57

Must vs have to
He must leave at 12.
He has to leave at 12.

I must buy this book.

I have to buy this book.

You must see this film.

You have to see this film.

(Leech 2004: 78-84; Beal 2004: 126; Miller 2004: 52)

 58
Mustn’t vs don’t have to
You mustn’t wear a uniform.
You don’t have to wear a uniform.

must + not wear

not have to + wear

(Lewis 1986: 105-107; Leech 2004: 94)

 59
He must be in – his TV is on.
≠
[I am pretty sure he is not in.] =
He __________ be in – his car has gone.

She walked past without saying ‘Hello’.

~ [I am pretty sure she didn’t see you.] =
She ___________ have seen you.
 60
logical necessity vs impossibility
He must be in – his TV is on.
≠
[it is certain that NOT (X)] =
He can’t be in – his car has gone. (S EngEng)
He mustn’t be in (…) (N EngEng, ScotEng)
He must not be in (…) (USEng, uncontracted)
(Beal 2004: 126; Leech 2004: 95; Hughes et al. 2012: 20-21;
Miller 2004: 52; Trudgill & Hannah 2017: 64-65)
 61
logical impossibility – past
She walked past without saying ‘Hello’.

[it is certain that NOT (X)-past] =

She can’t/couldn’t have seen you. (S EngEng)

She mustn’t have seen you. (N EngEng, ScotEng)
She must not have seen you. (USEng)

(Swan 2016: entry 69; Quirk et al. 1985: 225; Hughes et al. 2012: 20-21;
Thomson & Martinet 1995: 148-149; Murphy 2004: 56, 300; Leech 2004: 95)
 62
I know I may be young, but…
I’ve got feelings too

You can park here. <> You may park here.

The road is blocked. (fact)

The road can be The road may be

blocked. blocked.
The road could be The road might be
blocked. blocked.
(Lewis 1986: 112-114; Leech 2004: 82-83)
 63
could ↔ was able to
Pat _______ swim across the lake when she was four.

Although she was very tired, she _______ swim across

the lake.

Since she was very tired, she _______ swim across the
lake.

I had never been so physically close to Brandi.

I _______ see light freckles on her nose. I _______
smell her coconut perfume. /// She _______
understand why, of course. But how would she
convince them?
 64
could ↔ was able to
1. Pat was able to/could swim across the lake when
she was four.

2. Although she was very tired, she was able to/

*could swim across the lake.

3. Since she was very tired, she wasn’t able to/

couldn’t swim across the lake.

4. I had never been so physically close to Brandi.

I could see light freckles on her nose. I could smell her
coconut perfume. /// She could understand why, of course.
But how would she convince them?
(Leech 2004: 98; Eastwood 2005: 115-116; COCA)
 65

When I first saw you from across the room

I could tell that you were curious, oh, yeah
Girl, I hope you're sure what you're looking for
'Cause I'm not good at making promises

https://genius.com/One-direction-perfect-lyrics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ho32Oh6b4jc (1:43)
 66
will vs going to
1. This will be a challenge.
2. We don’t have any sugar. ~ Oh! OK, I’ll buy
some.

1. She’s going to have a baby.

It’s going to rain.
He’s going to sneeze.
2. We don’t have any sugar. ~ I know, I’m
going to buy some.
(Lewis 1986: 115-119, 139-146; Eastwood 2005: 79-83)
 67
will vs PProg vs going to

What will you do

when you leave

What are you doing
school?

What are you going to do

(Lewis 1986: 95-96, 139-146)

68
 69
will in if-clauses

I’m offering you 20,000 dollars

if you will sign this piece of paper
and leave immediately.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3W6EpCwo1E (1:40)

(Eastwood 2005: 345)