Today’s topics

(1) Trigonometric identities, inverse trigonometric func-

tions

Lec 3—Chapter 3 (2) Periodic function, even function, odd function

Yijun Lou (3) Limits of functions

January 28, 2016
(4) Determine the existence of limit

(5) Find limits

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Example: Prove that

sin 3x sin 6x + sin x sin 2x
= tan 5x.
Example: Express cos4 θ in terms of cos 2θ and sin 3x cos 6x + sin x cos 2x
cos 4θ in the first power. Try by yourself with the following (Conversion formulas)
identities from last lecture notes. The solution will be
uploaded to the blackboard system.
⎧ cos(A+B)−cos(A−B)
⎪
⎪ sin A sin B =
⎪
⎪ −2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ cos A − cos B = −2 sin( A+B A−B
2 ) sin( 2 )
⎪
⎪ sin(A+B)+sin(A−B)
⎪
⎪
⎪
sin A cos B = 2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
sin A − sin B = 2 cos( A+B A−B
2 ) sin( 2 )

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 Periodic functions

Example: Use the compound angle formulas to

Definition: A function f : R → R is said to be a
find cos 7π 7π π π
12 . Note that 12 = 3 + 4 .
periodic function if there is a number T > 0 such
that f (x + T ) = f (x), for every x ∈ R. The real
number T is said to be a period of f .

• The simplest periodic functions are the

sine and the cosine functions. In fact,
sin(x + 2π) = sin x, cos(x + 2π) = cos x.

• Six trigonometric functions are all periodic.

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Even/Odd functions Examples of even/Odd functions

Definition: A function f : R → R is said to be an

• Examples of even functions: f (x) = cos x,
even function if f (−x) = f (x) for every x ∈ R. f
f (x) = |x| and f (x) = x2k where k is any
is said to be an odd function if f (−x) = −f (x).
nonnegative integer.
• the graph of an even function y = f (x) is
• Examples of odd functions: f (x) = sin x,
symmetrical with respect to the y-axis.
f (x) = tan x and f (x) = x2k+1 where k is
• an odd function is symmetrical with respect any nonnegative integer.
to the origin.

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The Inverse Trigonometric Functions arcsin–inverse sine function
• Trigonometric functions are not one-to-one  
π π
in general, and therefore have no inverses − , : the principal branch of the sine func-
2 2
• Restrict their domains to certain subsets of tion. Its inverse function f −1 is usually denoted
by θ = sin−1 y or θ = arcsin y.
R such that they become one-to-one


• Consider the function y = f (θ) = sin θ. f is not 1
Example: Find sin−1 − .
2
one-to-one on Dom(f ) = R
  Solution: In the principle branch of the sine function
π π 
• Restrict Dom(f ) = − , , then f becomes an π π
2 2 − , , we can find that sin(− π6 ) = − 12 . Therefore,
2
2 
one-to-one function with Range(f ) = [−1, 1].
sin −1 − 12 = − π6
• f has an inverse function
 
π π
f −1 : [−1, 1] → − ,
2 2
Two notations: sin−1 and arcsin
called inverse sine function, denoted as sin−1 or
arcsin.

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arccos–inverse cosine function

• Restrict the domain of the cosine function 
1
g(θ) = cos(θ) to the principal branch [0, π]. Example: Solve sin cos−1 ( ) .
2
• Now Dom(g) = [0, π], Range(g) = [−1, 1].
It is one-to-one function Solution: cos−1 ( 12 ) = π
3 and therefore
 √
• Therefore, the inverse exists −1 1 π 3
sin cos ( ) = sin( ) = .
2 3 2
g−1 : [−1, 1] → [0, π],

called the inverse cosine function, and usu-

ally denoted by the symbol θ = cos−1 y or
θ = arccos y.

Two notations: cos−1 and arccos

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arctan–inverse tangent function
• Restrict the domain
 of the tangent function
Limits
π π
h(θ) = tan(θ) to − ,
2 2

π π Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 will not be covered.
• Now Dom(h) = − , with
2 2
Range(h) = (−∞, ∞), the inverse function
of h exists

−1 π π
h : (−∞, ∞) → − ,
2 2
Section 3.1.1 (Limit of a sequence) will not be
is called inverse tangent function, usually de- covered.
noted by θ = tan−1 y or θ = arctan y.

Two notations: tan−1 and arctan

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Limit from the left

An intuitive example: Consider f (x) and check the
values of f (x) when x are less than 2 and are ap-
proaching 2.
This figure shows that f (x) approaches the number 22
as x increases and approaches 2. Thus number 4 is
called the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the left.
Denote as
lim f (x) = 4.
x→2−

Figure 1: The graph of f (x) for 0 < x < 6

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 Left-hand limits Right-hand limits

Suppose that as x approaches c through values less Suppose that as x approaches c through values
than c, f (x) approaches a limit L, then L is said to greater than c, f (x) approaches a limit R then R
be the left hand limit of f at c, denoted by is said to be the right hand limit of f at c, denoted
by
lim f (x) = L.
x→c− lim f (x) = R.
x→c+

Remark: Remark:

• x → c− : x approaches c from the left; • x → c+ : x approaches c from the right;

• L: left-hand limit of f (x) at c • R: right-hand limit of f (x) at c

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Example 3.1.18: Consider the function defined by

Limit of a function 
4 − x2 , if x  −1;
f (x) =
1 + x2 , if x > −1;
Intuitive example: Consider the function f (x) = x2 ,
check the existence of lim f (x).
then x→−1
lim− f (x) = 4 and lim f (x) = 4.
x→2 x→2+

In this case, lim f (x) = lim f (x) and we call lim f (x)
x→2− x→2+ x→2
exists with lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

If lim f (x) and lim− f (x) both exist and are equal
x→c+ x→c Solution: Since
to L, then we say lim f (x) exists and denote

x→c
lim f (x) = lim 1 + x2 = 2
x→−1+ x→−1+
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
and

lim f (x) = lim 4 − x2 = 3,
x→−1− x→−1−

we conclude that lim f (x) does not exist.

x→−1

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 1
Example 3.1.16: Consider lim sin . Properties of limits
x→0 x

If f and g are functions such that lim f (x) = A,

x→c
lim g (x) = B, then
x→c

• lim (f (x) + g (x)) = A + B;

x→c

• lim (f (x) − g (x)) = A − B;

x→c

• lim (f (x) g (x)) = AB (in particular,

x→c
lim kf (x) = kA for any constant k);
n→∞

f (x)A
• lim =, if B = 0 (in particular,
x→c g (x) B
Figure 2: The graph of f (x) = sin(1/x) near x = 0
1 1
lim = ).
x→c g (x) B
Solution: lim [sin(1/x)] does not exist since both the
x→0
l.h.s limit and r.h.s limit donot exist (oscillating between
−1 and 1).

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Methods of finding limits-Cancelation of factors

Methods of finding limits-Substitution (plug in) x3 + x2 − 3x + 1

Example 3.1.13: Find lim .
x→1 x−1
Solution: For x = 1, we have

x3 +x2 −3x+1 (x − 1)(x2 + 2x − 1)

Example 3.1.12: Find lim (3 − 2x). x−1 =
x→5 (x − 1)
2
= (x + 2x − 1),
Solution: lim (3 − 2x) = 3 − 2 × 5 = −7
x→5 and then
x3 +x2 −3x+1
lim x−1 = lim (x2 + 2x − 1)
x→1 x→1
= lim x2 + lim 2x − lim 1
x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2.

Remark: Since the numerator is equal to zero when

x = 1, there must exist a factorization term (x − 1)
for it. Then one can use the long division to perform
the factorization.

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3.1.4 Some Special Limits

Theorem 3.1.19 (Sandwich principle): Suppose

Example 3.1.20: Find the limit lim x sin(1/x).
x→0
f (x)  g(x)  h(x)

for all x = c in some neighbourhood of c with x = c. Solution: Since | sin( x1 )| ≤ 1 when x = 0 and lim x =
x→0
Suppose also that 0, then
lim x sin(1/x) = 0.
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. x→0
x→c x→c

Then lim g(x) = L.

x→c

A useful result by the Sandwich principle

If g(x) is bounded at some neighborhood of c (pos-

sibly except at the point x = c) and lim f (x) = 0,
x→c
then
lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
x→c

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