SCIENCE

PROJECT
by:
James Laurence De Dios
Grade 9-Diamond

 The History of Atom

Scientist: Democritus
(Greek Philosopher)
Timeline: 400 BC

Democritus was a Greek philosopher who was the

first person to use the term atom (atomos: meaning
indivisible).

He thought that if you take a piece of matter and divide

it and continue to divide it you will eventually come to a
point where you could not divide it any more. This
fundamental or basic unit was what Democritus called
an atom.

He called this the theory of the universe:

All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of matter too small to be
seen.
There is an empty space between atoms.
Atoms are completely solid
Atoms have no internal structure
Each atom (of a different substance) is different in size, weight and
shape.
History of Atom

Knowledge of the self is the mother of all knowledge. So it is incumbent on

me to know my self, to know it completely, to know its minutiae, its
characteristics, its subtleties, and its very atoms.

-Khalil Gibran
Scientist: John Dalton
Timeline: 1800's

John Dalton was the first to adapt

Democritus’ theory into the first modern
atomic model.

JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC MODEL:

1. All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms

2. Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable
3. Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms
4. When elements react, it is their atoms that have
combined to form new compounds
 Scientist: J.J Thomson
Timeline: 1890's

J.J Thomson was a physicist who is credited for

discovering the electron. He used his research on
cathode ray tube technology in this discovery.

CATHODE RAY TUBE

1. Nearly Empty tube (Air has been sucked out)

2. An electric charge is passed through the tube. Travels from
cathode to anode
3. The charge is invisible, so to see where it traveled a fluorescent
screen is placed at back of tube. Where the beam hits, a dot will
appear on the screen. You could also use a fluorescent gas and the
whole tube will light up.
4. This beam will always travel straight if not interfered with.
5. The deflection coils each have a specific charge. One is positive
and the other is negative.
6. Thomson showed (as in the diagram above) that the charge would
deflect away from the negative coil. He then stated that this charge
was thus a negative charge.
J.J Thomson was an excellent physicist and thus did not stop
when he had found this negative charge. Through a series of
clever experiments he was able to predict the mass of this
charge.

SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION AT ITS BEST

He then found out that this charge was 1000 times lighter
that a hydrogen atom. He made a bold statement saying that
this negative charge must be inside an atom. This negative
charge (he called corpuscles) later became known as the
electron.
THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL
Using what he had discovered, Thomson predicted what an
atom should look like. These are the key points to Thomson’s
Atomic Model:

1. Because of its design this model is known as the plum pudding

model
2. Each atom is a sphere filled with positively charged ‘fluid’. This
resembles the sticky jam part of a pudding.
3. Corpuscles (later called electrons), are the negatively charged
particles suspended in this ‘fluid’. This resembles the plums in
the pudding.
4. He did not predict the movement of these electrons
 Scientist: Ernest Rutherford

Timeline: 1910's
Ernest Rutherford was not convinced about the
model of the atom proposed by Thomson. He thus
set up his now famous Gold Foil Experiment.

1. He fired alpha particles (positively charged) at

a gold foil.
2. He measured the deflection as the particles
came out the other side.
3. Most of the particles did not deflect at all.
Every now and then a particle would deflect all
the way back.
4. He said that there must be a positive centre of
the foil. He called this centre the nucleus.

RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL

(AKA THE PLANETARY MODEL)

1. The nucleus of the atom is a dense mass of positively charged

particles.
2. The electrons orbit the nucleus
3. A problem raised was: Why are the negatively charged particles not
attracted by the positively charged nucleus
4. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a mini solar system and that
the electrons orbited the nucleus in a wide orbit. That is why it is known
as the planetary model.
 Scientist: Niels Bohr
Timeline: 1910's
Niels Bohr agreed with the planetary model of the
atom, but also knew that it had a few flaws. Using his
knowledge of energy and quantum physics he was able
to perfect Rutherford’s model. He was able to answer
why the electrons did not collapse into the nucleus

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

(AKA THE RUTHERFORD-BOHR MODEL)

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy.
2. The lower the energy of the electron, the lower the orbit.
3. This means that as electrons fill up the orbitals, they will fill the lower
energy level first.
4. If that energy level is fill (or at capacity), a new energy level will begin.
5. Radiation is when an electron moves from one level to another. Problems
with this theory: Electrons do not travel on a specific orbit or path.
 Scientific: Erwin Schrödinger
Timeline: 1920's

Erwin Schrödinger was a revolutionary

physicist who used Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle to come up with the
atomic model that we still use today.

SCHRÖDINGER’S ATOMIC MODEL

(AKA THE CLOUD MODEL)
1. An electron does not travel in an exact orbit
2. We can predict where it will probably be
3. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought
to be.
4. The type of probability orbit is dependent on the energy level
described by Bohr
 SUMMARY OF ATOM
The smallest part of an element is called an atom
Each atom (of an element) is different in structure from
other atoms (of other elements)
An atom can be divided in smaller subatomic particles:
Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
The nucleus is the centre of an atom. It contains protons
and neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus
As we go up the periodic table, an electron and proton is
added.
Electrons occupy a certain energy level (of a certain size)
Once the energy level is full, a new level begins
Within each of these levels are specials types of orbitals.
These depend on the energy level
Each orbital can contain two electrons
 Electrons
and
Energy Levels

All that glisters may not be gold, but at least

it contains free electrons.

— John Desmond Bernal

What Are Energy Levels?

Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from the
nucleus of an atom where electrons may be found. Electrons are tiny,
negatively charged particles in an atom that move around the positive
nucleus at the center. Energy levels are a little like the steps of a
staircase.

Electrons in energy level I (also called energy level K) have the least
amount of energy. As you go farther from the nucleus, electrons at
higher levels have more energy, and their energy increases by a fixed,
discrete amount. Electrons can jump from a lower to the next higher
energy level if they absorb this amount of energy. Conversely, if
electrons jump from a higher to a lower energy level, they give off
energy, often in the form of light. This explains the fireworks pictured
above. When the fireworks explode, electrons gain energy and jump to
higher energy levels. When they jump back to their original energy
levels, they release the energy as light. Different atoms have different
arrangements of electrons, so they give off light of different colors.
Energy Levels and Orbitals

The smallest atoms are hydrogen atoms. They have just one
electron. That one electron is in the first energy level. Bigger
atoms have more electrons. Electrons are always added to the
lowest energy level first until it has the maximum number of
electrons possible. Then electrons are added to the next higher
energy level until that level is full, and so on.

For example, energy level I can hold a maximum of two electrons,

and energy level II can hold a maximum of eight electrons. The
maximum number depends on the number of orbitals at a given
energy level. An orbital is a volume of space within an atom where
an electron is most likely to be found.

Regardless of its shape, each orbital can hold a maximum of two

electrons. Energy level I has just one orbital, so two electrons will fill this
energy level. Energy level II has four orbitals, so it takes eight electrons to
fill this energy level.
The Outermost Level
Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom have a special significance. These
electrons are called valence electrons, and they determine many of the properties of
an atom. An atom is most stable if its outermost energy level contains as many
electrons as it can hold. For example, helium has two electrons, both in the first
energy level. This energy level can hold only two electrons, so helium’s only energy
level is full. This makes helium a very stable element. In other words, its atoms are
unlikely to react with other atoms.

Fluorine has seven of eight possible electrons in its outermost energy level, which is
energy level II. It would be more stable if it had one more electron because this
would fill its outermost energy level. Lithium, on the other hand, has just one of eight
possible electrons in its outermost energy level (also energy level II). It would be
more stable if it had one less electron because it would have a full outer energy level
(now energy level I).

Both fluorine and lithium are highly reactive elements because of their number
of valence electrons. Fluorine will readily gain one electron and lithium will just
as readily give up one electron to become more stable. In fact, lithium and
fluorine will react together as shown in the Figure below. When the two elements
react, lithium transfers its one “extra” electron to fluorin
Summary

Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from
the nucleus of an atom where electrons may be found. As you go
farther from the nucleus, electrons at higher energy levels have
more energy.

Electrons are always added to the lowest energy level first until it
has the maximum number of electrons possible, and then electrons
are added to the next higher energy level until that level is full, and
so on. The maximum number of electrons at a given energy level
depends on its number of orbitals. There are at most two electrons
per orbital.

Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are called

valence electrons. They determine many of the properties of an
atom, including how reactive it is.
 Chemical
Bonding

"Even the formal justification of the electron-pair

bond in the simplest cases...requires a formidable
array of symbols and equations."

-Linus Pauling.
What is Chemical Bonding?

Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical

bond between two or more atoms, molecules, or ions to
give rise to a chemical compound. These chemical
bonds are what keep the atoms together in the resulting
compound.

The type of chemical bonds formed vary in strength and properties.

There are 4 primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by
atoms or molecules to yield compounds. These types of chemical bonds
include:
Ionic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Polar Bonds
 Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involves a
transfer of electrons from one atom or molecule to another. Here,
an atom loses an electron which is in turn gained by another atom.
When such an electron transfer takes place, one of the atoms
develops a negative charge and is now called the anion.

The other atom develops a positive charge and is called the cation.
The ionic bond gains strength from the difference in charge
between the two atoms, i.e. the greater the charge disparity
between the cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic bond.
Covalent Bonding

A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons

between atoms. Compounds that contain carbon
(also called organic compounds) commonly exhibit
this type of chemical bonding. The pair of electrons
which are shared by the two atoms now extend
around the nuclei of atoms, leading to the creation of
a molecule.
Polar Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds can be either be Polar or Non-Polar in nature. In

Polar Covalent chemical bonding, electrons are shared unequally
since the more electronegative atom pulls the electron pair closer
to itself and away from the less electronegative atom. Water is an
example of such a polar molecule.

A difference in charge arises in different areas of the atom due to

the uneven spacing of the electrons between the atoms. One end
of the molecule tends to be partially positively charged and the
other end tends to be partially negatively charged.

 Hydrogen Bonding

Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a

weaker form of chemical bonding. It is a type of polar covalent
bonding between oxygen and hydrogen wherein the hydrogen
develops a partial positive charge. This implies that the electrons
are pulled closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom.

This creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted towards

the negative charges of any neighboring atom. This type of
chemical bonding is called a hydrogen bond and is responsible
for many of the properties exhibited by water.
What is chemical bonding and why
is it important?

Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of

chemistry that explains other concepts such as molecules
and reactions. Without it, scientists wouldn't be able to
explain why atoms are attracted to each other or how
products are formed after a chemical reaction has taken
place.

Why is chemical bonding important

everyday?

Chemical bonding plays a very vital role in our examples.

There are many examples to explain this point: - The oxygen
we inhale is formed as a result of the chemical bonds. When
two atoms of the oxygen combine together through the
bonds, it results in the formation of the molecular oxygen.