EMP 410: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

TOPIC ONE: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PERSPECTIVES

THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environment is interwoven in day-to-day life of human beings and as such man plays a great role in preserving
and improving the environment for the sake of development and a better future. However, lopsided
developmental activities are accelerating the pace of environmental degradation. This accounts for scarcities of
natural resources, which subsequently threaten the sustained productivity of the economy, economic
production and consumption activities. These activities impair environmental quality by overloading natural
sinks with wastes and pollutants. The environmental consequences of development tend to offset many
benefits that may be accruing to individuals and societies on account of rising incomes. There are direct costs
on the health of individuals, their longevity and on the quality of life on account of deterioration in
environmental quality to mention a few. More importantly, the environmental damage can also undermine
future attainments and productivity if the factors of production are adversely affected. Therefore for a
sustainable economic development, every country needs to follow a stringent environmental policy where
people will be responsible for ensuring long-term development, sustainability and suitability of efforts, and the
ultimate success of projects at mobilizing local resources for meeting local needs and concerns. Given the
overwhelming emphasis being placed on the sustainability of development, it is crucial that education of
environment be placed at the centre stage in the developmental matrix. Indeed Environmental Education (EE)
must be accepted as a prerequisite for sustainable development and programmes must be chalked out both
through formal and non-formal systems.

This approach is consistent with the prescriptions of the Agenda 21, as finalized by UNCED (United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development): “A major priority is to reorient education towards sustainable
development by improving each country’s capacity to address environment and development in its
environmental programmes, particularly in basic learning. This is indispensable for enabling people to adapt
to a swiftly changing world and to develop an ethical awareness consistent with the sustainable use of natural
resources. Education should, in all disciplines, address the dynamics of the physical/biological and
socioeconomic environment and human development, including spiritual development.”

Environment
Environment is derived from a French word ‘environner’ which means to circle or surround. There is no
agreed universal definition of environment. Sauvé (2002) sees environment as a fabric of woven threads and as
an interface between nature and culture. Muyanda-Mutebi (1993) defines environment as the surrounding
condition which influence the behavior and development of living things. Di Chill as quoted by Fine (1993)
defines the environment as interaction between physical surroundings and social, political and economic forces
that organize us is in the context of these surroundings. Karembu (1999) defines environment as an aggregate
of surrounding things (biotic and abiotic), and conditions that influence the life of an organism in a population
including humans. Kvasnickova (1983) defines environment as the part of the world with which man interacts,
i.e. the part which he uses, influences and to which he adapts himself. He says that the environment is a sum of
the material world.

Environment is conceived as a sum total of natural, artificial and socio components of the material world
which are or may be in direct interaction with man.

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With all these definitions you realize that the environment is complex and difficult to adequately define, to the
satisfaction of everyone. However, in this module we are going to use O’Donoghue definition of environment
as a social construct made of four dimensions: These are:
 Bio –physical: This refers to living (biotic) and non living (a biotic).Simply the life and life support
systems.
 Social systems: This includes humans, their cultural interactions.
 Economic: This refers to human economic endeavors.
 Political: This refers to political power policy, political decisions and all factors determining the
access, and distribution of resources.
According to O’Donoghue, environment has no reality outside humans. He says that environment is perceived
by different people differently. This means that the environment is not a thing out there to be experienced by
people in the same way.

politica
l

Economic
Environment
social

Cultures, people Bio-physical

Living
Together

Fig 1.1 Dimensions of the environment (adapted from O’Donoghue)

Environmental Education
Like environment, EE is defined differently by different authors and educators. O’Donoghue defines EE as a
communication process that causes behavior change towards the environment.
EE is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about environment and associated
challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges and fosters attitudes,
motivations and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO: Tbilisi
Declaration, 1977)
The Australian Association of EE defines it as “an across the curriculum approach to learning, which helps
individuals and groups to understand the environment with ultimate aim of developing caring and committed
attitudes that will foster the desire and ability to act responsibly in the environment”. EE is concerned not only
with knowledge but also with feelings, attitudes, skills or community action. Kvasnickova defines EE as a
dimension of education that aims not only at providing knowledge and information on the problems of the
human environment but it also affects people’s way of thinking, their attitudes, ethics, emotions, civic and
professional responsibility and preparedness for action. According to Muyanda Mutebi (1993) EE is defined as
a process of learning and teaching knowledge and skills that enable us to understand and appreciate our
environment and the inter relatedness between us our culture and environmental resources.

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Environmental Education can therefore be conceptualized as a process through which:
 Learners acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes on environmental issues.
 The education acquired improves environmental awareness on the status of different environments.
 The awareness stimulates concerns and strong feeling about the quality of environment in focus.
 It is that strong feeling and concern which makes a person to be committed to do something for the
environment in question or change lifestyles.
 Commitment calls for action, either individually or collectively, in order to solve some of the
environmental problems.
Environmental education is just one of the most effective tools used in solving environmental problems. Other
disciplines include; environmental law, engineering, economics, forestry, wildlife management etc
The rationale of teaching EE to teacher trainees is three fold:
 Teachers live, and are part of the environment they interact with at individual level where their
individual activities have either negative or positive impact.
 Teachers are role models to their learners and in addition they pass knowledge and skills relevant to
the environment to their learners.
 Teachers are role models in the society they live in and can influence the society in decision making
on issues pertaining to the environment.

The Universal Primary Education (UPE) decade was aimed at providing every individual in the world with an
opportunity to acquire basic literacy. Most of it is acquired in the formal education sector. Assuming that the
teachers are adequately trained to teach EE, and that all these learners are passing through the school then, a
teacher has a major role in changing the learners’ attitudes so as to make them environmentally friendly.

GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND GIUDING PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

During the intergovernmental conference on EE in 1977, at Tblisi, Georgia, the goals, objectives and guiding
principles and target groups of environmental in education as proposed in 1975 at Belgrade former
Yugoslavia, were adopted.
Environmental Education Goals
The goals of environmental education are as follows:
1) To foster clear awareness of and concern about economic, social, political and ecological interdependence
in both rural and urban areas.
2) To provide every individual with an opportunity to acquire the knowledge, values, attitude, commitments
and skills needed to protect and improve the environment.
3) To create new ways of behavior in individuals, groups and communities as a whole towards the Kenyan
environment.
Objectives of Environment Education
1. Awareness: Individuals and communities to acquire an awareness of, and sensitivity to the total
environment and its associated problems.
2. Knowledge: To impart basic understanding of the functioning of the environment and its problems, and the
human role in it.
3. Attitudes: To acquire strong concern for the environment and be motivated to act individually and
communally in solving environmental problems.
4. Skills: To acquire relevant skills needed in identifying and solving environmental problems.
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5. Participation: To take appropriate actions in solving environment problems and preventing future ones.

Guiding principles of environmental education

Principles are rules of action or conduct to guide a process. According to the principles adopted at the Tbisili
Conference, EE should:
1. Consider the environment in its totality: natural and built; technological and social, economic, political,
cultural-historical, moral and aesthetic
2. Be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the pre-school level and continuing through all formal and
non-formal stages
3. Be interdisciplinary in its approach drawing on the specific content of each discipline in making possible a
holistic and balanced perspective
4. Examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional and international points of view so that
learners can know about environmental conditions in other geographical areas
5. Focus on current and potential environmental situations, while taking into account the historical perspective
6. Promote the value and necessity of local, national and international co-operation in the prevention and
solution of environmental problems
7. Explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for development and growth
8. Enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an opportunity for making
decisions and accepting their consequences
9. Relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-solving skills and values clarification to every age,
but with special emphasis on environmental sensitivity to the learner’s own community in early years
10. Help learner’s discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems
11. Emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need to develop critical thinking and
problem-solving skills
12. Use diverse learning environments and broad educational approaches in teaching/learning about and from
the environment with due emphasis on practical activities and first-hand experience

Historical Development of Environmental Education

Environmental education, in the sense of understanding the environment has always been with us. Informal
education has always attempted to prepare the young to take their place in both the natural and social
environments. As a result of increasing awareness about the environment in Kenya a number of environmental
initiatives had been started. The aim was to sensitize people on the impact of environmental degradation
society, economy, politics and life support systems. Technological development in 19 th and 20th centuries
modernized world societies causing a change in lifestyles (culture). Although many improvements on the
quality of life were realized, many environmental impacts of modernization were experienced. Introduction of
EE was a response to environmental problems that faced societies as a result of environmentally unfriendly
technologies. To create environmental awareness, EE was partially offered as conservation education or nature
study in different countries of the world. However, the emphasis was mainly on biological and physical
(nature) aspects of the environment. Environmental degradation continued as the other aspects on environment
were ignored. The introduction of EE which focuses on the environment in its totality (bio-physical, social,
economic and political aspects) was done in Kenya after a series of meetings at the International, regional and
national levels.

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1972: United Nations Conference on Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden. This historical
conference, recommended that UNEP be established. An International EE Programme (IEEP) was created to
facilitate the introduction of EE.

1975: The first International workshop on EE was held at Belgrade, Yugoslavia. The purpose of the meeting
was to follow up on the recommendation of the UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972). In this
workshop which was attended by education experts, the goals, objective, guiding principles and the targets
groups were proposed. They were presented in a document called Belgrade charter (A global framework for
EE (unesco, unep) 1975, Belgrade). The first International Conference on EE was held in Belgrade in 1975.
The Charter highlighted that the goal of EE is to “develop a citizenry that is aware of and concerned about, the
total environment and its associated problems and that has the knowledge, attitudes, motivations,
commitments and skills to work individually and collectively towards solutions of current problems and
prevention of new ones”.

1976: The Africa Regional Conference on EE was held in Brazzaville; Congo (currently Kinshasa in
Democratic Republic of Congo). The participants reviewed the status and constraints to the introduction of EE
on Africa.

1977: The Intergovernmental Conference on EE was held in Tbilisi, Georgia. The Tbilisi Declaration adopted
goals, objectives and guiding principles as contained in the Belgrade charter. The conference recommended
the introduction of International EE Programme (IEEP) at all levels of education in the countries of the world.

1978/9: National Conferences on EE were held in Kenya in response to the recommendations of the Tbilisi
conference, the Ministry of Education through the Kenya Institute of Education developed guidelines of
introducing EE in formal education curricula of primary, secondary and teacher colleges.

1980’s: The education curricula of primary, secondary and tertiary education levels were “environmentalized”
by introducing Man and His Environment topics. Many Institutions of higher learning started training
environmental professionals to manage environment in Kenya. These included Environmental chemists,
Ecologists, Environmental Economists, Foresters, Game wardens, Hydrologists etc

1987: The World (Brundtland) Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) report “Our common
future” describes Sustainable development as central to this document which links poverty and environmental
concerns. Economic growth was promoted as the solution to both concerns.

1992: The UNCED (UN Commission on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro also known as the
Rio or Earth summit. Five major documents produced: Biodiversity Treaty, UN Convention on Climate
Change, Rio Declaration (principle 19), Statement on forest principles and Agenda 21(chapter 36). Most
important contributions EE was to introduce the idea of environment and development Education (EDE) or
Education for Sustainable Living.

2002: UN World Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. Issues of globalization,
Market integration, Environmental Justice were discussed. Civil Society participated in this meeting.

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TOPIC TWO: TEACHING OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Rationale for environmental education

Environmental Education is an important component of education and deserves to be taught at all levels and in
all types of education for the purpose of understanding and addressing environmental issues. Environmental
education is a concept developed in 1970’s as a human intervention in search of a solution to the deteriorating
environmental situation referred to as environmental crisis.
Reasons are:
a). Unprecedented economic growth and technological progress, while bringing benefits to many people, has
also caused severe social and environmental consequences e.g. pollution, cultural erosion
b). Inequality between the poor and rich among nations and within nations is growing and these are evidence
of increasing deterioration of the physical environment on a world-wide scale affecting all humanity.
c). Increasing population, poverty, hunger, illiteracy, pollution, exploitation and domination on a global scale.
d). Lack of global ethic in terms of attitude and behavior for individuals and societies which are constant with
humanity’s place within the biosphere, which recognizes and sensitively responds to the complex and ever
changing relationships between man and nature and man and man.
e). Education is partly to blame for the dilemma the world has found itself in since it has perpetuated the
acceptance of various modes of development. Education should take up the challenge and help to evolve a new
type of development that is sustainable by the environment – i.e. the people should have the concern, the
attitudes and skills necessary to re-orient and to pursue developmental activities that are in harmony with the
environment.
Incorporating Environmental Education in Curriculum
Models/Approaches
There are basically two approaches used to incorporate environmental education in the formal education sector
in Kenya: Interdisciplinary and multidisciplisnary. However, there are other approaches used in the
informal and non-formal sectors:
a) Interdisciplinary model/approach (integrated)
Under this approach, environmental education is taught as a subject or discipline that is included in the
timetable. Teachers have to be trained on special methods of teaching environmental education and
teaching/learning resources have to be provided. The approach is somehow costly to implement but indeed it is
effective in changing learners’ lifestyles and making them environmentally friendly. This approach is used in
diploma teachers training colleges, and in some universities where departments of environmental studies exist.
This approach uses a set of relevant discipline in order to create distinct environmental goals. Interdisciplinary
model is also called integrated approach as it widens the scope of environmental issues being discussed hence
clear perception.

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 Vocational studies

Physical sciences
mknm Environmental
Life sciences
Education Education

Mathematics

Arts, Humanities
Earth Sciences Engineering

Fig. Inter disciplinary approach (Integrated)

b) Multidisciplinary (infusion) model

Under this approach, environmental content is included in the disciplines/subjects taught in schools.
Environmental education is taught through subjects such as science, geography, history, literature and social
ethics. The advantages of this approach are that the curriculum is not loaded with an extra subject called
environmental education. No specialized teaching and learning resources are required. However in some levels
where learners have to drop some subjects to the required numbers, the chances are that some learners end up
not learning some contents of environmental education. Indeed this approach is cheap to implement but not
very effective. The approach is used in primary schools, teacher training college, and some sections of tertiary
institutions.

HISTORY
Origin of pollution RELIGION
Management practices over Cleanliness is second to
time Godliness Concept of good
Trends in pollution sanitation
Moral and ethical concern of
garbage

BIOLOGY
Impact of pollutants on food POLLUTION
MATHEMATICS
chains As an
Quantities of waste generated
Biodegradable and non environmental
Percentage of people affected
biodegradable pollutants issue
by each category of waste

ECONOMICS
TECHNOLOGY Cost-Benefit analysis of
Fig. Multidisciplinary approach
Appropriate technologies to pollution effect.
manage
Source:Cleaner
Adaptedpollutants.
from Karembu (1999) Understanding Polluter-pay
Environment principle.
communication.
production. Pollution effect on GDP.

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The diagram given above shows that different content on pollution issue is included in different subject areas
and taught by specialists in those respective subjects. For this approach to succeed, coordination is required
during curriculum development to ensure that topics on pollution and other environmental issues of concern
are included in the subjects taught in school.
c) Community Based Model
It has both informal and formal approach of teaching environmental education depending on the learners.
Community means all those affected by a given environmental problem. The approach involves action by the
entire community to solve the problem. Community participation as a process of teaching environmental
issues can either be defensive (to guard against change) or developmental (to attempt to alter a situation) e.g.
Harambee; Kenyans for Kenya initiative etc
Requirements for this model are:
 Choose an objective after consultation.
 Carry out research on what will be done.
 Seek community input in decision making.
 Carry out participatory approach to plan and solve that problem
 Define a set action and workable mechanization to facilitate the implementation of the strategy.
 Implement the strategy and ensure effective monitoring system
 Encourage additional actions or activities from the community.
d) Problem-solving approach
The focus is on specific environmental problems where the learner is equipped with the necessary skills for
solving particular problems.
e) Education Extension Model
It involves carrying out educational campaign on environmental issues. People can be advised or trained on
how to help disseminate the information. It can also involve Government official or institutional support e.g.
MPs, parastatals, known persons, administrators etc. Teaching using this method can employ case study
demonstrations, field trips, lab experiments, workshops and seminars.
Target groups for environmental education
Environmental education is targeted to two main categories of learners namely:
 Learners in the formal education sector and in all levels of training
 Non formal education sector (to include youths, adults, administrators, policy makers, workers,
farmers and the local community in general).
Goal levels for teaching environmental education components
Level 1: Ecological foundation level
This is the knowledge level at which environmental education aims at developing ecological concepts to
provide the learner with sufficient knowledge to make sound environmental decisions.
Level 2: Conceptual awareness level
It involves issues and values aimed at developing a conceptual awareness that human actions, individually and
collectively, have an impact on the environment and subsequently the quality of human life.
Level 3: Investigation and evaluation level
This is when environmental education deals with cognitive processes and development of skills necessary for
investigating issues and evaluating alternative solutions to environmental problems.
Level 4: Environmental action skills level
Environmental education involves training and application of knowledge. It focuses on developing skills and
the right attitude that will allow the learner to take necessary action to maintain balance between quality of life
and that of the environment.
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Methods/ Strategies of Teaching Environmental Education
a) Inquiry Method
Learners play an active role in the learning and teaching process. This method involves the educator largely
guiding the learner in investigating and solving problems while teaching. It involves defining the problem
formulating hypothesis, collecting data and testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusion from the findings and
applying the findings in an attempt to solve environmental problem.
b) Conceptual Method
This involves the selection of a wide range of concepts to be learnt within given subjects.
The educator applies this concept by identifying key relationships linked to the environment e. g. in
Economics you can consider the concept of resource use and scarcity; Ecology- to discuss the inter-
relationship within the environment; Human geography -role of man in exploiting and protecting resources,
population, human growth and development.
c) Relevance Method
The basis of this method employs case studies. It aims at pointing out the major challenging issues at the
society, national or regional setting. As a teacher you are supposed to identify relevant issues in the society or
other areas relevant to the issues you are discussing.
d) Process Method
In the process method, the teacher equips the learners with specific skills on how to carry out investigation on
an environmental problem, learn specific concepts that need solutions and employ going to the field so that the
learner can see the problem in the reality.
e) Value clarification Method
Consideration is given to an understanding of the cultural connotations of environmental education in matters
related to population growth and control. Due care should be taken to learn the traditional and or acceptable
cultural values in order to treat vital topics in a manner acceptable to the target group.
f). Active Learning in Environmental education
Teaching and learning processes have changed in both formal and informal education systems. Some years ago
a teacher was the sole authority in class setting and learners were expected to listen quietly, scribe some notes
for revision in preparation for a test or exam. This has been found to promote rote learning with very little
change in behaviour.
Active learning has three characteristics:
 Dialogue: Both learners and class teacher actively participate in discussing ideas and offering
suggestions on how to solve environmental issues.
 Reflection: The learners get time to think critically on how to deal with environmental issues. As they
reflect, the learners conceptualize and explore alternative ways of problem solving or taking action.
 Encounter: The learner gets a firsthand experience on specific environmental issues.
Active learning or participatory learning is quite effective in changing attitudes and behavior. It is specific and
this is the key to solving environmental issues.

Problems associated with methodology of Teaching Environmental Education

a) How to decide which method suitable for which ability level, whether the teaching should be formal or non
formal etc
b).Educators may not be familiar with the variety for interdisciplinary approaches available in dealing with
environmental issues. EE is relatively a new discipline and teacher education is increasingly oriented towards
specialization.

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c). In rigid institutional structures of certain educational establishments, effective or action oriented
environmental education may not be welcome
d). Again, the choice of approach may depend on an already existing set of ethical, aesthetic, religious and
economic values that are regularly used for assessing any situation and offering solutions. Where new
situations are constantly experienced there is need for additional information, and re-examination of attitude
and traditionally accepted beliefs and taboos.
e). In the already crowded curriculum, learners may not engage in meaningful activities of investigating,
discussing and analyzing environmental concerns.

Environmental Education Learning Resources /Instructional Aids

Whenever possible, teaching aids should be used to reinforce the method: e.g Newspaper cuttings; specimens
from local environment; written materials of all types; locally produced low-cost equipment and aids; films,
videos, slides, TV; library facilities; broadcast and pre-recorded materials e.g. a speech of an influential
personality; Local, national and international publications; museum facilities and specimen; experimental
work; field trips; action research; displays and exhibitions and human resources.

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TOPIC THREE: ESSENTIAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Ecology is the study of how the living and non-living things in nature relate to each other or the study of
ecosystems.
Ecosystem is defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its associated abiotic
environment.
Community is all interacting populations of a number of species in a habitat at a particular time. It is the
biotic part of an ecosystem.
Population is a group of interacting organisms of the same species in an ecosystem
Species: a group of organisms where all members do or have the potential to interbreed and produce viable
offspring

ECOSYSTEMS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The environmental system may be understood in an ecological sense as the set of interactions between the
elements of the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. All ecosystems (biomes) of the world can
be classified into two categories 1) Aquatic (e.g. fresh water and saline; estuaries and wetlands etc) and 2)
Terrestrial (e.g. deserts, grasslands, tundra etc). Each ecosystem exhibit structure, function and dynamism
Structure: include the living (biotic) their interactions and nonliving (abiotic) factors
Function: includes the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
Dynamism: include ecological succession
There are four fundamental components of all ecosystems
1) Producers or autotrophs
2) Consumers or heterotrophs
Biotic components
3) Decomposers or detritivores
4) Abiotic component e.g wind, water, temperature, light level, gases, nutrients etc
PROPERTIES OF ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
1) Productivity – rate of production of biomass (biological material) in a given area at a given time. Primary
productivity is the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy by producers through photosynthesis or
the rate of production by plants. Secondary productivity is the manufacture of biomass by herbivores.
2) Abundance and Diversity – abundance is an expression of the total number of organisms in a biological
community while diversity is a measure of the number of different species or genetic variations present. The
abundance of a particular species is often inversely related to the total diversity of the community.
3) Resilience and Stability – this is the capacity to recover from disturbances e.g. weather changes in
precipitation, temperatures, tides etc. Many biological communities tend to remain relatively stable and
constant over time because the species that make it up have self- perpetuating mechanisms.
4) Edges and boundaries – an ecological community structure exhibits a boundary between one habitat and
its neighbours. These relationships are called edge relationships. Some edges are sharp and distinct
(woodland to grassland), others intergrades very gradually into another, so there is no distinct border.
Boundaries between adjacent communities are called ecotones.
5) Ecological niche – it’s the role a species plays in a biological community. Niche as community roles
describes how a species obtains food, what relationships it has with other species and the services it provides
to the community.

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FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS
In an ecosystem, individuals interact through feeding forming different feeding levels known as trophic levels.
The relationships between trophic levels are referred to as food chains.
There are two types of food chains:
(i) Grazing food chains: starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores and herbivores in turn for
the carnivores.
(ii) Detritus food chains: start from the dead organic matter to the detritivore organisms which in turn make
food for protozoan to carnivores etc
In nature, many species occupy the same trophic levels. Complex feeding relationships occur at trophic levels
forming food webs. The more complex the combination of trophic level interrelationships in an ecosystem, the
more stable the system

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
When organisms in a food chain are arranged according to trophic levels they often form a pyramid e.g.
pyramid of numbers (the higher the trophic level the fewer the number of organisms) and vice versa. Similarly
a rapidly diminishing amount of energy is available as the number of trophic levels increase away from the
primary producer leading to typically only 3-5 trophic levels in an ecosystem i.e. pyramid of energy content

Few carnivores 10,000cal in carnivores

Hundreds 1M cal herbivores

Millions of producers 10,000,000 cal in producers

Limitations of pyramids
Fig a) Pyramid of numbers Fig b) Pyramid of energy content

LIMITATIONS OF PYRAMIDS
1. Numbers can be inverted e.g. 1 tree feeding many caterpillars
2. Metabolic activity loss not factored e.g. respiration, falling leaves
3. Decomposers not factored
4. Idea of pyramid of numbers has been simplified and does not cater for size or weight
5. Multiple consumption at same trophic levels e.g. lions eating cheetah calves

COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS

1) Predation – an organism (predator) feeds directly on another organism (prey) with killing.
2) Competition – plants and animals compete for environmental resources. 2 types of competition 1)
intraspecific- between members of the same population. Plants and animals adapt to intraspesicific
competition through various mechanisms; e.g. seed dispersal, toxic secretions, varied life cycles, territorialism
etc 2) interspecific-between different members of different populations of the same community
3) Symbiosis - intimate living together of members of 2 or more species a) Mutualism – both members
benefit e.g. Nitrogen fixing bacteria, Rhizobium in legumes b) Commensalism – one member benefits and the
other is neither benefited nor harmed c) Parasitism – one species benefits and the other is harmed

NUTRIENT CYCLING IN ECOSYSTEMS

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Ecosystems require both macro (C, P, N) and micro nutrients (e.g. Mg, Zn, Al) in the right chemical form; P-
phosphates, N- nitrates, and right physical location. Chemicals move from one reservoir (atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere) at different rates and patterns, a term referred to as biogeochemical
cycles e.g. N, S, C cycles etc. The nutrients are recycled in the ecosystems to ensure sustainable availability.
Some human activities which affect nutrient cycling
1) Over-use of inorganic fertilizers in agriculture
2) Over harvesting and translocation of crops and animal resources
3) Increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from industrial and transport activity
4) Deforestation

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

The sun is the basic source of energy that drives all ecosystems on earth. During photosynthesis, light energy
is converted into chemical energy forming energy for other organisms up the food chain. . Energy flows into,
through and out of ecosystems. The path of energy from one organism to another is typical of any ecosystem.
Energy flow in ecosystems is based on the Laws of Thermodynamics. Not all the energy comes into an
ecosystem as solar energy, some of it is imported. The efficiencies of primary production are very low; less
than 1% of available solar energy is captured by plants. On average, about 10% of the energy entering a
particular trophic level is transferred to the next level ref. to as the 10% law

NB; Note that energy flow and nutrient cycling in ecosystems proceed concurrently with energy flow being
unidirectional and nutrient cycling cyclic due to the implication of decomposers on the latter. However, unlike
energy there is no progressive diminution of nutrients up the food chain, in fact some become more
concentrated (biomagnification and bioconcentration).

LIMITING FACTORS IN ECOSYSTEMS

Limiting factor is anything that tends to make it more difficult for a species to live, grow or reproduce in its
environment. These can be abiotic factors e.g access to water, nutrients, temperatures, sunlight, wind etc or
biotic factors e.g competition, predation etc. Every living organism has limits to the environmental conditions
it can endure. Each environmental factor has both minimum and maximum levels called tolerance limits
((diag. below) beyond which a particular species cannot survive or is unable to reproduce in accordance with
Shelford's law of tolerance which states that the presence and success of an organism depend upon the extent
to which a complex of conditions is satisfied e.g. the climatic, topographic, and biological requirements of
plants and animals. The absence or failure of an organism can be controlled by the qualitative or quantitative
deficiency or excess of any one of several factors which may approach the limits of tolerance for that
organism. Sometimes the lack or abundance of a certain species act as environmental indicators about the
community or the ecosystem as a whole and may demonstrate effects of anthropogenic activities e.g.trouts
indicate clean well oxygenated water, lack of lichens indicate SO 2 and acid precipitation.

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 Zone of Zone of
physiological Optimal range species abundant physiological
Zone of stress stress Zone of
intolerance Species intolerance
infrequent Species
Species infrequent Species
absent absent

Too low: lower Too high: upper

limit of tolerance limit of tolerance
Optimum

Environmental Gradient

Diagram showing tolerance limits of environmental factors

CARRYING CAPACITY IN ECOSYSYTEMS
It refers to the number of individuals of the same species that can be sustained indefinitely in a given
ecosystem without causing environmental degradation. When CC is exceeded, environmental consequences
e.g. overgrazing, competition or death may occur. High productivity ecosystems e.g. wetlands have a relatively
higher CC. CC is determined by limiting factors which act jointly to limit population growth.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
It is the orderly and predictable process by which a series of communities develop replacing each other over
time to form a climax community. Two types 1) Primary – a community begins to occupy a site previously
unoccupied by living organisms. Pioneer species e.g. mosses, lichens begin to colonize creating suitable
conditions for other species to grow to climax vegetation.

Moss, algae, lichens –grasses – herbaceous plants, grasses - shrubs –evergreen small trees – deciduous tall trees
2) Secondary - occurs where an existing community has been disrupted by a natural catastrophe or
anthropogenic activities. This type of succession takes a relatively shorter time because of the availability of
soil to climax vegetation. The climax vegetation undergoes minimum change that is not easily noticeable
HOMEOSTASIS OF ECOSYSTEMS
Also known as a biological equilibrium, it’s the self ability of ecosystems to resist change and maintain their
state of equilibrium by regulating their own species structure and functional processes. The balance is
maintained by a number of factors such as carrying capacity of the environment, capacity for recycling of the
waste, effect of density on the reproductive potential. However, homeostatic capacity of ecosystems is not
unlimited as well as not everything in an ecosystem is always well regulated. Humans are the greatest source
of disturbance to ecosystems homeostasis.

IMPACTS OF ECOSYSTEM DESTRUCTION

Destruction of biological resources leads to 3 kinds of losses

i) Loss of abundance of a species – loss of biodiversity

ii) Species extinction

iii) Ecosystem destruction

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CASE EXAMPLE: CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION OF RAIN FORESTS
1. Potential conversion of rain forest to savanna
2. Unprecedented loss of species
3. Loss of many small, isolated indigenous human societies’ habitats and their knowledge about rain forests
(e.g. Ogiek of Mau forest)
4. Loss of significant carbon sink leading to increased levels of CO 2
5. Interference with regional water quality and hydrologic cycling
6. Economic drain on governments due to large investments in projects that yield only short term gains (e.g.
hydropower plants that depended the catchments,*Mau forest and S. Miriu)
7. Potential increase in political instability due to economic and social factors (e.g. ethnic strife)
Some ecosystem management challenges in Kenya
1) Population increase & spread, encroachment, land use change
2) Poverty
3) Land tenure uncertainty
4) Lack of resources for management
5) Lack of coordination between agencies
References
1. Cunningham, William P., Cunningham, Mary A. and Saigo, Barbara W. (2003) Environmental Science: A
Global Concern. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill, USA.
2. Kupchella C. E and Hyland M.C (1992). Environmental Science; living with the system of nature. 2 nd Ed.
Allyn and Bacon, USA
3. Kormondy Edward J (1996) Concepts of ecology. 4th Ed. Prentice Hall, India

15
 TOPIC 4: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Development-refers to human effort to improve their quality of life through meeting basic needs such as food,
healthcare, employment and housing. It is achieved through modification of the biophysical environment.
Sustainability-it is the endurance of systems and processes e.g. hydrological systems, regeneration of
resources.
In ecology, sustainability refers to how biological systems are diverse and productive e.g. forests, wetlands,
soils e.t.c.
Sustainable development
 It is the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the
future generations to meet their own needs(WCED,1987)
 It is human development which is economically, socially and ecologically sound and can be maintained
over a long term(UNESCO-UNEP,1993)
 It is improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting systems
(iucn, unep, wwf 2001)
 It is development that distributes the benefits of economic progress more equitably, protects both local and
global environment for future generations and improves the quality of life(The Inter-American Development
Bank, 1990)
Issues Arising from the definitions
a) Quality of life (e.g health, employment, education)
b) Conservation of environment to continue supplying renewable and non-renewable resources
c) Improving the economy of the country/society
d) Social responsibility of integrating and improving the social aspects of the society
Evolution of sustainable development concept
Its origin and meaning can be traced to concerted efforts of preservationists and conservationists in the late
1960s, which were directed towards preventing pollution, especially for the western world. There was also
concern that pollution would become a third world problem too, if developing countries followed the pattern
of development that the west had taken which had least regard for the environmental protection.
Issues that influenced sustainable development
 Overpopulation/population explosion
 Poverty
 Inefficiency that leads to massive waste of resources such as energy and water
 Degradation of the life support factors on ecosystem e.g. water, soil, loss of biodiversity
 Poor political and economic management of environmental resources leading to pollution
 Undervaluing natural resources
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 The urge to dominate and control nature using advanced technology.
Before the adoption of the modern technologies, human societies had developed sophisticated environmental
conservation measures that ensured sustainable utilization of natural resources. This indigenous conservation
measures include:
 Shifting agriculture to allow soil to restore themselves
 Social system which prevented overexploitation
 Religious and cultural systems which valued and respected nature
 Rationalized harvesting of wildlife
 Nomadism in pastoral communities, wet and dry period grazing, and splitting the herd to avoid
overgrazing
Industrial revolution greatly increased the ability to control environment bringing enormous technological
changes based on increased energy use, mechanization and chemical use in synthetic materials and medical
advances. These activities led to:
 Massive production of goods and services
 Increased specialization
 Massive urbanization
 Cultural disintegration
 Inequitable share of resources and social well being for all
 Natural resource depletion and degradation
 Pollution of air, water, oceans and land
 Global climate change and ozone layer depletion
 Worldwide loss of biodiversity
The concern about environmental degradation resulted in the first global environmental conference 1972,
Stockholm, Sweden. The formation of UNEP as an international agency, addressed global environmental
concerns of both developed and developing countries as they experienced impact of environmental pollution,
though at varying scales. Nations there after gave attention to issues concerning sustainable development.
In 1992, Rio de Janeiro Summit in Brazil, sustainable development was the main agenda. Key outcome of the
summit was Agenda 21 which addressed sustainable development at both local and international levels. It was
a blue print for sustainable development that encompassed poverty eradication and environmental protection.
The basic idea of Agenda 21 was that people must live within the limitations of the planet earth and share its
resources equitably and use them sustainably. In the World Summit on sustainable development held in
Johannesburg in 2002, three key components of sustainable development were identified:
 Eradication of poverty
 Changing patterns of production and consumption and

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 Protection and managing the natural resource base.
Reasons for unsustainable use of resources
1) Ignorance of how ecosystems function
2) Failure of governments to enforce existing laws
3) Profit driven corporate motives
Dimensions of sustainable development
Sustainable quality of life is possible when three dimensions or goals are integrated in the development
process:
1. Economic dimension/goal
It involves wise use of natural resources for economic growth to meet human needs. It also involves increased
support for locally based enterprises and development process that protects the society from any detrimental
forces of international market.
2. Social dimension/goal
The improvement of quality of people’s lives e,g health, freedom, human rights and employment. It involves
greater tolerance for diversity, thereby acknowledging individual values of a cross-section of the society. It
demands that a cross-section of the society has basic needs, equal access to services and is involved in
decision-making processes on matters that affect it. It also demands respect for indigenous cultural values, thus
enabling developing countries to avoid the whole application of western-style free market values and
consumerism:western values have regrettably been used as yardstick to judge the values of societies in other
parts of the world.
3. Environmental dimension/goal
Is the maintenance of environmental systems that support life. It demands that the environment and the species
within it are valued on their own merit, and not just because of their usefulness to humans. That species of
plants and animals have a right to exist and that appropriate action is taken to prevent loss of species and their
habitat.
Aims of sustainable development
The concept encompasses the following aims:
 To help the very poor and vulnerable, who, without necessary help, are left with no option but to destroy the
environment.
 Pursuance of a pattern of economic development that leads to self-reliance in the utilization of available
resources;
 Cost-effective development process that does not degrade environmental quality nor reduce the productivity
of its natural resources in the long run.
 Provision of healthcare, clean water and shelter for all.

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 The promotion of people-centered initiatives in which people are the key resources;
NB: Sustainable society is one that lives within self-perpetrating limits of the environment. Such society
recognizes the limits of its sustainable growth by seeking the best means to achieve the desired growth while
avoiding aimless growth.
Characteristics of a sustainable society
A sustainable society is one measured and evaluated based on the following characteristics.
1) Living within environmental sustainability –where environmental considerations are enriched in policy
formulation and development projects. Societies of the world have to address their respective environmental
issues as they seek to undertake their development activities without harming the environment
(environmentally complaint activities).
2) Equity –It emphasizes not only the creation of wealth along with resource conservation, but also on the fair
distribution of resources among nations and within communities. It also incorporates inter-generational equity
i.e. fair distribution of environmental benefits between generations.
3) Uplifting socio-economic status of the people- Where economic advancement is accompanied by non-
financial components of improving people’s health, education level, the quality of work, the existence of
cohesive communities and the vibrancy of cultural life, none of which can be measured by GNP.
4) Satisfying basic or essential human needs e.g. of the poorest and most needy in the society without any
harm done to the natural and cultural heritage. The needs include biological(e.g. food and sleep) cultural (e.g.
entertainment and music), materials(e.g. money, cars) and non-material (e.g. psychological i.e. safety and
security)
5) Citizen participation i.e. satisfactory number of people who are to be affected by a development process
should also be involved through their voluntary contribution, in project formulation and implementation in
their respective localities. In this case participation is as much a goal of sustainable development as it is a
means of achieving sustainability.
6) Self-reliance-is a unifying objective, a confidence building factor emphasizing on dependence on a
country’s own resources including manpower. Self-reliance refers to independence achieved through rational
use of allocation of a nation’s natural and human resources in the process of sustainable development.
Guidelines to sustainable development
a) Efficient use of resources- Encouraging and facilitating development and application of systems for proper
resources allocation together with incentives to encourage efficient use of resources.
b) Public participation - Establishing forums which encourage and provide opportunity for consultation and
meaningful participation in decision making process.

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c) Access to information -Encouraging and facilitating the improvement and refinement of economic,
environmental, human health and social information. Promote the opportunity for equal and timely access to
information.
d) Integrating decision making and planning - Encourage and facilitate decision making and planning
processes that are efficient, timely and accountable and cross-sectional and which incorporate an inter-
generational perspective of future needs and consequences.
e) Waste minimization and substitution- Encouraging and promoting the development and use of substitutes
for scarce resources where such substitutes are both environmentally sound and economically viable.
Reducing, re-reusing, recycling and recovering the products of society.
f) Research and innovation- Encouraging and assisting research, development, application and sharing of
knowledge and technologies which further our economic, environmental, human health and social well being.
Education for sustainable development
Education is the process of imparting intellectual, moral, social skills and values to learners for a particular
purpose. Education is the key to sustainable development. It should provide the skills, perspectives, values and
knowledge to enable people live sustainably. It must be interdisciplinary and be re-oriented to include the
changes needed to promote sustainable development. Education for sustainable development is also a
process of achieving sustainable development encompassing three pillars: -society, economy and environment.
Thus it includes education for poverty alleviation, human rights, gender equity, cultural diversity, international
understanding and peace.
The overall aim of ESD is to empower citizens to act for positive environmental and social change by giving
people knowledge and skills to help them find new solutions to the social, economic and environmental issues
Objectives of ESD
a. To improve quality of education at all levels for sustainable development i.e. for
Sustainable livelihood with emphasis on access, opportunity and quality outcomes for children and youth in
and out of school in adult literacy.
b. To orient existing education programmes at all levels (content and process) to promote the social,
environmental, cultural and economic knowledge, skills, perspectives and values inherent to sustainability.
c. To create public awareness and build understanding of the principles of sustainable development, with
emphasis on the role of media and civil society.
d. To develop training programmes for imparting skills to promote sustainability practices.
e. To develop strategies at every level to enhance capacity for ESD.

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TOPIC 5: HUMAN POPULATION, SETTLEMENTS AND ENVIRONMENT

Population is a group of individuals of a single species in a place and time. Factors that influence population
size, growth rate and spatial distribution include:
i) Birth and death rates
ii) Sex ratio and age distribution
iii) Migration
Population data:
This is vital statistical information about a population collected through census, sample surveys and vital
registration. The data provide information on population in terms of size, density, structure, growth rate, trends
and socio-economic status. A major input into environment and sustainable development is proper planning
and utilization of resources in relation to the people they are meant to satisfy. Population data enables planners
make decisions at all levels on the effect of population on the environment and the appropriate measures to
take so as to ensure the wellbeing of all.
Population change
It is an interplay of fertility, mortality and migration. The change may be positive, negative or zero. The rapid
change is attributed to improved health services, improved nutrition, and empowerment of girls through
education, improved sanitation and improved transport infrastructure. A population can change negatively
meaning it is declining, positively meaning it is increasing or remains at zero indicating a stable population.
Population composition
It refers to age and sex structure, occupation, education, rural – urban and ethnic make-up. Depending on its
age composition, a population can be termed relatively ‘young or old.’ The age pyramid indicate people in pre-
reproductive stage, reproductive and post reproductive. The needs of these people and their impact on the
environment are different.
Population distribution
The pattern of settlement and dispersal of a population is expressed in terms of population density which is
measured by the average number of persons per unit area. However, the world population is unevenly
distributed due to unevenness in the distribution of resources and the resulting productivity of land. People
tend to cluster in urban areas and high potential/ productive rural areas. High densities result in more
congestion and more adverse impact on the environment.
Human population and its relationship to the environment
1) Since ecosystems have specific carrying capacity, we cannot increase beyond our ability to acquire
raw materials, energy or safe disposal of waste materials from our activities.
2) Shifts in ecosystems that allow an increase in the population of one species often adversely affects
other populations because they compete for the same resources.
3) When humans lack food they turn to unsustainable agricultural practices that degrade ecosystems.
4) Increasing population puts pressure on natural resources causing loss of biodiversity.
5) Loss of biodiversity largely contributes to hunger, poverty, famine, malnutrition, deaths and
environmental degradation.
6) When ecosystems decline, it’s the poor who are affected most and may continue to cultivate their
small farms in spite of severe erosion and exhausted soil fertility. They are unable to afford sound
management practices and remain caught in vicious cycles of over-using already fragile and degraded
resources.

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Generally, rapid population growth directly affects the environment and the quality of life in terms of food,
goods, services, energy, land (space) and pollution. As the population grows exponentially, the demand for
food, goods and services such as water, health, sanitation, housing, transport, education and recreation
increases. Satisfaction for the increased demands results in depletion of natural resources in quantity from over
utilization, and quality from pollution.

Pollution also comes from sheer numbers of people especially in urban areas. This results in slums, congested
roads and services. Wastes are also generated from both production and utilization of food, goods and services
and use of energy.

As population increases, competition for environmental resources increases. Large numbers of people have
less access to productive resources and find themselves deprived of adequate food, housing, health and
sanitation. They experience ‘absolute poverty’. This poverty, in many cases, triggers large-scale internal
migration of people known as ‘environmental refugees.’ They cause pressure on services in areas to which
they immigrate, especially urban areas.

Lack of adequate care to this increase population which must be fed, housed, clothed and educated, can trigger
on increase in the incidence of environmental diseases such as malaria, diarrhoea, intestinal worms, river
blindness, schistosomiasis etc. However, a slow population increase should not be seen as a license to a
healthy nation. There is need to maintain a clean environment through education and awareness.

Population education
It means the use of education in order to increase and promote knowledge and understanding of not only the
numbers of people and their distribution in an area, but also the implication of this population on the natural
and socio-economic environment, hence enables learners make informed decisions at all levels.
Objectives of population education
1) To impart knowledge on population characteristics, basic demographic concepts, processes, methodology
and the national and international population policies and programmes.
2) To help the learner develop skills to analyze population related issues and problems, give the learner
practice in decision-making regarding alternative population situations, appropriate utilization of natural
and human resources and population policy formulation.
3) To help the learner to develop responsible attitudes towards family well-being, national population
programmes, use of natural resources and the improvement of the environment.

Population control
Approaches used to control population:
1) Use of incentives e.g. lower taxes for bearing few children.
2) Provision of disincentives e.g. higher taxes for families with excess children.
3) Legal approach where the government decides the number of children a family should have.
4) Cost-sharing approach – pay for certain services.
5) Shortening maternity leave to discourage births.
Strategies to control population growth:
1) Persuasion
2) Empower girls and women through education/awareness.
3) Provision of family planning services and improved health care.
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4) Decentralization of administrative services to reduce rural-urban migration.
5) Raising marriage age.

Challenges facing population control

1) Culture e.g. the Kikuyu naming system which encourages more births.
2) Resistance to new ideas.
3) Attitude e.g. family planning methods not acceptable.
4) Illiteracy and ignorance.
5) Fear of being unable to have other children in case of deaths and accidents.
6) Religion e.g. Catholics and Muslims are against artificial family planning methods.
7) Poverty
8) Language barriers.
9) Poor awareness strategy
10) Health of individuals.

Population management for sustainable development

There are two schools of thought:
1) That, population growth should be stabilized through special population programmes and policies, before
sustainable development can be achieved.
2) That, population growth is not a problem because it has tremendous potential as a resource for
development. The problem lies with lack of proper management coupled with inequitable distribution of
resources.
To harmonize population and environment, there is need to:
1) Effectively manage resources and improve environmental quality, from a global point of view. People
should be taught to utilize their natural resources to maintain an ecological balance between their needs
and the ability of nature to sustain them.
2) Environmental laws should be enacted and enforced on all aspects of improving environmental quality
such as air pollution control, water treatment and purification and management of wastes.
3) Individual countries need to expand the economy with special stress on rural areas. Improvement should
be made in water supply, agriculture, nutrition, functional literacy and shelter.
4) Human resources need to be managed, just like other national resources, through a comprehensive
population policy and programmes.
A population policy – means explicit or implied measures formulated by a government to influence,
intentionally or unintentionally, the size, growth, distribution or composition of human population
A population policy is explicit when it is contained in a well formulated statement or document by the
government by declaring its intention or plan to affect, at least the country’s population growth and perhaps its
distribution and/or composition.
A population policy is implicit when it is contained in laws, regulations and directives which are not
necessarily issued for the purpose of affecting population growth, distribution or composition.

23
Goals of a population policy
1) A demographic goal aimed at either reducing or increasing the rate of population growth to a given level
at a given time,
2) The education goal, especially in developing countries, which addresses itself to the improvement of
general attainment levels, improvement of women status and providing the youth with information and
education concerning population matters.
3) The clinical goal which aims at provisions of contraceptives, counselling services, examination of users
and training of health workers.
NB: Population policy should ensure that the ethics and morals of society are upheld.
Human settlement and their impact on the environment
Human settlement refers to ‘organized space’, irrespective of their varying densities and levels of
infrastructure, where human activities take place. Human settlements provide the framework of social,
economic and political interactions among people and therefore an integral part of the total environment.
Sustainable development requires that human settlements be planned in such a manner as to provide proper
shelter, adequate food, water, energy and recreation for the inhabitants of human settlement is for human
survival and welfare. Consequently, they reflected the way a group of human beings shelter themselves, work
and interact. They are socio-cultural elements of the total environment which influence and modify climate,
tradition, skills and natural resources. They in turn, are modified by climate, tradition, skills and natural
resources. People in settlements live in communities which are either rural or urban. To construct these
settlements, the natural state of environment has to be changed through provision of housing, social amenities
like schools, health facilities etc and provision of water, energy, sanitation and transport facilities.
Environmental issues in rural settlements
 Rapid population growth
 Overexploitation of natural resources such as fish, soil, wildlife, forest, rangelands, wetlands and
minerals.
 High level of poverty.
 Inadequate or lack of basic needs such as clean drinking water, quality shelter, social amenities and
infrastructure.
 Migration of skilled labour to urban centres
 Malnutrition is high
 Land degradation that causes reduced crop production
 Deforestation leading to loss of biodiversity
 Inadequate education and health facilities
Mitigation measures for rural environmental challenges
 Develop human settlement policy that facilitates sustainable development in rural areas
 Enforce environmental impact assessment on development projects in rural areas
 Improve access roads in rural areas
 Develop and promote alternative energy sources
 Promote community participation and involvement in all stages of project cycle
 Design and implement environmental programmes on management of resources in both high potential
and ASALS
 Expand rural electrification programme to promote development of light industries
 Incorporate indigenous resources use knowledge in management of environmental resources
 Promote research on environmental issues in rural areas
 Intensify family life education and woman literacy
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Environmental status and facts about urban settlements in Kenya
About 20%of Kenya’s population lives in urban settlements
Facts
 Urban population is rapidly increasing
 Urbanization is not accompanied by economic growth hence increase in poverty and cases of
unemployment
 Urban centres depend on rural areas for food, raw materials, energy, water, resources and human
power
 Urbanization competes with agriculture for arable land
 Qualified personnel migrate to urban areas in search of employment and better social amenities
 Urban areas have heavy and light industries that produce goods and services requires in rural areas
 Most of urban workers have families in rural areas thus spend their salaries in developing rural areas

Environmental issues in Urban settlements

Urban centres transform resources in ways that contribute strongly to economic developments and social
welfare. However, they generate wastes that pollute air, water and land. They also contribute to the
degradation of renewable natural resources. The issues are:
 Inadequate housing
 Poor sanitation especially in slums
 Poor solid waste disposal/management
 Increase of social problems like crime and prostitution
 Migration increases urban population/congestion
 Pollution of air, water and lands
 Inadequate urban/town planning
 Shortage of clean water for domestic and industrial activities
 Shortage of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial purpose
 High level of unemployment and under-employment
 Social stress caused by lack of leisure, open space and insecurity
 Problem of street children and families
 High poverty in slums areas e.g. in Mathare and Kibera

Unique problems of slums

 Overcrowding
 Rapid population growth
 Increase of cases of environmental diseases such as dysentery, typhoid, malaria, meningitis and
HIV/AIDS
 Poorly designed shelters
 Lack of basic requirement such as water, sanitation, roads, electricity, hospitals and amenities like
cinema halls
 Slums are built in hazardous areas like dumping sites, flood plains or abandoned quarries
 Increased cases of drug peddling, crime and prostitution
 Joblessness
 High number of single families mainly headed by women
25
Recommendation for improvement of quality of life in urban settlements
 Slum upgrading programme and provision of services
 Revise building by-laws and planning regulations
 Provision of incentives and opportunities to small and medium scale entrepreneurs that generate
employment in order to reduce poverty level
 Improve the planning and management capacities of local authorities
 Develop and implement guidelines for informal settlements improvement programmes
 Provide sewerage facilities for all municipalities and urban centres
 Improve sanitation and environmental management in all municipalities and urban centres
 Empower the urban communities to participate in decision-making on issues affecting them
 Promote co-operation with private sector to boost entrepreneurship.

26
TOPIC SIX: ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
Human health - a state of complete physical, mental and social well being, not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity (WHO)
A disease is a deleterious change in the body’s condition in response to an environmental factor that could be
nutritional, chemical, biological or psychological.
Environmental Pollution – it is any discharge of material or energy into water, land, or air that causes or may
cause acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) detriment to the Earth's ecological balance or that lowers the
quality of life. Pollutants may cause primary damage, with direct identifiable impact on the environment, or
secondary damage in the form of minor perturbations in the delicate balance of the biological food web that
are detectable only over long time periods.

Basic requirements for a healthy environment include: Clean air, safe and sufficient water, safe and adequate
food, safe and peaceful settlements and a stable global environment. The physical environment, our habitat, is
the most important determinant of human health. Protection of the environment and preservation of
ecosystems are the most fundamental steps in preventing human illness. Environmental problems are global
and long-term.

Sources of Environmental pollutants

The origin of environmental pollutants can be traced to their natural occurrence on the earth (e.g. animal and
plant toxins, heavy metals), formation by transformation (e.g. bacterial transformation of metallic mercury to
toxic methyl mercury), concentration of natural substances and their man-made synthesis e.g. domestic
sewage, agricultural wastes, industrial wastes (e.g. petroleum refining, metal plating, textiles etc).

Major Categories of Environmental Health Hazards

1) Chemical - Air pollutants, toxic wastes, pesticides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) etc
2) Biologic -Disease causing organisms present in food and water, plant and animal allergens
3) Physical - Noise, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, heat, cold, vibrations
4) Socioeconomic - Access to safe and sufficient health care
Vulnerable groups to environmental health hazards include, women, children, elderly, ethnic minorities,
disabled, indigenous peoples and those with low socioeconomic status all of whom are often more vulnerable
because of genetics and they are not empowered to change their environment

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ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS
General effects of pollutants to the environment can be broadly be classified into 4.
1. Physcio-chemical impacts - A number of pollutants can impart colour, taste and odour to the receiving
environment making it unaesthetic and even unfit for human use (e.g. pulp and paper industry, tannery
industry)
2. Ecological effects - The addition of pollutants leads to the shift in flora and fauna by breaking down the
food chains resulting in change of the whole plant and animal communities. The diversity of organisms also
decreases due to encouragement of the growth of only a few tolerant forms.
3. Toxicological effects - Pollutants affect photosynthesis, body temperature, predation, mating, fertility and
survival of offsprings, developmental stages, abnormal growths and abnormalities and cause genetic effects,
4. Pathogenic effects – Wastes can contain disease causing organisms causing diseases e.g. diseases like
cholera, typhoid, infective hepatitis are spread by consumption of sewage contaminated waters

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Def: The prevention among workers of departures from ill-health caused by their working conditions. It aims
at providing for the safety, health and welfare of workers and all persons lawfully present at workplaces. (List
occupational hazards in educational institutions)
Hazard- A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity, which may cause the loss of
life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation

THE HIERARCHY OF HAZARD CONTROLS

Wherever possible, risks in a workplace should be removed or reduced as far as reasonably practicable by:
Elimination: of the hazard from the workplace altogether e.g. Disposal of unwanted chemicals, repair
damaged equipment promptly. This ranks highest in priority.
Substitution: with something preferably of a lesser risk which will still perform the same task in a satisfactory
manner e.g. Substitute a hazardous chemical with a less dangerous one.
Isolation: of the hazard from the worker e.g. Isolate and store chemicals properly, Put noisy machinery in
sound proofed rooms
Engineering controls: Re-design equipment, work processes or tools to reduce or eliminate the risk e.g.
Ensure proper machine-guarding is in place, Change bench heights to reduce bending etc
Administrative controls: Provide appropriate training, adequate supervision, signage, maintenance of plant
and equipment, or limitation of exposure time (job rotation).

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Personal protective equipment (PPE): this is the least preferable method of dealing with a hazard, it should
only be adopted when all other methods have proven unsuitable e.g. earplugs for noisy areas, eye protection,
respirators, gloves, boots etc
SCHOOL SAFETY
School Safety are the measures undertaken by the learners, staff, parents and other stakeholders to either
minimize or eliminate risky conditions or threats that may cause accidents, bodily injury as well as emotional
and psychological distress. Accidents can lead to disability or death while emotional and psychological trauma
can result in lack of self-esteem and ultimately lead to poor performance of tasks and responsibilities.
Threats to School Safety
Threats to School Safety can emanate internally (within the school environment) or externally (from the wider
community). Key threats to school safety are:
.Accidents –caused by certain definable factors that can be prevented. The main causes of accidents in schools
are human related, i.e. caused through carelessness, inattentiveness, ignorance, irresponsibility or negligence
on the part of the learners, staff or other stakeholders in general. Accidental injuries can be caused by: Slippery
surfaces; Wet greasy spots; Clutter on the floor; Poorly placed furniture such as desks, benches, and tables;
Weak railings; Insufficient lighting; Sitting carelessly on desk e.g. with feet blocking aisles; Poor ventilation;
Sharp instruments.
.School violence and harassment – main forms are of teacher-on-learner violence and learner-on-learner
violence etc. Teacher-on-learner violence takes the form of physical violence (e.g. corporal punishment, sexual
assault, twisting/pulling of ears, slapping and pinching) or emotional abuse (e.g. verbal abuse and harassment,
taunts and belittling affecting the learners’ ego and self esteem). Learner-on-learner violence is often
characterized by physical attacks, sexual assault and bullying etc (All these are illegal).
.Armed conflicts and insecurity – incidents of land or ethnic clashes, political violence and cattle rustling in
certain parts of the country have had direct and indirect impacts on teaching and learning processes. A number
of schools affected by insecurity have had their teaching processes interrupted through closure. Parents are
unlikely to send their children to schools they deem insecure.
.Lack of adequate healthcare and nutrition –Childhood diseases and other ailments such as malaria and
worm infections have major implications for school attendance, retention and participation. Malnutrition and
hunger among learners are common given the poverty levels among households. Problems relating to health
are also compounded by the increasing incidents of drug and substance abuse among learners, child
pregnancy, female circumcision (FGM) and HIV/AIDS pandemic etc.

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.Lack of sensitivity to sexual maturation challenges for both boys and girls
.Hostile school environment – a school environment that does not accommodate the welfare of or neglects
the needs of its learners, especially girls, children with disabilities, orphans and other children with special
needs. Good interpersonal relationships in schools are also key in fostering good teaching and learning
processes.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste defn – any discarded substance which the owner, producer or user has no further use; All unwanted and
discarded material. Waste occurs as residues, by-products or end products in production, distribution or
consumption of commodities. Waste may be in solid, liquid or gaseous forms
Based on their source, waste can be classified as:
1) Domestic or commercial wastes 2) Municipal waste e.g. sewage, sludge 3) Hospital wastes (medical wastes)
4) Agricultural waste 5) E-waste
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal of waste materials in an effort to
reduce their effect on human health or local amenity. The main purpose of waste management is to protect the
environment from pollution, while at the same time conserving the resources. Waste management aims at:
Reduction of waste; Increased utilization- reuse; Recovery of materials, energy, etc; Substitution of raw
materials; Environmentally sound disposal of wastes

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

The waste hierarchy is a useful framework that has become the cornerstone of sustainable waste management,
setting out the order in which options for waste management should be considered based on environmental
impact. The hierarchy refers to; (formerly 3Rs, currently 4Rs)
1) Reduce – involves minimization of waste generation at source including both amount and toxicity i.e. either
at production and consumer levels mainly by use of more efficient and environmentally friendly techniques. It
stems from the need to control or reduce cost of waste management, need to preserve total landfill capacity
and reduce environmental impacts
2) Re-use – involves either the voluntary continued use of a product for the purpose for which it may not have
been originally intended or the continued or extended use of a product e.g. retreaded automobile tyres, mtumba
industry etc. The materials re-used do not return to the industrial sector
3) Recycle – It’s the collection of a product and the return of this material to the industrial sector e.g.
collection of used newspapers and cans and their eventual return to paper manufactures or aluminium
companies
4) Recovery – It involves the collection of waste as mixed refuse, separation to remove wanted or unwanted
material (e.g. separation by magnets) and the removal of certain materials by various processing steps e.g. of

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waste recovery is energy recovery from combustion of organic waste through incineration for heating boilers
etc
5) Disposal – it’s the ultimate getting rid of waste. Waste disposal methods should be environmentally sound

Most preferable

avoid

reduce

reuse

recycle

recover
(treat)
disposal

Least preferable

Fig 1: Waste management hierarchy

E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
E-waste is a term encompassing various forms of electrical and electronic equipment that are old, end-of-life
electronic appliances that have ceased to be of any value to their owners (UNEP). Increased use of technology
especially in ICT, low initial cost, and unplanned obsolescence of electrical and electronic equipment has led
to an e-waste generation problem for Kenya. In 2010, UNEP estimated the e-waste generated annually in
Kenya at 11,400t from refrigerators, 2,800t from TVs, 2,500t from personal computers, 500t from printers and
150t from mobile phones. E-waste is the most rapidly growing problem in the waste stream due to its quantity,
toxicity and carcinogenicity. Often, the toxic material (heavy metals such as lead, mercury, silver, cadmium
and other Hexavalent chromium elements; beryllium, barium) is improperly disposed and thus poses a threat to
human health and the environment.

Consequences of poor e-waste handling

The environmental consequences resulting from poor handling and management of e-waste include:
 Air pollution, especially when e-waste is burnt
 Waste management problem of non-biodegradable equipment
 Toxicity and radioactive nature of e-waste to the human, water, soil and animals
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  Blockage of water runoff channels
 Waste management disposal problem
 Investments in complex and expensive environment remediation technologies
 Loss / waste of resources that can be recycled for re-use
 Ozone depletion leading to unpredictable weather conditions; prolonged droughts and floods
 E-waste affects people’s health (e.g. lead poisoning and carcinogenic mercury).
 Growth of informal waste disposal centres in the neighbourhood
 Informal trade and management of e-waste

Guidelines for learning institutions on management of E-waste

Learning institutions are recipients of electrical and electronic goods. Unfortunately, most of the second hand
products are not inspected before they are donated. Coupled with poor handling and use, their lifespan
becomes shorter resulting in huge amounts of e-waste in most learning institutions. In order to manage e-
waste, learning institutions need to:
1) Create awareness and conduct sensitization campaigns on responsible e-waste management
2) Develop Memorandum of Understandings (MoUs) with PROs (Producer Responsibility Organisation) for
take-back, recycling and refurbishing of e-waste at life-end
3) Develop mechanisms to ensure that inspection certificates clearly specify end-of-life date and who bears
responsibility thereafter
4) Develop and mainstream e-waste education in curricula.

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TOPIC SEVEN: EMERGING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
1. CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING
1.1. Definition of Terms
Climate
‘Average weather’ described in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities such as temperature,
precipitation and wind over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. Climate
can also be used to describe the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. The classical
period of time is 30years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
Climate change
Defined as alternations in the state of the climate system over time due to natural variability or as a result of
human activity. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate
change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural variability observed over comparable
time periods.”
Global warming
Synonymously used with climate change, it is the gradual increase, observed or projected, in global surface
temperature, referred to as the global temperature, as one of the consequences of the enhanced greenhouse
effect, which is induced by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Climate change adaptation
Adjustment in natural or human systems over time to a new or changing environment, including anticipatory
and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation.
Climate change mitigation
A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases
1.2. The Nature of the Greenhouse Threat
The term Greenhouse effect was coined by a Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius, in 1896. He theorized that
the burning of fossil fuels would increase the amounts of CO 2 in the atmosphere and would lead to a warming
of the planet. The greenhouse effect keeps the earth warm and allows life forms to flourish. The threat is
caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect which results from anthropogenic (human-derived) emissions of
greenhouse gases, many of which will remain in the atmosphere for a long time. (UNEP, 1991).
Scientists predict that if emission rates of CO 2, CFCs, methane and nitrous oxides continue, a global average
temperature rise of 1oC by the year 2030 and of around 3 oC by the year 2100 can be expected. It is also argued
that the global average temperature could rise anywhere from 1 o to 7oC by the year 2030. Human activities
such as power generation, industrialization and transport have been responsible for the accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

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1.3. The Greenhouse Gases
Water vapour (H2O)
The primary greenhouse gas is water vapour. However, because its concentration in the atmosphere is fairly
high, (1-5%), inputs of water vapour from human activities have little effect on its chemical’s greenhouse
effect.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
By contrast, the natural concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is so small (0.036%) that a fairly
large input of CO2 from human activities can affect the average temperature of the troposphere. Accurate
measurement made of CO2concentrations have increased by nearly 25% since industrialization due to the
burning of fossil fuels-coal, oil and natural gas. In addition, the destruction of forestlands releases a large
amount of CO2 into the global atmosphere.
Methane (CH4)
It is often called natural gas: It is 20 times more potent than CO 2 and accounts for 17% of the build-up of
greenhouse gases since the industrial Revolution. Its main source is agricultural, being made up of releases of
gas from the intestinal fermentation in ruminant animals (mainly cows), rice paddies and biomass burning. It
does not have a long life in the atmosphere because it is rapidly oxidized to other chemicals.
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
It is sometimes described as a laughing gas. It is about 230 times as effective per molecule as CO 2. It is
produced both naturally and artificially, and its concentration keeps on increasing at about 0.2 to 0.3 percent a
year. It has an average life of as much as 170 years and is produced as a result of microbial action in the soil.
Its rate of release is accelerated if mineral fertilizers containing nitrogen are used in agriculture. An increased
use of organic fertilizers accompanied by a reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers can cause a reduction in
the emission.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCs are not produced naturally but mainly in industrial production of fluids for refrigeration, propellants in
aerosols, solvents and as foam agents in the production of plastics. They have a long atmospheric life. They
release free chlorine in the upper atmosphere, which catalyses the breakdown of ozone, allowing penetration
of dangerous ultraviolet rays to enter the earth’s surface.
Other gases are: substances which contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine and nitrogen compounds
(hydrocarbons); carbon tetrachloride (a toxic solvent).
1.4. Impacts of Global Warming
Studies of past climate have been used to show how wide a climate change can be produced by just a small
change in the annual change in the average annual temperature (UNEP, 1987). These impacts are:

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a) Impacts on Climate and Precipitation
The increasingly warm temperatures will stir the world’s weather systems into more intense activity; bring
more severe and frequent storms to many parts of the world, including regions which have never experienced
such storms. Rainfall, patterns will alter as the planet warms. Some regions of the world are likely to dry out,
while others would receive too much rainfall for the soil to absorb.
b) Impacts of Water systems
As temperatures rise, the oceans will warm and expand, and the polar ice caps in Greenland and Antarctica
may partially melt, causing sea levels to rise. (Titus & Siedel, 1986). Scientists calculate that the average
temperature rises of 1.50 to 4.50c could cause a rise in sea level by between 20 to 140 centimetres. As the seas
move inland, ground water supplies in many parts of the world will become contaminated with salt-water and
previously fertile land many kilometres inland will become too saline for agricultural use. Rainwater will run-
off land without soaking in; this will flood rivers and plains and increase soil erosion.
c) Impacts on Agriculture and Vegetation
Changes in climate and the composition of the atmosphere may bring significant changes to regions
traditionally rich in agriculture and alter the global distribution of the natural vegetation.
Global warming and climate change will seriously disrupt marine ecosystems. The flooding of many of the
world’s coastal wetlands as the oceans rise, will mean the loss of an essential nursery for many fish and shrimp
species. During past climatic changes, vegetation communities “migrated” to favourable areas, but this climate
change may occur too rapidly. Some plant and animal species may be lost (Firor, 1987). Natural ecosystems
can only adapt to a temperature rise of, at most, 0.1 0C per decade. Climate change may affect the frequency of
outbreaks of plant diseases e.g. potato blight and wheat rust.
d) Impacts on Health
Changes in global climate are likely to alter disease patterns and cause environmental disruption that will
further threaten human health:
i. High temperatures can overload the body’s thermo-regulatory system causing death from stroke and
cardiovascular disease. Warmer temperature will allow the disease-carrying insects, parasites and
viruses to spread leading to fatal infections and tropical diseases into mid-latitude regions.
ii. Lowered crop yields and further falls in per capital food production will affect children in the developing
world. Drought-induced malnutrition and famine may also increase.
iii. The combination of rising sea levels, worsening storms, water shortages and crop failures could displace
many people from their homes. This might not only provoke violence and unrest but also promote the
spread of disease due to overcrowding and poor sanitation.
e) Impacts on Society
Climate change will require new adaptations and new technologies and even force changes in lifestyles.

35
Although, there might be some beneficial effects like increase in plant production, society might face other
problems like overproduction, increased surpluses, lower farm incomes and increased unemployment. It would
intensify existing problems such as drought, desertification and soil erosion and alter the frequency of
ecological hazards such as floods, storms, forest fires and the out-break of pests and diseases. Urban heat stress
might lead to the loss of life.
1.5. Mitigation Measures to Effects of Global Warming
Climate change is a global problem and demands a global solution. There is need for:
i) Immediate and drastic reduction of the order of 60 to 80 percent in methane emissions.
ii) Early implementation of the phase-out of CFCs.
iii) More research into ways of reducing nitrous oxide.
iv) Cost-effective opportunities to reduce Co2 emissions in all countries by increasing the efficiency of energy
use and using renewable, clean sources of energy like solar energy and bio-fuels. (Clean energy supplies).
v) Transport represents about one-third of the world’s total energy consumption, and motor vehicles emit
approx. 25% of the world’s CO2. Manufacture of cars with low emissions and fuel cells that are more
efficient is needed. Government should adopt policies to promote use of public transport as a safe, viable,
clean and cheaper alternative to the use of private cars.
vi) Internationally, nations who are signatories of the International Convention on Climate Change meet
yearly in Conferences of parties (COPs) to assess the commitments to reducing the causes and effects of
climate change. The convention contains targets, commitments and mechanisms to provide additional
resources to the developing world, in their efforts to halt global warming and meet their obligations under
the convention.
vii) There is need to manage the existing forests on a sustainable basis and stop deforestation. Forests hold
carbon, and growing trees absorb significant quantities of atmospheric carbon as well as conserving
extensive biodiversity. A common theme under this is the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
forest Degradation (REDD) mechanism
viii) Fertilizing the oceans to increase the mass of living organisms that they support, could also lead to an
increased uptake of CO2. The possibility of filtering CO 2 from power station emissions, connecting it to
the chemical forms and disposing of it in places like the oceans is being considered (UNEP, 1989).
ix) Nations need both technology and the attitudes to make adaptations. They need to agree on a set of priority
actions and coordinate an international effort to halt the global warming threat and its social effects
(UNEP, 1987).
x) Create global awareness of the consequences of climate change e.g. climate change information centre in
Geneva.

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2. OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is found up to heights of about 60km in the atmosphere. It
is most dense 20 to 25km up, that is, in the stratosphere. If all the ozone were collected at the earth’s surface, it
would form a layer only about 3mm thick, weighing 3000 million tonnes. Although ozone is a minor
constituent of the earth’s atmosphere, its presence is so important that small changes in ozone concentrations
could have drastic effects on life on earth. For instance, for every 1% loss in ozone, 2% more ultraviolet rays
reach the earth’s surface. Every 1% reduction in ozone raises the incidence of skin cancer by 5 to 7 percent.
Ozone is naturally produced from oxygen high up in the atmosphere. Natural forces break it down with the
result that the gas is constantly being created and destroyed.
2.1. Importance of Ozone Layer
i) It acts a filter for ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation emitted by the sun. Its presence prevents the most dangerous
ultraviolet wavelengths from reaching the surface of the earth. It also filters out 70 to 90 percent of the less
damaging portions of UV-B. Thus, ozone has the ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun.
This part of the spectrum known as UV-B is lethal to many forms of life.
ii) Ozone also plays an important role in regulating the temperature of the earth’s surface and the atmosphere.
The troposphere is heated mainly by radiation from the earth’s surface but also to some extent from infra-
red radiation emitted from the stratosphere above. The stratosphere itself is heated by the process in which
ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation. Ozone therefore acts as a kind of ‘heat sink’ for the stratosphere. As
conditions in the stratosphere eventually affect the troposphere, the latter will undergo temperature
changes and thus affect the weather and climate of the earth’s surface. The earth’s temperature is
particularly dependent on ozone levels in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. In the troposphere,
ozone, like carbon dioxide, is a greenhouse gas. Its presence tends to increase the temperature of the
atmosphere and the earth’s surface because of the greenhouse effect.
2.2. Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion
i) Global warming because of influence of atmospheric temperature
ii) Upset marine ecology and lower aquatic life (population) because algae are particularly sensitive to
ultraviolet radiation.
iii) Ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth’s surface is responsible for sunburn, blindness, eye damage, skin
cancer, ageing and wrinkling of skin.
iv) It affects plant growth by slowing down photosynthesis and delaying germination in many plants, trees
and crops.
v) Climate change which will have multiple effects on agriculture, human society and change in natural
ecosystems.
vi) Impairment of ability of the body’s immune system to cope with infections.

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vii) Degradation of synthetic materials and plastics (their lifetimes could be shortened). UV-B breaks down
the structure of paints and plastics.
viii) Increased smog in cities, hence urban pollution.
ix) It leads to droughts and flooding in some parts of the earth’s surface.
2.3. Sorting out the greenhouse problem
An international action is urgently required to minimize both future greenhouse heating and ozone
depletion through trying to sort out the greenhouse problem:
a. Reduce the rate at which fossils fuels are burnt and other greenhouse gases produced.
b. Dispose of the greenhouse gases as they are produced elsewhere than in the atmosphere.
c. Recover the greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere and dispose of them elsewhere;
d. Accept the changing climate and adapt to it.
3. LOSS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (BIODIVERSITY)
Biodiversity entails the variability among living organisms from all sources such as terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. It encompasses diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems.
Biodiversity is considered at three main levels:
a. Genetic diversity( variation within same species)
b. Species diversity(variation of plant and animal species)
c. Ecological (Ecosystems) diversity-includes all the ecological processes that support life in the
biosphere. It also includes a wide range of diversity in terms of habitats, microhabitats and biotic
communities.
3.1. Species Distribution
The number of living species on earth is not yet known, but estimates indicate that they could range from 5 to
80 million species or more. Of these, only 1.4 million have been briefly described; 75,000 of them are insects,
4,000 vertebrates and 250,000 plants. The rest are invertebrate and micro-organisms. The abundance of species
increases from the poles towards the equator; half of the world’s species are found within the tropical regions
where biological resources are concentrated in about 13 countries known for their so-called mega-diversity.
They contain at least 60% of the total world biological diversity. These countries include Brazil, Colombia,
Indonesia, China, Ecuador, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, Zaire, Madagascar and Australia.
3.2. Importance/Value of Biodiversity
i) Biological diversity concerns human well-being and maintenance of life on earth. It forms the basis for the
protection of the earth processes that support life e.g. ecological processes such as biogeochemical cycles,
recycling of nutrients, food chains, soil conservation, and modification of climate and soil fertility, shelter
for animals and provides breeding grounds for fish and other animals.

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ii) In socio-economic development, biological resources are important in agricultural development.
iii) Biological resources provide building materials and in industrial development.
iv) For many centuries, people have depended on plants and animals as sources of food.
v) Plant materials are the main source of fuel for large populations.
vi) Biological resources are used in recreation because of its aesthetic value (environmental beauty).
vii) Biological diversity has been used in the advancement of knowledge in science and technology. (Research
value).
viii) Economic value as in tourism and trade.
ix) Ethical value where organisms also have a right to survive and exist on planet earth.
3.3. Kenya’s Concern for Loss of Biodiversity
Kenya is concerned because of the following reasons:
a. Kenya is losing biodiversity before their value is determined.
b. Biodiversity is not equally distributed. It is higher in potential areas than in ASALS, yet the loss is
high in potential areas.
c. As population increases in both high potential, and ASALS more loss is predicted unless bold steps
are taken to conserve all levels of diversity.
3.4. Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Loss of biodiversity has been part of evolutionary trends characterized by increase in species diversity,
ecosystems stability and genetic diversity through a geological time span. These have given rise to better-
adapted species through natural selection. However, the present threats to species, most of them are human
engineered could lead to the disappearance of most known and unknown species within a short period of time.
i) Habitant destruction caused by deforestation for agriculture and settlements.
ii) Poaching of mainly large game such as elephant and rhino.
iii) Commercialized agriculture that emphasizes monoculture.
iv) Overharvesting of resources such as fish and marine organisms.
v) Drainage of wetlands for agricultural and settlement land uses.
vi) Introduction of exotic species (e.g. water hyacinth and Nile Perch fish in L.Victoria) which compete
with indigenous species in an environment without natural enemies of exotic species.
vii) Insufficient management of some protected areas such as national parks.
viii) Climate change which affects global surface in different ways,
ix) Siltation of water bodies affecting species survival.
x) Pollution of habitats-water, forests, soils, air.
xi) Ozone layer depletion.

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3.5. Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity
So of the strategies that have been coined to avert the loss of biodiversity include:
i) International policy guidelines on the use of biological resources, financing and protection, restriction of
collection or possession etc.
ii) Enactment of measures to protect biological resources already threatened and endangered species.
iii) Involvement of local communities in conservation.
iv) Promote public education.
v) Promote public participation and access to the use of biological resources even in the protected and
reserved areas.
vi) There is need for international co-operation in technical, financial and institutional arrangement for
biodiversity conservation.
vii) National governments to involve people in establishing gene banks, botanical gardens and protective
habitats.
viii) Emphasize protection of life support systems, protection of indigenous species and sustainable
utilization of biological resources.
ix) Encourage in-situ and ex-situ management of biological diversity.
x) Establishment of new areas for conservation of biodiversity.
xi) Implementation of Convention on Biological Diversity and Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, which
protect biodiversity.
xii) Creation of environmental awareness of the importance of biodiversity for socio-economic and cultural
development.

4. WOOD FUEL-ENERGY CRISIS

Energy is essential in industrial production as well as in domestic sectors. Kenya depends largely on wood
fuel, electricity and imported petroleum as sources of energy. Wood- fuel is the predominant source of
household energy and accounts for about 73%. Indeed energy is a critical factor in the development process of
any country. The demand for energy has increased drastically because of the rapid population growth in both
rural and urban settlements.
4.1. Environmental Issues Arising out of Demand for Energy
a. Unsustainable demand for wood-fuel, which leads to deforestation.
b. Use of inefficient technology (i.e. three stone fire place) which is wasteful and causes air pollution in
overcrowded and poorly ventilated houses affecting mainly women and children’s health.
c. Women and children spend most of the time working during the day collecting scarce fuel wood and
sometimes from far distances.

40
d. Scarcity of fuel wood is forcing families to turn to agricultural residues such as maize stalks, straws and
cobs thus affecting soil fertility and food production.
e. Fuel wood has become very expensive especially to the poor living below the poverty line.
f. Families are cooking less nutritious foods that use more energy because of shortage and high cost of fuel
wood and charcoal. Less nutritious food, when regularly used is expected to lead to malnutrition and
deficient diseases like kwashiorkor and marasmus.
4.2. Possible interventions to wood fuel- energy crisis
a. Recognition that wood fuel- energy crisis exists and its resolution is an urgent priority in Kenya.
b. Strengthen afforestation and agroforestry programmes to produce the required wood fuel energy as well as
improving soil fertility.
c. Use of fuel-efficient cooking jikos and stoves.
d. Ensure that women are empowered to participate in decision making on energy resources at all levels.
e. Promote use of alternative sources of energy such as biogas, solar, wind and electricity.
f. Provide adequate measures for energy conservation e.g. switch off lights when not in use.
g. Create awareness on wood fuel –energy crisis through environmental education.

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TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND STEWARDSHIP
Introduction/ definition of terms
Environment- include the physical factors of the surroundings of human beings including land, water,
atmosphere, climate, sound, taste, buildings and cultural practices; the biological
factors of animals, plants and micro-organisms and the social factors. Environment is a whole set of natural
and social systems in which human beings and other organisms live and from which they draw their
sustenance.
Environmental planning- is making decisions for both long-term and short-term strategies that take into
account environmental exigencies/concerns.
Environmental management- is planning and implementation of the strategies to ensure effective and
efficient utilization of resources in order to achieve the set objectives. It includes protection, preservation,
conservation and sustainable use of the various elements or components of the environment.
Environmental planning and management- can therefore be defined as the initiation and operation of
activities to direct and control the acquisition, transformation, distribution and disposal of resources in a
manner capable of sustaining human activities with a minimum disruption of physical, ecological and social
processes.
Environmental Stewardship- is the care for the environment which incorporates an ethic that guides actions
to benefit the natural world and other people. It deals with what actions are to be taken and what values and
ethical considerations are behind those actions, e.g the moral rules that govern how we should treat endangered
species. Stewardship is a matter of everyday people caring enough for each other and for the natural world that
they do things that are compatible with that care.
Environmental Ethics- is the moral relations between human beings and their natural environment i.e the
value that mankind places on protecting, conserving and efficiently using resources that the earth provides.
The key is to balance awareness and motivation for environmental issues while not neglecting the needs of
people. Ethics claim that we posses obligations to respect the environment for the sake of human well-being
and posterity.
Environmental Conservation- it involves the protection, preservation and proper utilization of resources in
the environment so as to continue benefiting the present generation, while maintaining its potential to meet the
needs and aspirations of the future generations. It is the process of preventing something from loss, waste or
damage or destruction. It also embraces rehabilitation and restoration of damaged parts of the environment.
The Need for Environmental Management The PLANET as an important HOME for human beings and
whose HEALTH is of great concern to all of us, is a PATIENT that needs attention. The natural and managed
ecosystems support human life and economies with a range of goods and services( Ecosystems capital).
However, the health of ecosystems is getting affected through: increasing human population growth and

42
its detrimental effects on human well-being, a decline in vital ecosystem goods and services,
negative impacts of climate change, loss of biodiversity, depletion of ground water supplies,
degrading agricultural soils, overfishing in the oceans and lakes, cutting forests faster than
regeneration and pollution of water, land and air. Thus there is need to: 1. Preserve Nature – societies
should preserve rare species and their habitat; protect areas of social, ecological, geographical, historical,
scenic and recreational importance. 2. Conserve Resources – resources should be confined to the global
steady state level by stabilizing populations, shifting to resource conservation lifestyles, recycling recoverable
resources and shifting energy use to renewable sources. 3. Control Pollution – It involves eliminating
damaging, hazardous and noxious pollution of air, water and land. It is worth noting that humanistic values
play an important role in augmenting environmental values to provide a fuller philosophy of social welfare.
Humanist thought is rich with insights into the questions of human welfare, and is fully compatible with
environmental views.
Environmental Management Process In the context of sustainable development, all environmental assets,
natural and manmade comprise the capital (Renewable and non-renewable resources – oil, soil, coal, natural
gas; structure, habitat and functions of all environments such as the ozone layer, the protective functions of
forests and wetlands, the self-purification functions of rivers and oceans and the store of biological diversity).
Conservation suggests that economic growth should be within limits set by the ability of the environmental
capital to regenerate itself through proper management. Just as management principles are utilized in a
business firm, or company to maintain sustainable production and growth, so should they be applied to all
environmental activities like utilization of tropical forests, coastal resources, manufacturing industries etc.
Likewise, the functions of management should be applied to resource utilization in full. This involves proper
planning, organizing, staffing, co-coordinating, directing, communicating
and controlling. The success in carrying out these functions in all development projects and activities will
mean that resources will not be wasted, overused or misused. Their utilization will be properly directed to
maintain their sustainability and reduce the conflict between environment and development.
Management process involves planning, organizing, leading, controlling, decision-making, problem-
solving, communicating and reporting. All these should be applied to environmental resource utilization to
ensure that resources are sustained. Planning is the process through which managers set goals and objectives of
national development and organization. Once goals are set, a plan or strategy on how to achieve the goals is
drawn up. Resources are allocated to various activities, for example, a budget is drawn. Planning in
environmental management involves proposing economically efficient and environmentally friendly means of
realizing goals. Ecological concerns should be incorporated with economic concerns to avoid problems of
integration at later stages. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) suggests that the most efficient way of doing this at the national level is to adopt a strategic approach

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by first drawing up a national conservation strategy and then incorporating it into the national development
plan. The national development planning team must be able to logically analyse anticipated events deduced
from past experiences. They must also have an understanding of the present environmental conditions and the
integrated, interdependent nature of the various components of the environment. Planners should have a
background of economics, ecology and ecosystems and should be creative, rational and systematic.
Organizing is the process by which managers design a framework that will be used to implement plans to
achieve goals and objectives. This involves determining what programme, projects and activities must be
performed. In environmental management, this concerns a wide field as all human activities utilize
environmental resources and are likely to have an impact on the environment. Environmental managers should
ensure that the activities chosen have the least environment repercussions. Organizing involves dividing the
work to be done. It can also mean accounting and administration. Management includes leadership which
involves determining activities to be performed, diving work and assigning it to people who can do it.
Leadership in management of resources is very important. In many instances people are willing to contribute
to enhancing their environment, for example, planting trees, keeping their environment clean, improving their
shelter and other basic activities, but they lack enlightened leadership to organize them and show them where
and how to start. The aspect of control is essential if goals and objectives of sustainable development are to be
attained. The control process must be timely and effective without compromising quantity and quality, not
only of the economic and social services but patterns of work, guiding and counseling, on-the-job training,
motivating and disciplining. Environmental managers must be able to visualize the environment in totality.
They must also be trained in human relations skills because they manage people who, in turn, manage
resources such as forests, fresh water bodies and wildlife. They must, therefore be able to work with and
understand others. Managers are constantly called upon to make decisions which involves selecting a course
of action to solve a problem which must be timely and effective. This gives them the ability to supervise those
doing the job. Everyone is involved in managing environmental resources in one way or another. Therefore,
people should have the basic knowledge needed to manage resources efficiently. Examples are managing a
plant nursery, pruning garden trees, mending a broken tap to avoid wasting water, managing organic wastes in
a compost pit, protecting self and others from pesticides, improving the environment to get rid of undesirable
insects like malaria-causing mosquitoes, protecting water sources, filtering and boiling water before drinking,
protecting soil erosion, and choosing businesses that do not put undue stress on the environment.
The Integrated Approach to Environmental Management The main objective is to promote the concept of
sustainable development, so that it is able to not only meet present needs while conserving the quality and
productive potential of the environment, but to be also capable of meeting the needs of future generations. As a
result of the inherent complexity and interrelationships that exist between ecosystems, there is need to use an
integrated approach to environment and development issues. Planners must take into account patterns of

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consumption and production, transfers of technology, financial requirements, eradication of poverty and the
improvement of quality of life. Plants and animals must be carefully monitored and safeguarded from undue
disturbance. This demands appropriate institutions, technologies and personnel. Integration of economic,
social, and environmental factors must be accomplished at the
policy, planning and management levels. The overall framework in which such integration should take place
in each country is to incorporate them in national plans, goals and objectives. Changes and re-orientation
should, therefore, be envisaged and encouraged with the objective of having each nation conduct a national
review of economic, sectoral and environmental policies, strategies and plans to ensure progressive integration
of environment and development.
Environmental law in Kenya
Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999 The enactment of EMCA, 1999 was a
milestone in promoting sustainable environmental
management in the country. The Act provides for the harmonization of about 77 sectoral statutes, which
address aspects of the environment. Some sectoral statutes have inadequate provisions for prosecution of
environmental offenders, while in some, penalties are not sufficiently punitive to deter offenders. EMCA, 1999
provides an institutional framework and procedures for management of the environment, including provisions
for conflict resolution. Section 3 of EMCA, 1999 states that “Every person in Kenya is entitled to a clean
and
healthy environment and has the duty to safeguard and enhance the environment.” The Act is intended to
ensure that our activities do not compromise the capacity of the resource base to meet the needs of the present
generation as well as those of future generations (WCED, 1987) This law gives entitlement to every Kenyan to
access the various public elements or segments of the environment for recreation, education, health, spiritual
and cultural purposes. EMCA gives Kenyan’s redress against offenses related to:
 Pollution of water, air and land
 Quality standards of air, water and factory products. Inspection of any industry or any factory producing
goods and services.
 Hazardous wastes, chemicals and radioactive substances.
 Environmental restoration orders, assessments and conservation orders.
 Environmental impact assessment report or exercise,
 Existing laws relative to the environment,
 Accessibility to records,
 Regulations concerning the environment

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 The Role of Environmental Law The general purpose of environmental law in Kenya is five-fold:
 To ensure sustainability of the environment by mitigating environmentally harmful consequences of socio-
economic activities,
 To provide precautionary measures to mitigate harmful effects of human activities,
 To ensure the integration of environmental considerations into development planning and management,
 To promote public participation in environmental decision-making and enforcement,
 To provide legal and institutional machinery for application of the above principles,
Establishment of NEMA The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) is established under
the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) No. 8 of 1999, as the principal
instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. The
Authority implements environmental legislation including the Environmental Management & Coordination
Act (EMCA, 1999) and relevant regulations. The environmental legislation stipulates standards and procedures
for handling various types of waste in order to reduce environmental pollution. The Authority sensitizes and
builds capacity of the regulated community aimed at enhancing their compliance and receives feedback on the
implementation of the laws. The Authority has put in place an elaborate mechanism for enforcement of
environmental laws and initiates prosecution of environmental offenders in collaboration with relevant arms of
government.
Mandate of NEMA The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) is a government parastatal
established to exercise general supervision and co-ordination over all matters relating to the
environment. The Authority is the principal instrument of Government in the implementation of all policies
relating to the environment. Section 9(2) of EMCA details 17 statutory functions that NEMA shall undertake.
Functions of NEMA: The authority’s core functions are:
 Coordinating the various environmental management activities being undertaken by the lead agencies,
 Promote the integration of environmental considerations into development policies, plans, programmes and
projects, with a view to ensuring the proper management and rational utilization of environmental resources,
on sustainable yield basis, for the improvement of the quality of human life in Kenya.
 To take stock of the natural resources in Kenya and their utilization and conservation.
 To establish and review land use guidelines.
 Examine land use patterns to determine their impact on the quality and quantity of natural resources.
 Carry out surveys, which will assist in the proper management and conservation of the environment.
 Advise the Government on legislative and other measures for the management of the environment or the
implementation of relevant international conventions, treaties and agreements.
 Advise the Government on regional and international conventions, treaties and agreements to which Kenya
should be a party and follow up the implementation of such agreements.
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 Undertake and coordinate research, investigation and surveys, collect, collate and disseminate information
on the findings of such research, investigations or surveys.
 Mobilize and monitor the use of financial and human resources for environmental management.
 Identify projects and programmes for which environmental audit or environmental monitoring must be
conducted under this Act.
 Initiate and evolve procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents, which may cause
environmental degradation and evolve remedial measures where accidents occur e.g. floods, landslides and
oils pills.
 Monitor and assess activities, including activities being carried out by relevant lead agencies, in order to
ensure that the environment is not degraded by such activities. Management objectives must be adhered to and
adequate early warning on impending environmental emergencies is given.
 Education and public awareness, about the need for sound environmental management, as well as for
enlisting public support and encouraging the effort made by other entities in that regard.
 Publish and disseminate manual codes or guidelines relating to environmental management and prevention
or abatement of environmental degradation.
 Render advice and technical support, where possible, to entities engaged in natural resources management
and environmental protection, so as to enable them to carry out their responsibilities satisfactorily.
 Prepare and issue an annual report on the State of Environment in Kenya and in this regard, may direct any
lead agency to prepare and submit to it a report on the state of the sector of the environment under the
administration of that lead agency. 1) National Environmental Committee/council-its role is for policy
formulation for the protection of the environment. 2) NEMA Board of Directors-Oversee the management of
the institutions created by the act itself. 3) Public complaints committee-Investigates complaints to the
national Environmental council. 4) National Environmental Tribunal-Receives appeals on environmental
matters, inquires into matters and makes awards.
Role of Educational Institutions in Environmental Management
 Green initiatives in Kenya Green economy encompasses all activities or actions that help reduce carbon
emissions into the atmosphere which is a major component of greenhouse gases that enhances global warming
thus causing climate change. Provides the best eco-friendly option to ensure future sustainability. Green
economy upholds the efficient use of natural resources and energy while enabling economic growth that
supports creation of job opportunities and improvement of livelihoods thus alleviating poverty. Green
Economy deviates from past economic growth which has been largely driven by energy obtained from the
combustion of fossil fuels. The use of fossil fuels results in emissions of greenhouse gases especially carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere thus increasing global warming. This economic growth described as “brown
economy” has led to the over-exploitation, depletion and degradation of natural capital namely, natural
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resources and ecosystem goods and services. This has caused widespread environmental degradation without
allowing adequate time for regeneration of the natural resource capital base. The School Green Initiative is a
major programme coordinated by the Ministry in collaboration with Ministry of Education. The programme is
encouraging tree planting in schools since the learning institutions own land and the student population
guarantees high survival rates of the trees. Through the “adopt a tree initiative” pupils and students are
encouraged to adopt and care for a tree during their schooling period thus enhancing survival and increase in
forest cover.
Environmental Management Tools:
1.Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) EIA is the process of evaluating the likely impacts (positive or
negative) of proposed development projects on the environment for the purpose of making decisions on
whether to approve or disapprove the project. The EIA process consists of ten main activities (Fig. 1):
ACTIVITIES
Project Description and Screening
Project Description Description of the project and how it functions or operates in a technical context. For
example the road type/class, the length of the road, the width and slope of shoulders, the width of reserve,
width and number of road lanes, design weight and speed, etc.
Location of the Project The proposed location for the project and why the particular location was chosen. For
a road a description of its origin and destination, and administrative units to be covered.
Project Duration The time period for the project (construction, operation and post-operation)
Environmental Requirements Potential environmental requirements (stresses) during project’s operational
phase, including land requirements, air pollution emissions, water usage and water pollutants, waste generation
and disposal, noise and aesthetic concerns.
Project Justification Identified current needs of the project in the proposed location, socio-economic needs,
population growth, conservation, recreation, etc. Strictly speaking, the project description task is ordinarily
undertaken by the project proponents or their agents, such as architects, designers, etc.
1. Screening Screening decides whether the development project requires an EIA process or not. Basically it
should clear all those projects where there are no major negative impact issues. This decision can be made on
the basis of an assessment or by following the law. The Second Schedule of the Environmental Management
and Co-ordination Act (EMCA), 1999, lists the types of projects that must undergo an EIA. After the screening
of a project the decision will fall into one of the following three categories: 1) Full EIA required. 2)
Preliminary assessment required. 3) EIA not required.
2. Assembling Pertinent Institutional Information (regulatory framework) This activity focuses on the
collection and assembling of pertinent institutional information related to the construction and operation of the
proposed project. Institutional information refers to a multitude of environmental laws, regulations and

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policies or executive orders related to the physical, chemical, biological, cultural, socio-economic and political
environments. A perusal of all environmental legislation for the country will provide a guideline.
3. Scoping – Identification of Potential Impacts After screening and when a decision has made for the
further environmental assessment of a project the next stage is to determine the scope of the EIA study. This is
termed scoping, which is an early and open process that ensures EIAs are relevant and focused by defining:
 The main problems and issues surrounding the project;
 The likely positive and negative impacts of the project;
 The spatial, temporal and institutional boundaries of the project and its impacts
 Consultation with all stakeholders (public participation). Scoping, therefore, helps in understanding the
extent of environmental impacts and identifies significant environmental issues for further study. Scoping
should assist in the identification of impacting activities and impacted environmental components (physical,
biological, economic, social, health and cultural) for all major negative impact issues.
4. Baseline Conditions Mapping (Baseline survey) This activity focuses on describing the affected
environment and it involves establishing the pre-project environmental condition. There are two major
purposes of describing the environmental setting of a proposed project in an EIA. These are: a) To assess
existing environmental quality, as well as the environmental impacts of other alternatives being studied,
including the no-project alternative, b) To identify environmentally significant factors or geographical area
that could preclude development of a given alternative, such as habitats for threatened or endangered species.
In describing the pre-project environment you need to describe the following a) Physical environment
components i) Geology ii) Soils iii) Hydrology iv) Atmosphere b) Biological environment components i)
Vegetation (Flora) ii) Animals (Fauna) c) Socio-economic i) Human population ii) Employment etc.
5. Impact assessment This is the most technically difficult and challenging activity. It involves: a) prediction
of impact magnitude and direction, and b) the evaluation of impact significance, for all the impacts identified
in the scooping stage. Impact assessment requires the quantification, where possible, or at least the qualitative
description, of the anticipated impacts of the proposed project on the various environmental components.
Impact Prediction Impact prediction is a process designed to identify the magnitude of potential impacts, and
provides the basis for the assessment of significance. An environmental impact prediction should, at minimum,
perform the following: • determine the initial reference state (i.e. preproject conditions) • forecast the future
state/conditions with and without the project; and, • compare with environmental standards and guidelines
where appropriate.
Impact Magnitude Impact magnitude relates to the severity of the impact, whether the impact is irreversible
or reversible, and the potential rate of recovery from the impact. For instance, the magnitude of the impact is
considered high if a major adverse impact is cannot be mitigated. Moderate to minor unmitigated impact of a
similar nature will result in resources being still usable but at some inconvenience to the public.

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Extent of Impact The spatial extent or the zone of influence of the impact should always be determined. An
impact can be site-specific or limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the watershed of the
proposed project; a regional impact that may extend beyond the watershed; and national, affecting resources
on a national scale.
Impact Duration Environmental impacts have a temporal dimension that needs to be considered. Impacts
occur at different phases of the project cycle may need to be considered. An impact that generally lasts for
only 3 years after project initiation may be classified short-term. An impact which continues for 10 years or
more but less than 20 years may be defined as medium-term; and impacts that last beyond 20 years are
considered long-term.
6. Identification of Mitigation Measures If the impact magnitude is high and evaluation shows the impacts
are likely to be significant on the environment then the next question to ask is "What can be done about these
impacts?'' In this step, the study team formally identifies appropriate mitigation measures, i.e. the project-
activities operational features that can be used to minimize the magnitude of a given impact. A wide range of
measures can be proposed to prevent, reduce, remedy, or compensate each of the adverse impacts evaluated as
significant. These are summarized as: Avoidance: Replacement: Downsize: Reduction: Restoration:
Compensate
7. Selection of the Best Alternative (Project Alternative Evaluation) In practice projects usually focus 3-5
alternatives. Assessment and selection of the best alternative is the “heart of the environmental impact
assessment”. Information on the environmental impacts of the proposed action and the alternatives should
therefore be presented in comparative form so as to clearly highlight the issues and provide a basis for choice
among options by the decision makers and the public.
8. Preparation of Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) The EIA information is communicated to the
various stakeholders using an EIA report or better known as an environmental impact statement (EIS). While
the requirements i.e. content and format, of an EIA report may vary from one country to another, It is
suggested that an EIS should include the following information: Project Title: Project Proponent/Initiator:
Executive Summary: Project Description i. Introduction ii. Legal and Policy Framework. iii. Baseline
Conditions iv. Significant Environmental Impacts v. Analysis of Alternatives vi. Environmental Management
Plan or Mitigating Measures vii.Summary and Conclusions viii. References ix. Appendices: a) List of EIA,
Scoping experts and Matrices, Impact credentials Evaluation b) Sources of Sheets Data and Work Plan
Information, Budget c) Terms of Reference (TOR)
9. Public consultation EMCA (Kenya, 1999) and Regulation 21 of the Environmental (Impact Assessment
and Audit) Regulations 2003 (Kenya, 2003) require that the public participate in the assessment procedure. To
meet this requirement an interim EIS is prepared and placed in convenient places and the public is given 60
days to view and comment. These comments are incorporated in the decision making process and in the

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production of the final EIS. Usually, the public is reached through paid up advertisements in print media.
10. Preparation of a Project Management/Monitoring Plan project design during and after the preparation
of the EIS. This is a system of monitoring and feedback that help to identify changes in link between
mitigation and monitoring of outcomes, and the effectiveness of mitigation measures.
2. Environmental Audit (EA) E.A. is defined as a periodic, objective and documented assessment of an
organization’s operation against selected audit criteria, e.g. - compliance requirements, or management
practices; Operational status compared to environmental performance expectations. EA is used as a system to:
- check whether a company/organization is complying with environmental laws and regulations, - complying
with Environmental Management Plan; - assess company’s environmental management systems, policy, or
equipment. In Kenya (i) The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA, 1999), and(ii) The
Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations(2002) Spell out for you what you are required to do
in EIA and EA. s

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