DNA Replication (S-Phase) o Put down a RNA primase that adds a

primer (one little bit of RNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  DNA Ligase
o Clean up messy junctions
very important because it is responsible for the synthesis o Make sure that Message of DNA is
or replication of DNA copied to new strand of DNA

Three Theories Leading Strand

 Semi-Conservative  Everything is Perfect

o DNA would split in half and the copy
strands in each side Lagging Strand
 Conservative
o First DNA is intact and makes a  tends to lag behind the other side
photocopy of itself  just like back stitching
 Dispersive
o Combination of Conservative and
Origin of Replication
Semi-Conservative

Prokaryotic
DNA Replication was proved through the Meselson Stahl

 Single loop of DNA

 Semi Conservative Replication
o Double Helix it will unzip in the middle
and will add new strand with each side. Eukaryotic
o Will start in one DNA and will end up
with two  When copying DNA its starts at a single point
basically works in two direction
PARTS OF DNA  Multiple sites of replication
 Starts copying in bunch of points
Deoxyribose Sugar

Nitrogenous Base
Meiosis
Phosphate
 to produce gametes
 Starts with interphase
 point make four genetically different cells
because they are destined to be gametes
 Topoisomerase  PMAT 2X (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
o to cleave DNA strands in order to Telophase)
provide torsional-stress relief or to
untangle replicating DNA Chromosome 1 - Dad
 Helicase
o unwinds the DNA from double to Chromosome 2 - Mom
single
 Single Strand Binding Proteins
23 pair of Chromosome in Humans
o Hold single helix in place
 DNA polymerase
o race down the DNA Homologous Pairs
o add new nucleotides on the other side
of DNA  mean that they are not identical but do code for
o You can only add new nucleotide on the same genes
the 3 prime end  The two chromosomes in a homologous pair are
 DNA Primase very similar to one another and have the same
size and shape. Most importantly, they carry the
 same type of genetic information: that is, they
have the same genes in the same locations.
However, they don't necessarily have the same
versions of genes.
Chromosomes
 are threadlike structures made of protein and
a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry the
genomic information from cell to cell.
 ****is the highest organized structure of DNA
double helix with proteins.
Centromere
 serves as the cohesion site between sister
chromatids
Centrosome
 consists of two centrioles
o Centrioles
 are made up of 9 triplets
microtubules
 are anchoring sites for
microtubules that are attached
to the chromosomes
 In cell division, it pulls duplicated chromosome
to opposite ends.
Meiosis 1
Interphase
 Duplicates the Centrosome
 DNA all loose/unwound (chromatin -unwound
state of the DNA) but when it goes through S-
Phase it replicates the DNA
 Once the DNA is replicated there will be the
centromere who holds those two chromatids
together
Prophase I
 Chromosomes are condense
 Nuclear Envelope starts disappearing
 The centrosomes starts facilitating development
of the spindles and starts pushing apart
 The homologous chromosome line up NEXT to
each other
 Synapsis of Chromosomes - gives us variation
o Genetic Recombination
o Crossing over - Chromosome 1 and 2
are coming together (they swap parts of
their chromosomes)
 Recombinant Chromosome
- the outcome of the cross
over
Metaphase I
 The nuclear envelope is now gone
 centrosome are now at each side of the cell
 lining up or meeting in the middle of the cell
 We have 4 different independent orient at
Metaphase 1 that gives us variation
 2^2 = 4
 Spindles attaches to the centromere of the
homologous chromosome
o kinetochore, a specialized protein
structure has now formed at the
centromere of each chromatid. This is
where some of the spindles attach.
Anaphase I
 Its pulling the homologous pairs apart
 not the actual chromosome or the chromatids
Telophase I
 the homologous pairs are now at each sides of the
cells
 microtubules starts to disassemble
 Reforming new nuclei at each side.
 Cytokinesis - divides the cytoplasm and rest of
the cell
Meiosis 2
Prophase II
 the nuclei reformed on the telophase starts to
disappear again
 No more crossing over
 the centromeres also replicates and push apart in
opposite direction and generate their spindle
fibers
Metaphase II
 No nuclear envelope
 Centrosomes migrated to the two pole of the cell
 Chromosomes will line up again the middle
Spindle will attach to each of the centromere
Anaphase II S Phase

 We only have Chromatid Pairs  DNA Replication

 Each of those chromosomes are being pulled
apart another side G2 Phase

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

 shortest phase in the cell cycle.
 the cell grows more, makes proteins and
 Cytokinesis - divides the cytoplasm and rest of organelles, and begins to reorganize its
the cell
contents in preparation for mitosis.
 Nucleus Forms
 Microtubules/ Spindle Fibers disappears
M-Phase or Mitosis
 4 haploid cells - gametes
o Each of these cells are totally different
and they each have half the DNA of the
original cell

Module 4

Cell Cycle

 cell enters to the cycle as one cell and then it

will exit out as two cells. (one cell⇒ two When does the cell know when to copy itself and
cells) when it shouldn’t?

Interphase - G1, S-Phase, and G2 Phas

G0 Phase
 a resting phase where the cell has left the
cycle and has stopped dividing.
 Permanent Cells - cells that never copies
itself or incapable of regeneration
o Examples: neurons, heart cells,
skeletal muscle cells and red blood
cells.
 Only goes through G1
Phase then goes back to
G0 Phase.
 If these cells are damaged,
they cannot be replaced.
G1 Phase
 there are little proteins inside of the cell and
as those proteins accumulate through out
the life of the cell.
 Once you get a critical amount of those
proteins, it will tell the cell to advance to the
next stage which is the cell division.
What are those Proteins?
Cyclin
 special protein
 they are the ones that accumulate
CDK (Cycline Dependent Kinase)
 speed up actions within a cell
 found in all living oganisms
 they are basically dependent upon cyclins

 the cell is growing, accumulating materials, Cylin + CDK = Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF)
and building itself out.
 where the cells spends most of its life.  break apart the nucleus
 the synthesis of amino acids and proteins  work on the microtubules
that are needed in the cell occurs.  pushes the cell to the mitotic phase
 Proteins that are needed for DNA
Replication occurs in this phase.
How often does the cell divide?

 Cell Cycle - about 24 hours

Interphase - 18- 20 hours

G1 Phase -10 hours

S-Phase - 5-6 hours

G2 Phase - 3-4 hours

M Phase - 2 hours

Cell Division

 Cells divide slower, faster, and some never

divide at all.
o Slower division of cells may cause
wounds to heal slower
o Faster division of cells may cause
cancerous growth
o Some cells that never divide at all
like in brain may cause memory
loss.

Cancer

 disease cause by abnormal or uncontrolled

production of cells.
 when the cells DNA becomes damaged due
exposure to hazardous chemicals it results
mutation of genes.
 Cancer Cells divides faster than normal
cells and forms a mass of abnormal cells
called tumor.