Writing your PS Assignment at Master’s level.

Included within this document are extracts from past student assignments across the key areas of
focus.
Below are e.gs for:
Introduction, essay outline, case study summary, integration of theories of learning pertinent to the
area of focus, reference to appendices and use of these to support analysis and conclusion.

Introduction
Learning is complex and dynamic with no one right or wrong pedagogy. This is without having to
factor in the additional barriers to learning faced by those with Special Educational Needs and
Disabilities (SEND). Currently in England there are 1,228,785 pupils with SEND and 2.8% of the
pupil population have an Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) (DfE, 2016). Catering for the
needs of these pupils alongside other children in the class is a subject that has sparked much debate. In
order to understand how children learn we need to have explored general theoretical frameworks of
learning. In this essay, I will critically discuss theories of learning in the context of current debates
surrounding issues with teaching children with SEND. I will relate my findings to a child with
Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and discuss the difficulties he faces in a mainstream environment.

Theories of how children learn are myriad and complex. They are a contested area of research, largely
due to their practical implications for pedagogy and the education system at large. It is important for
teachers to have a theoretical understanding of the ways children learn and to apply this knowledge to
their practice. This need has been recognised in the Teachers Standards, which require that teachers,
“demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how pupils learn” (DfE, 2013). In order to, “promote
good progress and outcomes by pupils” it is essential that teachers have an understanding of the
process of learning (DfE, 2013). This process is far from straightforward, however, as numerous
factors influence each individual child’s learning, such as their home life and their ability to access the
curriculum.

In her pioneering work on the phenomenon of ‘laddishness’ in secondary schools and its
effect on the academic under-achievement of boys, Carolyn Jackson identifies a connection
between self-worth theory and theories of masculinities in the construction of ‘laddish’
behaviour (Jackson, 2002). I am interested in the interplay of these concepts at primary
school level and how they create barriers to learning and achievement even in young boys by

1
adversely affecting mindset and motivation. Beginning with a contextualisation of boys’
under-achievement, I will then discuss the theories of self-worth protection and hegemonic
masculinities in more depth, considering their significance in a primary school setting. To
help illustrate this discussion, I will focus my discourse on a specific boy from my Year One
BSE1 class and reference wider theories of learning, other relevant research and my
experience of professional practice. I will conclude by considering how the increasing
prevalence and prominence of high-stakes assessment in primary schools, has contributed to
the ‘problem’ of boys’ underachievement.

Essay Outline
This essay will consider a number of theories of learning and relate them to observations made in the
classroom. The focus of my discussion will be the learning of children who have English as an
Additional Language (EAL). I will define EAL and note its importance in the current educational
landscape, before exploring how children with EAL learn. To do this I will draw upon two theories of
learning: constructivism and social constructivism. Language acquisition will be examined with
reference to the theorists Stephen Krashen and Jim Cummins. This theoretical discussion will be
supplemented by references to my own school experience of working with, and observing, an EAL
learner (‘Child A’). In so doing I will enumerate some of the barriers to learning these pupils can face
and discuss strategies to overcome them.

2
Case study summary
For the purpose of this paper, I will refer to my focus child as Eli. Eli is a boy in year 2 who
has been diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and is on the higher end of the
spectrum. ASD is a common neuro developmental disorder (Baron-Cohen, 2005) and has
been categorised into three areas of impairment; social interaction, social communication and
restricted and repetitive behaviours (ibid). Eli has been identified as having SEND, therefore,
has an Education Health Care (EHC) plan (see appendix 1). He requires 1:1 support at all
times to support him with engaging in his learning, expressing himself in a socially
appropriate way and developing his social and interaction skills as well as expert
interventions such as occupational therapy and speech and language therapy.

Eli finds numerous aspects of the daily school life quite difficult. He does, on some
occasions, pinch other children or pull his trousers down as a way of engaging with them, he
runs around rather than following the rules for the class activity, twirls around on the floor
during carpet time or assemblies, finds transitioning and change in routines quite difficult to
process, thus, ask repeatedly when he will be doing something, finds it difficult to
concentrate on adult directed tasks and is extremely impulsive and bites, pinches or scratches
his 1:1 adult. For these reasons, Eli attends ‘crystal class’ for most of the day during school
hours. This is a separate classroom situated within the mainstream school specifically for
those children who will benefit from other activities as opposed to the conventional learning
in the classroom. These activities include painting, cooking, drawing, play therapy. It is for
this reason that I chose to base my paper on inclusion and SEN within mainstream schooling.

The school I worked at for my Block School Experience One (BSE1) is a two form entry
primary school which I will refer to as School X. There is a specialist resource base for pupils
with ASD and in total there are 18 children EHCPs. School X is an Inclusion Quality Mark
Centre of Excellence and a new building is due to be completed in 2017 which will provide
15 more places for children with ASD. The Ofsted report refers to the school as ‘highly
inclusive’ (appendix 1) and the SEND policy outlines the schools procedures and is based on
the current SEND Code of Practice (COP) (DfE, 2014). James (pseudonym) is a 7-year-old
boy in Year 3. He has a diagnosis of ASD and consequently has an EHCP. He is below
expected level for a Year 3 child and his EHCP states that he needs 1:1 support to access to

3
the curriculum. In line with the COP (2014) his EHCP plan outlines his main barriers to
learning defined under the four ‘broad areas of need’, these include; difficulty understanding
work and difficulty following instruction. His attention skills are generally good when
supported by an adult, but when working independently James struggles to focus on a task.

Child A’s native language is Chinese. He moved to London speaking no English eight months ago
and is now in Year 1. Enrolling in March in the Reception class of this one-form entry primary
school, his first few months were challenging. He did not speak at school for the first eight weeks,
seemingly going through a ‘silent period’ (Northcote, 2014; DfES, 2006). While this is quite common
for EAL learners, his parents were concerned by this perceived lack of communication. Since he
began to talk, however, his progress has been steady. In this essay his first language will be termed
‘L1’ and his second language, English, ‘L2’.

Please also note use of Child A (main case study child) and Child B, Child C for additional
children referred to within the assignment.

Integration of theories of learning

From a teaching perspective, behaviourism is synonymous with the ‘skill and drill’ method
(Wray 2010:44) and can be related to the learning of spellings and times table. I managed to
teach Child A to recite the 8 times table in one half-hour session through simple repetition. It
is debatable as to ‘whether such teaching actually connects with learner’s existing
understanding’ (Pollard 2014:36). Basic question (stimulus) and answer (response)
techniques ignore complex internal learning processes, giving the correct answer does not
necessarily mean deeper understanding has been established (Pritchard 2014:6). Although
Child A knew the sequence, he was not able to transfer this knowledge to solve related maths
problems, which suggests to me that this understanding is superficial. Behaviourist
approaches can be useful but must be used appropriately.

This approach was used in the School X as James was awarded a sticker each time he focused
well throughout a lesson. According to behaviourist theories, the learner is passive,
extrinsically motivated by external stimuli (Pollard, 2014). It is the responsibility of the
teacher to lead learning and ‘transmit the response appropriate to a certain stimulus’ (Wray
2010:43). Behaviourism has been influential in work with children who experience emotional
4
and behavioural difficulties (common in children with ASD), achieving significant success
through reinforcement of appropriate actions (Pollard 2014). This was evident in James’
behaviour for learning. Through repetitive conditioning, James learned that sitting correctly
on the carpet lead to a sticker.

A valuable theory to consider in relation to EAL learners is Constructivism. Constructivist theory has
proved one of the most influential theories of cognitive development of the last century….

Piaget’s research saw such ‘child-centred’ teaching approaches adopted in primary classrooms from
the 1960s (Pollard, 2014). Stimulating classroom environments, which provide opportunities for
challenging, practical experiences and play, reflect the constructivist idea that action is primary for
learning (Pollard et al, 2008; Gibbons, 2002). Establishing a safe and stimulating classroom
environment forms part of the Teachers Standards, which can in part be seen as a reflection of the
influence of constructivist thought on primary education (DfE, 2013)

The constructivist model has been further criticised as inadequate for EAL learners (Gibbons, 2002).
The lack of explicit language teaching in this child-centred pedagogy arguably places children who
have EAL at a disadvantage (Gibbons, 2002), as it is more difficult to acquire language when it is not
transmitted to the learner in a systematic way. I would argue that a constructivist mode of
individualist learning, while valuable for its contribution to play and discovery, is insufficient for
EAL learners.

It is also important to remember that gender is only one factor among many that can affect
children’s achievement. Indeed, “other factors or a combination of factors, such as ethnicity
and social class, have a greater bearing on educational achievement than gender considered
on its own” (DCSF, 2009). Although these intersections, particularly social class, are
significant, my focus will remain on the role of gender. Likewise, I will not be narrowing my
focus to specific subjects or skills as I am interested instead in the wider issue of motivation
for learning.

Social constructivism, developed by Lev Vygotsky, offers something of a

compromise; allowing teachers to retain control and influence whilst still requiring the child

to be active participants in their learning. While he shared Piaget’s belief in active learning

5
and play, Vygotsky saw learning as a social process, emphasising the importance of culture

and language (Smidt, in Cremin and Arthur, 2014, p57). In his model, learning is a

collaborative process in which “learners [are] integrated into a knowledge community”

(Wray, in Cremin and Arthur, 2014, p77). Teachers act as more experienced others, providing

structure and support to allow children to access the ‘zone of proximal development’, the

potential area of knowledge and ability just beyond their current capabilities. This idea was

furthered by Jerome Bruner’s concept of ‘scaffolding’ in which, through ‘sustained shared

thinking’, “the educator supports the child in taking small, measured steps” (Smidt, in Cremin

and Arthur, 2014, p58). While behaviourists see motivation as being extrinsic, deriving from

possible rewards and sanctions, constructivists see it as intrinsic, based instead on the

learners’ innate need and desire to learn; their internal drive. Social constructivism, however,

offers a more complex model: internal drive is still imperative for children to be active

learners, but the external influences of the social rewards and sanctions that accompany

learning are also substantial (Wray, in Cremin and Arthur, 2014, p78). This conflict of

motivation is at the heart of self-worth achievement motivation and hegemonic masculinities,

as well as Jackson’s discussion of ‘laddishness’; notably in the way that both internal and

external influences can actually be demotivating.

In his Ecological Systems theory, Bronfenbrenner (1979) hypothesized that the child

is ‘at the center of social contexts of systems’ (Doherty and Hughes 2014:43) and

environmental factors should be considered in order to understand how an individual learns.

Taking this into consideration, we must consider James’ wider environmental context as this

has an effect on how he learns (Millard and Wheatcroft 2014).

6
The constructivist approach has implications for the role of the teacher. As Gibbons (2002:6) notes, in
Piagetian theory the teacher provides opportunities for the construction of knowledge by, “stage
managing appropriate learning experiences”. I observed this kind of active learning during my school
placement. A role play area related to the term’s topic of Medieval Castles was set up. Medieval
clothes were provided, giving the children the chance to dress up and play the ‘role’ of various
characters. Props were available with the children choosing whichever they felt were appropriate for
their chosen part. A large model of a castle, with its features prominently labelled with vocabulary the
children were to learn during the topic, and optional, enjoyable worksheets proved popular.

My observations saw Child A engaging with learning in this area in an unprecedented way. He
exhibited none of the anxious and erratic behaviour often seen at his table. He became fascinated by
parts of the castle, using his growing phonics knowledge to sound out the labelled vocabulary of his
own volition. He was able to understand the roles of the characters and act them out without recourse
to formal language. The relative freedom offered by the area to explore his own learning, without
judgement of his speech, was of immense value.

Eli constantly informs the adults in the classroom that he wants to go Crystal class. This is an
obvious sign that he enjoys the activities he participates in during his time there. Vygotsky
(1978) places play at the centre of development because through play, children discover and
apply new skills (Boucher, 1999). Crystal class enhances the abilities of play of the children
with ASD in the school which Boucher (1999) suggests provides them a sense of mastery,
and intensifies their motivation and pleasure to play.

7
Use of Appendices
Interventions were beneficial for James but he was regularly removed from class midway
through a lesson and it seems fair to say that his academic work suffered as a result (appendix
4). Being constantly removed can also increase reinforce ‘catastrophic 'normal' and
'abnormal' binaries’ (Liasidou 2012:25) and inadvertently make the child feel isolated and
become 'a painful kind of exclusion' (Warnock 2005:39). Unfortunately I saw evidence of
this ‘othering’ in my class as the other children noticed James was often taken out of class
(appendix 5). ‘Catch-up’ interventions can promote a compensatory pedagogy that is
concerned with accommodating for a child’s deficiencies and ‘normalising’ differences
(Head 2011), akin to the medical model of disability. Head (2011) refers to this approach as
‘a pedagogy of ignorance, dependency and despair’ (Head, 2011:63).

James’ personalised timetable. His different interventions are written in pen over the top of
the class timetable. In total James was out of class for 7 hours 30 minutes every week.

8
In the last weeks of my placement Child A appeared to ‘test’ his understanding of language structure
and syntax when speaking. Previously reluctant to talk in front of the whole class, he began to
volunteer answers to questions. He would often use incorrect grammar or a muddled word order and
would occasionally omit linking words. The teacher or I modelled his intended phrase back to him
correctly. Generally he would then repeat the phrase out loud seemingly to embed his own
understanding (see Appendix 6). This process appeared important for his language acquisition. I
would therefore argue that encouraging and assessing output of EAL learners is as crucial for teachers
as providing interesting and context-rich input.

Appendix 6
Transcript - Child A volunteered an answer to a question during a science lesson on the season of
autumn.

Transcript of a conservation between the mother of Child A and the class teacher (CT).

Mother: It’s so hard, he has to learn all English.

CT: He is doing very well, really. Because he can speak a language already, he will learn the new
language quickly, you’ll see.
Mother: But it is so different, I am still learning how to write English.

CT: Yes, writing the alphabet is very different - forming the letters - but there are not so many
characters to learn in English! Speaking will be easier for him for learn as well.
Mother: But the sounds are not the same in Chinese.
CT: That’s true, yes. But we will help him. He has already learnt so much.

9
Conclusion
This essay has highlighted the crucial role that teachers play in successfully providing for children
with EAL. We have noted excellent examples of teacher engagement with the needs of individual
learners. These include incorporating play into the school day, fostering a sense of inclusion and
encouraging the use of L1 in the classroom. The importance of scaffolding learning for EAL children,
using mixed ability groupings and utilising support staff effectively has also been observed. I will
seek to include these techniques in my future practice.

We have seen how the school of my placement had frameworks in place to support teachers, EAL
learners and their parents, inviting them into the school community and offering support in the form
of parental groups and a school therapist. Such provision helped to facilitate learning, with good
progress made in a short time. Many schools do not currently offer such support. I would argue that,
with the number of EAL learners growing, this is an increasingly vital need. Increased funding to
provide this support in schools, as well as additional training for teachers, would help ensure that all
children fulfil their learning potential.

The shift from the medical to social model of disability has led to improvements of
institutions for the benefit of all children. Recent changes in policy have placed increasing
pressures on schools to be inclusive but have also highlighted the importance of
understanding individual needs. Studying theories of learning aid us in understanding how to
support education and all should be considered, as ‘no one theory is all-encompassing’
(Doherty, J.& Hughes, M. 2014). As discussed, there is little evidence to support the need for
a specific SEND pedagogy however knowledge of SEND and specialist teachers has been
linked to good outcomes (Ofsted, 2006). In my future teaching I will use this knowledge to
employ quality-first teaching and also strive to understand the individual needs of each child
to ensure maximum progress for all. Well managed intervention support can therefore be
used to compliment classroom learning.

10