S Airport design

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H • Airport Design : Airport Capacity On Land And Airside
M • Airfield Configuration Including Runway, Apron And Taxiways,
T Terminal Layouts
• IT Systems In Terminal Design
• Impact Of Changing Industry Requirements on Airport Design
• Case Studies In Airport Design
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 Airport Design : Airport Capacity On
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Land And Airside
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 Airports vary in size, with smaller or less-developed airports often having only a
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single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
T  Larger airports for international flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m
(6,600 ft) or longer. Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways,
rather than asphalt or concrete.
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 Defining capacity

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 Capacity, in general, is
O defined as the practical
H maximum number of
M operations that a system can
serve within a given period
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  There are two commonly used definitions to describe airport
S capacity:
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 Throughput capacity
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 Practical capacity
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  Throughput Capacity
S  Defined as the ultimate rate at which aircraft operations may be handled without
O regard to any small delays that might occur as a result of imperfections in
operations or small random events.
H  Throughput capacity does not take into account the small probability that aircraft
M will take longer than necessary to take off, or a runway close for a very short
T period of time
 Throughput capacity is the theoretical definition of capacity and is the basis for
airport capacity planning.
  Practical Capacity.
S  Number of operations that may be accommodated over time with no more than a
O nominal amount of delay, usually expressed in terms of maximum acceptable
average delay
H  Such minimal delays may be a result of two aircraft scheduled to operate at the
M same time, despite the fact that only one runway is available for use, or because an
T aircraft must wait a short time to allow ground vehicles to cross.
  FAA defines two measures of practical capacity to evaluate the efficiency of airport
S operations.
O  Practical hourly capacity (PHOCAP) and Practical annual capacity
(PANCAP) are defined by the FAA as the number of operations that may be
H handled at an airport that results in not more than 4 minutes average delay during
M the busiest, known as the peak, 2-hour operating period, hourly and annually,
T respectively.
 Factors affecting capacity
 Capacity varies considerably based on a number of considerations:
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 Utilization of Runways
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 Type of aircraft operating, known as the fleet mix
H  Percentage of takeoff and landing ops being performed
M  Country regulations which prescribe the use of runways
 Ambient climatic conditions
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  Physical characteristics and layout of runways, turnovers, &
S aprons are basic determinants of the ability to accommodate
various types of aircraft & the rate at which they can be
O handled. Also important is the type of equipment, such as
H instrument landing systems.
M  CONFIGURATION OF ITS RUNWAY SYSTEM

T  Configurations of airport runways may be placed in the following categories:

• Single runway
• Parallel runways
• Open-V runways
• Intersecting runways
 Single Runway
 Single runway can accommodate up to 99 operations per hour for smaller aircraft
S & approx. 60 operations per hour for larger commercial service aircraft during fair
weather conditions (VMC)
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 Under poor weather conditions (IMC), the capacity of a single runway
H configuration is reduced to between 42 to 53 operations per hour, depending
M primarily on the size of the aircraft using navigational aids that may be available
T  In general, airport capacity is usually greatest in VMC, whereas IMC, in the form
of fog, low cloud ceilings, or heavy precipitation, tends to result in reduced
capacity.
 Parallel Runway

 Parallel runway configuration (two or more runways) increases runway capacity

S depending primarily on the distances between the parallel runways.
O  For two parallel runways separated by at least 4,300 ft, total runway capacity is
double that of the capacity of a single runway However, if the lateral separation is
H less than 4,300 ft, then under IFR ops, reduces capacity.
M  If the parallel runways are separated by less than 2,500 ft, the airfield must
T operate as a single runway configuration under IFR.
 Open-V Runway
 Open-V runway configuration describes two runways that are not
aligned in parallel with each other; yet do not intersect each other at
any point on the airfield.
S  Runway oriented into the prevailing winds is known as the primary
O runway, other runway is identified as the crosswind runway.
 During low wind conditions, both runways may be used
H simultaneously. When aircraft operate outwardly from the V, the
M runway configuration is said to be used for diverging ops
 Takeoffs are allowed simultaneously during divergent ops.
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 Open-V Runway
• When the runway configuration is used in a converging manner, landings tend to be
handled simultaneously
• Runway capacity is greater when ops are performed under divergent operations.
• Under divergent operations total runway capacity can reach nearly 200
operations per hour for smaller aircraft & 100 operations per hour for
S commercial service aircraft.
• Under convergent operations, capacity rarely exceeds 100 operations per
O hour for smaller aircraft and frequently less than 85 operations per hour for
commercial service Aircraft.
H • When winds are sufficiently strong or when IFR operations are in effect, only one
runway in the open-V configuration is typically used, reducing capacity to that of a
M single runway configuration.

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 Intersecting Runway Configuration
• This configuration describes two runways that are not
aligned in parallel with each other and intersect each other at
some point on the Airfield.
• Runway oriented into the prevailing winds is known as the
S primary runway.
O • Intersecting runway is identified as the crosswind runway
• During low wind conditions and operating under VFR, both
H runways may be used simultaneously in a highly coordinated
M manner

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 Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
• Under certain specific conditions, aircraft may land simultaneously and
independently on intersecting runways
S • These operations, known as LAHSO (land and hold short operations),
may be conducted with approval from the FAA and only when there is
O sufficient runway length on each runway before the intersection of the two
H runways for each aircraft to land and stop before reaching the intersection.

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 •Another significant factor in determining Airport capacity is the
consideration of the volume of demand and characteristics of the
S Aircraft.
• For any given level of demand, the varying types of Aircraft with
O respect to speed, size, flight characteristics, and even pilot proficiency
H will in part determine the rate at which they can perform operations
• The distribution of arrivals and departures (grouped or uniformly
M spaced, also determine Airports operating capacity.
T • Tendency of traffic to peak in volume at certain times is a function of
the flight schedules of commercial air carriers using an Airport.

• For example, at Airport that serve as hubs for major air carriers,
high volumes of Airport all arrive in banks and all depart a short time
later, after passengers have transferred from one flight to another to
complete their travel
 • FAA categorizes Aircraft types by their maximum takeoff weight
(MTOW)
S • Aircraft with maximum takeoff weight less than 41,000 lbs are
considered category A/B or small aircraft, aircraft with maximum takeoff
O weight between 41,000 and 255,000 lbs are considered category C or
large aircraft, and aircraft with maximum takeoff weight greater than
H 255,000 lbs are considered category D or heavy Aircraft
M • For the purposes of estimating runway capacity, an Airport’s fleet mix
is defined by the percentage of small, large, and heavy Aircraft that
T perform takeoff and/or landing ops over a given period of time on the
runway.
Aircraft Fleet Mix Categories
Aircraft Fleet Mix Category Maximum Takeoff Weight

A, B (Small) <41,000 lb

C (Large) 41,000–255,000 lb

D (Heavy) >255,000 lb
 • Capacity of a runway handling only Takeoffs (departure capacity).
• Amount of time the Aircraft requires to start from initial position at the
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beginning of the runway to the time it leaves the runway environment
O allowing another Aircraft to depart is called an Aircraft’s runway
H occupancy time (ROT)

M • Shorter an aircraft’s ROT, the greater the number of aircraft that can use
the runway over time, and hence the greater the capacity of the runway.
T • In general, smaller and lighter aircraft (fleet mix cat. A & B) tend to
require smaller ROT for T/O than larger or heavier A/C (fleet mix cat. C &
D)
• ROTs for departing aircraft ranges from approx. 30 secs. for small A/C to
approx. 60 secs. for larger and heavier aircraft.
 •Capacity of a runway handling only landings (arrival capacity) is a function of ROT of arriving aircraft.
• In addition, velocity at which the aircraft travels while on approach to the runway (A/C’s approach
S speed), & FAA regulations requiring that aircraft remain at least a given distance behind one another
O while on approach to landing (longitudinal separation), are determining factors in arrival capacity.

H • In general, smaller and lighter aircraft tend to travel at lower approach speeds than larger and
heavier aircraft. However, larger aircraft create the need for greater longitudinal separations. As a
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result of these characteristics, estimating arrival capacity becomes important analysis of the various
T types of aircraft, known as the fleet mix.
 • When two aircraft are on approach to a runways, the longitudinal separation
required between the two aircraft is determined by the weight categories of the
aircraft in front (lead aircraft, & lag aircraft)
S • As long as both aircraft are airborne on approach, these longitudinal
separations must be maintained
O • Only exception to this rule is when operating under VFR, small aircraft are
required to maintain sufficient separation so that the lag aircraft does not touch
H down on the runway before the lead aircraft has landed and cleared the runway.
M • Primary reason for these standards is to prevent lag aircraft from experiencing
severe wake turbulence as a result of very rough airflow emanating from the lead
T aircraft’s wings

Required Longitudinal Separations for Arriving Aircraft to a Single Runway When

Performing under IFR (Distances in Nautical Miles)
Lead/Lag Small Large Heavy
Small 3 NM 3 NM 3 NM
Large 4 NM 3 NM 3 NM
Heavy 6 NM 5 NM 4 NM
  When two aircraft are on approach to a runway, the longitudinal separation
S required between the two aircraft is determined by the weight categories of the
aircraft in front, known as the lead aircraft, and the aircraft following, known as
O the ………………. aircraft.
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  The capacity of a runway handling both landings and takeoffs is called the runway's
S ………….. operating capacity.
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  The airport terminal is the facility that provides the connection between the
S aircraft and the vehicles providing ground transport.
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 Runway:
 A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-
S off of aircraft.
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S  Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of
O aircrafts takes place.
H  It is in leveled position without any obstructions on it.
M  Special markings are made on the runway to differ it from the normal
T roadways.
 Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped the aircrafts
for safe landing.
S  The number of runways for an airport is depends upon the traffic.
O  If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to
H provide another runway.
 The width of runway is dependent of maximum size of aircrafts utilizing it.
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 The length of runway is decided from different considerations like elevation
T of land, temperature, take off height, gradients etc.
 They maybe made of bitumen or concrete.
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TYPES OF
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RUNWAYS
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  Single runway is the most common form.
S  It is enough for light traffic airports or for occasional usages.
O  This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.
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 S
TWO
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RUNWAY
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  Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions by
S considering cross winds or wind conditions in that particular area.
O  The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T shape or X shape.
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 Parallel runway

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  Abilene Regional Airport
 Abu Dhabi International Airport
S  Adams Field/Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport
O  Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
 Ashgabat
H  Atlanta/Hartsfield-Jackson International
M  Auckland Airport
T  Austin-Bergstrom International Airport
 Bangkok/Suvarnabhumi International Airport
 Barcelona/El Prat Airport
 Billings Logan International Airport
 Boise
  Boston/Logan International
 Boulder City Municipal Airport
S  Brownsville/South Padre Island International Airport
O  Calgary International Airport
 Capital Region International Airport
H  Cavern City Air Terminal
M  Charlotte/Douglas
 Chicago/O'Hare International Airport
T  Cincinnati Municipal Airport
 Colorado Springs
 Columbus Air Force Base
 Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup
 Da Nang International Airport
 Subject to the environmental, political, and economic constraints at
S each site, airport planners must address a fundamental issue which are
A. How much land should be acquired or reserved for a new airport?
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B. What should be the overall geometric layout of runways, taxiways, and aprons?
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C. What size of aircraft should the airfield be designed for?
M D. All these should be put into consideration.
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 THREE TYPES OF RUNWAY

NON INSTRUMENT RUNWAY.

S  A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual approach procedures.
O NON-PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAY.
H  An instrument runway served by visual aids and an on visual aid providing at least
directional guidance adequate for straight-in approach.
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PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAY.
T  An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for
operations:
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CV78ERauPc
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 Every runway is identified by a .................. digit number
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O A. Two
B. Four
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C. One
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D. Five
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 Runway markings
 There are three types of markings for runways: visual (also known as
S "basic"), non precision instrument, and precision instrument.
O  These marking types reflect the types of navigational aids associated with
assisting aircraft on approach to land on the runway.
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 A visual runway is intended solely for aircraft operations using visual
M approach procedures.
T  A non precision instrument runway is one having an instrument
approach procedure using air navigation facilities with only horizontal
guidance.
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  A precision instrument runway is one having an instrument approach
S procedure using a precision instrument landing system (e.g., ILS) or
O Precision Approach Radar (PAR) that provide both horizontal and vertical
guidance to the runway.
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lzx5j1C984M – Runway Marking
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lMxSdFkYzo – Runway Lighting
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  Runway Designator (A): This is the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the
S runway to the nearest 10 degrees. As variation changes, periodically the runway
numbers change.
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 Runway Centerline Marking (B): Provides alignment guidance during take-
H off and landings. Those were the markings that our primary instructors stressed
M that we were supposed to straddle with the landing gear—not to one side or the
T other. In CAT II and CAT III and some CAT I approaches, lights are also imbedded
along the runway centerline to provide improved visual reference.
  Runway Threshold (C): Helps to identify the beginning of the runway that is
S available for landing. At night, the threshold is identified by green lights as seen
from the approach side.
O  Runway Aiming Point (D): The “big white rectangles” used as the aiming point
H for landing. Technically, that’s where a glide slope (ILS or LPV) would run into the
ground.
M  Runway Touchdown Zone (E): Identifies the touchdown zone for landing.
T Sometimes lights are also imbedded in this zone.
 Runway Edge Markings (F): Identifies the edge of the runway and the “start of
grass.”
 Taxi-line Markings (G): Some runways also have yellow taxi lines for guidance
to exit the runway.
  Airport runways are numbered according
to compass bearings.
S  This means runway numbers are based on
O the compass with 360 representing north,
90 representing east, 180 representing
H south, and 270 representing west.
M Runways are numbered between 01
and 36.
T  For runway headings, the last number is
dropped and each individual number is
pronounced. For instance, a compass
heading of 310 degrees would read 31 and
be pronounced as three one.
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H701DOaQvDM
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 Many factors affect the runway length required for the landing or
S takeoff of any aircraft on any given day. The most important among
those are the following:
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 Weight of the aircraft on takeoff or on landing and the settings of its lift- or drag-
H increasing devices (e.g., wing flaps)
M  Stage length (or nonstop distance) to be flown
T  Weather, particularly temperature and surface wind
 Airport elevation
 Runway characteristics, such as runway gradient and surface condition (wet or dry
pavement, surface texture)
  Runway End Safety Area (RESA)
S  An area symmetrical about the extended runway centerline and adjacent to the
O end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane
under shooting or overrunning the runway.
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 Declared distances
 Declared distances are specific lengths of runway that are
S published for aircraft operations, specifically when taking off or
O landing, and are defined for pilots to understand their allowable
H take-off and landing weights and speeds.
M  The concept of declared distances is central to understanding
T the usability of a runway for any specific aircraft movement.
 It also helps explain how the design runway lengths at an airport
are determined in the first place.
 Clearway
 A defined rectangular area on the ground or water selected or prepared as a
S suitable area over which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a
specified height.
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 a. Location of Clearways-at the end of the TORA.
H  b. Length of Clearways-shall not exceed half the length of the TORA.
M  c. Width of Clearways-shall extend laterally to a distance of atleast 75 m on each
T side of the extended centreline of the runway.
 The Clearway (CWY) is an area clear of obstacles beyond the paved runway, it is
unprepared and could even be over the water.
 This is so because the Aircraft is meant to overfly the Clearway.
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UkMAOtmJcbw

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 For any given runway, four declared distances are defined (ICAO, 2006;
FAA 2012):
 TORA, the takeoff run available: The length of runway declared available and
S suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off
O  TODA, the takeoff distance available: The length of the takeoff run available
(TORA) plus the length of the clearway (see as follows), if one is
H provided
M  ASDA, the accelerate–stop distance available: The length of the TORA plus the
T length of the stopway (see as follows), if one is provided
 LDA, the landing distance available: The length of the runway declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing
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 Taxiway
 A defined path on a land aerodrome
S established for the taxiing of aircraft and
intended to provide a link between one
O part of the aerodrome and another.
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 Types of Taxiways

S  Apron Taxiway
O  Aircraft Stand Taxi-lane

H  Rapid Exit Taxiway

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 Apron
 A defined area, on a land
S aerodrome, intended to
accommodate aircraft for purposes
O of loading or unloading passengers,
H mail or cargo, fuelling or parking.
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 Terminal
 An airport terminal is a building at an
S airport where passengers transfer
between ground transportation and the
O facilities that allow them to board and
H disembark from an aircraft.
M  Within the terminal, passengers
T purchase tickets, transfer their
luggage, and go through security.
  The design of an airport terminal depends on the nature of air traffic to be
S accommodated at the airport.
 The design concept chosen is a function of a number of factors, including:
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1. the size and nature of traffic demand
H 2. the number of participating airlines
M 3. the traffic split between international and domestic
T 4. the number of scheduled and charter flights
5. the available physical site
6. the principal access modes
7. the type of financing
  There are two different design concepts that describe the way
S passenger terminal facilities are physically arranged for passenger
processing.
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1: "Centralized“ means that all the elements in the passenger
H processing sequence are located as much as possible in one area.
M 2: "Decentralized," on the other hand, means that passenger
T processing facilities are arranged in smaller modular units and repeated in
one or more buildings.
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  Linear
S  The linear design is a centralized terminal design with a simple open apron or
linear arrangement. This type of arrangement has a small length of the airside
O interface in relation to the size of the terminal, it is frequently used for low-
H volume airports.
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 Pier
T  The pier design is a centralized processing design. It is probably the most common
system found at airports.
 With central passenger processing, the facilities may not have sufficient perimeter
to accommodate the corresponding number of aircraft gate positions.
  Satellite

S  The satellite design is a modification of the basic pier concept.

 Aircraft are parked around a rotunda at the end rather than along the side of the finger.
O The satellite design represents a move toward decentralization in the pier design and
H easily permits the assembly of passengers as well as ticketing activities near the aircraft
gates.
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T  Unit Terminal
 The unit terminal design uses two or more separate, self-contained buildings. Each houses
a single airline or group of airlines, and each has direct access to ground transportation.
 New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport is an example of the unit terminal
design.
  Transporter
S  The transporter design uses a mobile conveyance system such as a bus or mobile
O lounge to take passengers to and from the aircraft.
 This design can reduce walking distance significantly.
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 However, it can also increase passenger processing time and create traffic problems
M on the aprons.
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 Automated people mover
 Automated people mover (APM)
S systems consist of automated,
electric-powered, driverless vehicles
O operated singly or in multi-car trains
H on steel or concrete guideways.
M  APM systems provide a high quality
T of service and are capable of moving
between 2,000 to 25,000 passengers
per hour per direction.
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  APM
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 Impact Of Changing Industry Requirements
on Airport Design
 The trends in the airport/airline industry are substantially changing the context,
S objectives, and criteria of excellence for airport planning and design.
 Airport professionals now need more than narrow technical skills.
O  They must be responsive to a range of economic and management issues.
H  Planners and designers are no longer designing primarily for
M administrators according to standard norms.
 They must respond to a broad range of business interests, such as the airlines, the
T airport operators, and concessionaires of all sorts.
 Through these immediate clients, they will have to cater to their customers.
 This means that airport planners and designers will have to think in terms of
profitability, revenues, and service to users.
  The objectives consequently focus more on performance than on
S monuments. Airports will build more low-cost, efficient terminals.
O  Value for money, good service, and functionality will become dominant
considerations.
H  Architectural significance and grand visions will be important but may
M become secondary considerations.
T  In general, airport planning and design will become more democratic,
more in tune with everyday needs, and less directive or technocratic.
 The criteria of excellence will correspondingly focus on
S  cost-effectiveness
 value for money
O  efficiency both technical and economic
H  and profitability.
M  Airport planners and designers will have to factor these considerations into the purely
technical analyses of traditional airport engineering.
T  This requires skills not usually part of engineering or architectural training.
 It calls for an understanding of economic and financial analyses.
 It extends beyond construction to operations and the management of risk. In short, it
calls for a systems perspective.
  A systems approach will be the basis for proper future planning and design of
S airports.
O  Airport professionals will recognize that they will have to consider technical,
economic, and social issues jointly as part of a larger system evolving over time to
H meet varying loads and demands.
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 Case Studies In Airport Design

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