialized every component in the circuit to it working

state, then the proximity sensor unit controls the alarm and led indicator when

metal is detected.

4.3Design implementation steps

25
In this design, we are to design and construct weapon detector system which when

installed in a door can detect metal of metallic weapon and also when placed on

top or close to a metal.

Here, we are to show the various steps took while trying to archive a working

system (prototype system) of a metal weapon system.

4.2.1 Component listing

a. Resistors(1k,10k,4k7,5k6)

b. Transistor (c1815, Mosfet irf3205)

c. Rectifier diode (1n4007)

d. Buzzer (12v)

e. 40turns 0.5mm air coil

4.2.2Component analysis and descriptions

Here, the whole components is discussed. The choice of component was obtained

from the circuit diagram analysis which visually illustrates the various component

connection between each other, from there the components used was named and

given values form the parameters and so from there we obtained our choice of

components. This is feather analysis in the circuit diagram analysis.

4.3 Component description

4.3.1 Diode Rectifier

26
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction

with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern

circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.

Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below.

The term “diode” is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The

term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.

Fig 4.1 Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of

electron current flow.

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent

current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure

below)

Fig 4.2 Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward

biased. (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.

27
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through

the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is

“backward” and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A

diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and

“open” when reverse-biased.

Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's “arrowhead” points against the

direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by

engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics,

showing current as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source

to the negative (-). This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols

possessing “arrowheads:” the arrow points in the permitted direction of

conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow.

Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check

valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in Figure

below.

28
Fig 4.3 Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b)

Current flow prohibited.

Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow

if the pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the

analogy shown, greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure

is of the opposite “polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will

close and hold the gate so that no flow occurs.

Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure-” operated (voltage-operated)

devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the

polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let's take a closer look at the

simple battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage

drops across the various components in Figure below.

29
Fig 4.4 Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse

biased.

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it,

leaving most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery's

polarity is reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the

battery's voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-

actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias

mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode

drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7

volts versus tens of millivolts).

This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the

depletion region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied

voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion

region exists around the region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow.

30
(Figure below (a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge

carriers, and acts as an insulator:

Fig 4.5 Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical

part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the

anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode

bar, non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note

that the cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the

symbol.

If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region

expands, further resisting any current through it. (Figure below)

31
Fig 4.6 Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the

depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to

current through it. In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though,

the depletion region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a

certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in

Figure below.

Fig 4.7Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region

thickness.
32
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For

germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical

constituency of the P-N junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal

forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and germanium diodes have such

different forward voltages. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant

for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that

of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most simplified circuit analysis,

the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered constant at the

nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.

<="" a="">

Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact

current through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the

temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known

as the diode equation:

33
The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the

action of temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At

room temperature, this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a

“nonideality” coefficient of 1, we may simplify the diode equation and re-write it

as such:

34
You need not be familiar with the “diode equation” to analyze simple diode

circuits. Just understand that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode

does change with the amount of current going through it, but that this change is

fairly small over a wide range of currents. This is why many textbooks simply say

the voltage drop across a conducting, semiconductor diode remains constant at 0.7

volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium. However, some circuits intentionally

make use of the P-N junction's inherent exponential current/voltage relationship

and thus can only be understood in the context of this equation. Also, since

temperature is a factor in the diode equation, a forward-biased P-N junction may

also be used as a temperature-sensing device, and thus can only be understood if

one has a conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship.

A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded

depletion region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go

through a reverse-biased diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for

most purposes. The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited,

as it is for any insulator. If the applied reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the

diode will experience a condition known as breakdown (Figure below), which is

usually destructive. A diode's maximum reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the

Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be obtained from the manufacturer. Like

forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with temperature, except that PIV

35
increases with increased temperature and decreases as the diode becomes cooler --

exactly opposite that of forward voltage.

Fig 4.7 Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward biases for Si, and reverse

breakdown.

Typically, the PIV rating of a generic “rectifier” diode is at least 50 volts at room

temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available

for modest prices.

Types of diode

There are many different types of diodes that are available for use in electronics

design. Different semiconductor diode types can be used to perform different

functions as a result of the properties of these different diode types. Semiconductor

diodes can be used for many applications. The basic application is obviously to

rectify waveforms.

36
 Backward diode:   This type of diode is sometimes also called the back diode.

Although not widely used, it is a form of PN junction diode that is very similar to

the tunnel diode in its operation. It finds a few specialist applications where its

particular properties can be used.

 BARITT diode:   This form of diode gains its name from the words Barrier

Injection Transit Time diode. It is used in microwave applications and bears many

similarities to the more widely used IMPATT diode.

 Gunn Diode:   Although not a diode in the form of a PN junction, this type of

diode is a semiconductor device that has two terminals. It is generally used for

generating microwave signals.

 Laser diode:   This type of diode is not the same as the ordinary light emitting

diode because it produces coherent light. Laser diodes are widely used in many

applications from DVD and CD drives to laser light pointers for presentations.

Although laser diodes are much cheaper than other forms of laser generator, they

are considerably more expensive than LEDs. They also have a limited life.

 Light emitting diodes:   The light emitting diode or LED is one of the most

popular types of diode. When forward biased with current flowing through the

junction, light is produced. The diodes use component semiconductors, and can

produce a variety of colors, although the original color was red. There are also very

37
 many new LED developments that are changing the way displays can be used and

manufactured. High output LEDs and OLEDs are two examples.

 Photodiode:   The photo-diode is used for detecting light. It is found that when

light strikes a PN junction it can create electrons and holes. Typically photo-diodes

are operated under reverse bias conditions where even small amounts of current

flow resulting from the light can be easily detected. Photo-diodes can also be used

to generate electricity. For some applications, PIN diodes work very well as photo

detectors.

 PIN diode:   This type of diode is typified by its construction. It has the standard P

type and N-type areas, but between them there is an area of intrinsic semiconductor

which has no doping. The area of the intrinsic semiconductor has the effect of

increasing the area of the depletion region which can be useful for switching

applications as well as for use in photodiodes, etc.

 PN Junction:   The standard PN junction may be thought of as the normal or

standard type of diode in use today. These diodes can come as small signal types

for use in radio frequency, or other low current applications which may be termed

as signal diodes. Other types may be intended for high current and high voltage

applications and are normally termed rectifier diodes.

 Schottky diodes:   This type of diode has a lower forward voltage drop than

ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. At low currents the drop may be somewhere

38
 between 0.15 and 0.4 volts as opposed to 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. To achieve

this performance they are constructed in a different way to normal diodes having a

metal to semiconductor contact. They are widely used as clamping diodes, in RF

applications, and also for rectifier applications.

 Step recovery diode:   A form of microwave diode used for generating and shaping

pulses at very high frequencies. These diodes rely on a very fast turn off

characteristic of the diode for their operation.

 Tunnel diode:   Although not widely used today, the tunnel diode was used for

microwave applications where its performance exceeded that of other devices of

the day.

 Varactor diode or varicap diode:   This type of diode is used in many radio

frequency (RF) applications. The diode has a reverse bias placed upon it and this

varies the width of the depletion layer according to the voltage placed across the

diode. In this configuration the varactor or varicap diode acts like a capacitor with

the depletion region being the insulating dielectric and the capacitor plates formed

by the extent of the conduction regions. The capacitance can be varied by changing

the bias on the diode as this will vary the width of the depletion region which will

accordingly change the capacitance.

 Zener diode:   The Zener diode is a very useful type of diode as it provides a stable

reference voltage. As a result it is used in vast quantities. It is run under reverse

39
bias conditions and it is found that when a certain voltage is reached it breaks

down. If the current is limited through a resistor, it enables a stable voltage to be

produced. This type of diode is therefore widely used to provide a reference

voltage in power supplies. Two types of reverse breakdown are apparent in these

diodes: Zener breakdown and Impact Ionization. However the name Zener diode is

used for the reference diodes regardless of the form of breakdown that is

employed.

Semiconductor diodes are widely used throughout all areas of the electronics

industry from electronics design through to production and repair. The

semiconductor diode is very versatile, and there are very many variants and

different types of diode that enable all the variety of different applications to be

met.

Diode as a rectifier

Rectifier circuits may be single-phase or multi-phase (three being the most

common number of phases). Most low power rectifiers for domestic equipment are

single-phase, but three-phase rectification is very important for industrial

applications and for the transmission of energy as DC (HVDC).

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Half-wave rectification

In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative

half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one

half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave

rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-

phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-

wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more

filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

Fig 4.8 Half-wave rectifier

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input

voltage is:

Where: Vdc, Vav - the DC or average output voltage,

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Vpeak, the peak value of the phase input voltages,

Vrms, the root-mean-square value of output voltage.

Full-wave rectification

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant

polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both

polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a

higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four

diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer

without center tap), are needed.[3] Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with

common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as

single components.

4.9 Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-

back (cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity

required) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the

42
transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier,

but the power rating is unchanged.

Fig 4.10: Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.

Fig 4.11: Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.

The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an ideal single-phase

full-wave rectifier are:

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Very common double-diode rectifier vacuum tubes contained a single common

cathode and two anodes inside a single envelope, achieving full-wave rectification

with positive output. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this

configuration.

Diode Bridge

Fig 4.12 Detail of a diode bridge, rated at 1000 Volts x 4 Amperes, a handmade

diode bridge. The wide silver band on the diodes indicates the cathode side of the

diode.

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit

configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.

When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating

current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge

rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC

44
input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire

input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.

4.3.2 Transistors

Fig 4.13transistor images

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least

three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to

one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of

terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling

(input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are

packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and

is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by

45
American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the

transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and

cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on

the list of IEEE milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded

the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement.

Simplified operation

Fig 4.14 a simple circuit diagrams to show the labels of a n–p–n bipolar

transistor. (C1815)

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal

applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another

pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output

signal, a voltage or current that is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it

can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on

46
or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current

is determined by other circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are

used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and

emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and

the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and

emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate,

source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source

and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge

will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the

base. Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like a

semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the

base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the

transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

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Types

PNP P-channel

NPN N-channel

BJT JFET

BJT and JFET symbols

P-channel

N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

JFET and IGFET symbols

Fig 4.15 Transistors are categorized by

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 Semiconductor material (date first used): the metalloids germanium (1947) and

silicon (1954)— in amorphous, polycrystalline and mono-crystalline form; the

compounds gallium arsenide (1966) and silicon carbide (1997), the alloy silicon-

germanium (1989), the allotrope of carbon graphene (research ongoing since

2004), etc.—see Semiconductor material

 Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), insulated-gate bipolar transistor, "other

types"

 Electrical polarity (positive and negative): n–p–n, p–n–p (BJTs); n-channel, p-

channel (FETs)

 Maximum power rating: low, medium, high

 Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio (RF), microwave

frequency (the maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term

, an abbreviation for transition frequency—the frequency of transition is the

frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain)

 Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair

 Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball

grid array, power modules—see Packaging

 Amplification factor hfe, βF (transistor beta)[33] or gm (trans conductance).

Thus, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–

n, low-power, high-frequency switch.

49
4.3.3 Resistors

Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow of electric

current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the component drives the current

through it and this energy appears as heat in the component.

Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega .

1 is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in k and M .

1 k = 1000     1 M = 1000000 .

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as high as 10

M .

Resistors connected in Series

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 Fig 4.16 Resistor connected in series

When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to the

individual resistances added together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are

Combined resistance in series:   R = R1 + R2

This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...

Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any of the

individual resistances.
connected in series their combined resistance, R, is given by:

R1 + R2

Resistors connected in Parallel

Fig 4.17 Resistors connected in parallel

When resistors are connected in parallel their

combined resistance is less than any of the individual resistances. There is a special

equation for the combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2:

51
 For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be

used. This adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the

reciprocal of the combined resistance, R:

1/R=1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 …

The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!

Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of the

individual resistances.

How to read Resistor Color Codes

Table 4.1 Resistor color code

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The mnemonic

Bad Boys Ravish Only Young Girls but Violet Gives Willingly

Black is also easy to remember as zero because of the nothingness common to

both.

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Fig4.18 Resistor color code representation

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold (5%) and sometimes silver

(10%). Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the number

associated with that color; in this case Blue is 6. Now 'read' the next color, here it

is red so write down a '2' next to the six (you should have '62' so far.) Now read the

third or 'multiplier' band and write down that number of zeros.

In this example it is two so we get '6200' or '6,200'. If the 'multiplier' band is Black

(for zero) don't write any zeros down. If the 'multiplier' band is Gold move the

decimal point one to the left. If the 'multiplier' band is Silver move the decimal

point two places to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the tolerance

band it is a quality band.

Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' this is rated assuming full

wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better failure rates, resistors are

typically specified to have twice the needed wattage dissipation that the circuit

53
produces) 1% resistors have three bands to read digits to the left of the multiplier.

They have a different temperature coefficient in order to provide the 1% tolerance.

At 1% most error is in the temperature coefficient - i.e. 20ppm.

4.3.4 Electromagnetic coil

"Winding" redirects here. For other uses, see winding (disambiguation).

The magnetic field lines (green) of a current-carrying loop of wire pass through the

center of the loop, concentrating the field there

An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a

coil, spiral or helix.[1][2] Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in

applications where electric currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such

as inductors, electromagnets, transformers, and sensor coils. Either an electric

current is passed through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or

54
conversely an external time-varying magnetic field through the interior of the coil

generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor.

A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the

conductor due to Ampere's law.[3] The advantage of using the coil shape is that it

increases the strength of magnetic field produced by a given current. The magnetic

fields generated by the separate turns of wire all pass through the center of the coil

and add (superpose) to produce a strong field there.[3] The more turns of wire, the

stronger the field produced. Conversely, a changing external magnetic flux induces

a voltage in a conductor such as a wire, due to Faraday's law of induction.[3][4] The

induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil, because the field

lines intersect the circuit multiple times.[3]

The direction of the magnetic field produced by a coil can be determined by the

right hand grip rule. If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the

magnetic core of a coil in the direction of conventional current through the wire,

the thumb will point in the direction the magnetic field lines pass through the coil.

The end of a magnetic core from which the field lines emerge is defined to be the

North Pole.

55
Transducer coils

The sensor coil of a metal detector.

These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals,

and vice versa. A few types:

 Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external time-varying

magnetic fields

 Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or iron object

passes near it

 Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic field to

write data to a magnetic storage medium, such as magnetic tape, or a

hard disk. Conversely it is also used to read the data in the form of

changing magnetic fields in the medium.

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  Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by inducing

eddy currents in it, a process called induction heating.

 Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to convert radio

waves to electric currents.

 Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring device

 Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the output audio

signal in an electric guitar or electric bass.

 Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer

 Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record player that uses

a coil to translate vibration of a needle to an audio signal in playing

vinyl phonograph records.

4.5 Component testing

Before the design and implementation phase, the system built has to be tested for

Durability, Efficiency, and Effectiveness and also ascertain if there is need to

modify this design. The system was first assembled using a breadboard. All

components were properly inserted into the breadboard from whence some tests

were carried out at various stages.

Similar components like resistors were packed together. Other components

includes capacitor, preset switches, transformer, diodes (rectifier) LED, transistor,

voltage regulator etc.

57
Reference was made to resistor color code data sheet to ascertain the expected

values of resistors used. Each resistor was tested and the value read and recorded.

Also for transistor test the DMM was switched to the diode range with the symbol

The collector, base and emitter junctions were tested in the following order. The

collector, emitter and base pins were gotten from the data analysis on power

transistor.

To ensure proper functioning of components’ expected data, the components were

tested using a digital multimeter (DMM). Resistors were tested to ensure that they

were within the tolerance value. Faulty resistors were discarded. The LEDs were

tested to ensure that they were all working properly.

4.6 Design Steps

This are the various steps we took on the design of this project

4.4.1 Component placing and wiring

Here, the whole components were place into the Vero board according to its

position in the circuit diagram, the legs were bend to avoid living its space and to

avoid it from failing off.

4.7 Component soldering

58
The components were solder using a soft thick lead oxide and the component

connections was done with a tiny flexible wire we got from a networking cable to

join one component to the other according to the circuit diagram.

4.8 Circuit test

As a prototype design, we have to copy an existing system which makes use of a

twin coil metal detector.

4.9 Packaging

After the packaging some errors was discovered due to wrong packaging which

affected the reading of the data by the coil module but was corrected by packing

the panels to different location inside the adoptable box.

4.10 Final test

The final test was undergone for proper function and design usage.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

This section of this project report forms the concluding part of the write up and

takes a look at some of the problems encountered during the progressive job on the

system and also brings in suggestions for further improvement and/or enhancement

for the system design.

The design and development of this project has really been challenging, as I have

been faced with choices far beyond what I expected. But in the long run the result

paid off.

After the complete design of the system, the deviation between the expected result

and the actual result was very close. The performance and efficiency was beyond

expectation and from every ramification, the design of the project was a success.

5.2 Problem encounter

During the course of the design of this system, there were series of problems which

came in the way of achieving the design goals of this project, most of them where

over come via share troubleshooting, in some cases some parts require redesigning

and the software debugging also created a bit of a problem.

60
One major setback of this project is the availability of components required to

build the hardware of the system. In most cases I had to look through electrical

catalogs to obtain replacements of some of the components which are not available

in the market.

After developing the software for the microcontroller, it was very difficult to find a

firm/individual to help program the chip (burning the embedded software on to the

chip). This posed serious problem as it brought about delay in the design time and

it was also costly, this also affected the overall cost of the system.

The final packaging of the design was also another trouble, as this actually caused

problems on the circuit board. Such problems include partial contact within the

circuit board, between components and also with the wiring. This was actually one

of the most challenging aspects of the circuit implementation phase. Due to this

fact, there was a lot of soldering and de-soldering to ensure that the circuit was

well implemented.

5.3 Solutions to those problems

It will be more appreciated if the system is designed to a bypass button security

system in cooperated system so to help reduce stress if the system malfunction

5.4 Recommendation

a. Avoid water spillage onto of the design.

61
 b. Supply the necessary voltage to the system by plugin its power dc battery

of 12dc.

c. Ensure proper placement before running the design.

5.5 Conclusion

Going through the planning, flow process, design and debugging the system had

really been a tough one; but on the whole it has been a chance to show case a little

bit of craftsmanship.

Reference

http://www.metaldetector.com/learn/metal-detector-history/history-of-the-metal-detector#sthash.5m9ir5Jn.dpuf

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