‫د صبا خيرالدين ابراهيم‬

Medical physiology Lec :1

Physiology of nervous system

The Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
1) Integration of body processes
2) Control of voluntary effectors (skeletal muscles), and mediation of voluntary
reflexes.
3) Control of involuntary effectors ( smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands) and
mediation of autonomic reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure, glandular secretion, etc.)
4) Response to stimuli
5) Responsible for conscious thought and perception, emotions, personality, the mind.

.
The Nervous System is divided into

Two Main Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS) and the

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Divisions of the Nervous System Divisions of
the Nervous System

Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system is a network of cells called neurons that coordinate actions and
transmit signals between different parts of the body.

The nervous system is an organ system that coordinates voluntary and involuntary
actions and responses by transmitting signals between different parts of our bodies.

NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous Tissue Definition

Nervous tissue is the term for groups of organized cells in the nervous system, which

is the organ system that controls the body’s movements, sends and carries signals to

and from the different parts of the body, and has a role in controlling bodily functions

such as digestion. Nervous tissue is grouped into two main categories: neurons and

neuroglia. Neurons, or nerves, transmit electrical impulses, while neuroglia do not;

neuroglia have many other functions including supporting and protecting neurons.

Basic Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons
Central to the functioning of the nervous system is an extensive network of
specialized cells called neurons. Neurons feature many thin projecting fibers called
axons, which penetrate deep into tissues. They are able to communicate with other
cells by chemical or electrical means at synapses. Neuronal function is supported by
neuroglia, specialized cells which provide nutrition, mechanical support, and
protection.

These cells functionally divided to four zones:

1. Receptor Zone: It is the body cell and its dendrites. Dendrites provide a receptive
area that transmits electrical impulses to the cell body.
2. Impulse origin one: it is the axon hillock, the origin of the axon near the cell
body. Here, the nerve impulses originate.
3. Impulse transmission zone: it is the reign extends from the axon hillock to the
telodendria, the nerve ending. The nerve impulses transmit to synaptic buttons.
4. Neurotransmitter secretion zone: it is telodendria and its synaptic buttons which
responsible to transmit the impulses to other cell by secret the neurotransmitters
Parts of a Neuron
• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses
toward the cell body
• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of
cytoplasm
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
• Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

Three types of Neurons

 Sensory, or afferent neurons, relay information from the PNS to the

CNS; different types of sensory neurons can detect temperature,
pressure, and light.
 Motor, or efferent neurons, send signals from the CNS to the PNS;
these signals provide information to sensory neurons to “tell” them
what to do (e.g., initiate muscle movement).
 Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons to the brain and
spinal cord; they act as connectors to form neural circuits and are
 involved with reflex actions and higher brain functions like decision-
making.
 Soma:which contains a nucleus, organelles, and a modified endoplasmic
reticulum called Nissl body.
 Although there is DNAin the neuron, somehow DNAreplication and mitosis do
not occur, resulting in the neurons lack of ability to reproduce or regenerate .

Structural classification

 Unipolar: single process

 Bipolar: 1 axon and 1 dendrite
 Multipolar: 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites
Classification of Neuroglia
•Neuroglia: are the supporting cells of the nervous system.

1. Astrocytes: star shaped cells found between neurons and blood vessels. They are
the most abundant glial cells.
Function: structural support transport of substance between blood vessels and
neurons, mop up excess ions (k) and neurotransmitters.
2. Microglial cells: small ovoid cells.
Function: structural support and phagocytosis (immune protection).
3. Ependymal cells: cuboidal or columnar shaped cells.
Function: form a porous layer through which substances diffuse between the
interestitial fluid and the cerebrospinal fluid.
4. Oligodendrocytes: resemble astrocytes but have less processes and arranged in
rows along nerve fibers.
.Function: produce myelin sheet within the brain spinal cord 

 

Nerve fibers:
The nerve fibers divided to myelinated and unmyelinated. The myelin
sheath formed by oligo dendrocytes. All myelinated axons are surrounded
by myelin sheath except Ranvier’s nodes, which have 2000-12000 Na+
chanal/μm2 axolemma, while in the first one of axone 350-500, in the cell
body 50.75, in the myelin sheath 25, in the end of axon 20-75, and in the
unmyelinated axons 110. Unmyelinated are smaller than 2μm in diameter,
whereas those that are larger are likely to by myelinated. Myelinated axons
conduct impulses more rapidly than unmyelinated.

Classification of nerve fiber according its conduction velocity:

A) Type-A-nerve fiber:

 Its conduction velocity is very high (2-80m/s) because it is

myelinated and big diameter (1-16μm). It is called fast fiber such as
somatic nerve fiber which pressure and touch sensation. It is can
triggered the nerve impulse under anesthesia because of myeline
sheath, but cannot triggered the nerve impulse under compression
because of the big diameter which cause the paralysis

B) Type-B-nerve fiber:
Their conduction velocity is less than types-A (3-15m/s) because it is
myelinated but smaller diameter (3μm). It is called moderate fiber such as
visceral nerve fibers which pressure and touch sensation like type A.
C) Type-C-nerve fiber:

 Its conduction velocity is very low (0.25-1.5m/s) because it is

unmyelinated and small diameter (0.5-1.5μm).it is called slow fibers
such as all nerve fiber which pain and temperature sensation. It is
cannot triggered the nerve impulse under anesthesia, because it is
unmyelinated; and under compression, because of the small
diameter



Properties of Nerve Fiber:
1. Excitability
 Refers to the ability of some cells to be electrically excited resulting in the
generation of action potentials. Neurons, muscle cells (skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth), and some endocrine cells (e.g., insulin-releasing pancreatic β cells)
are excitable cells.

 2. Conductivity:
 It is the ability of the nerve fiber to transmit impulses all along the whole
length of axon without any change in the amplitude of the action potential.
This type of conduction is termed as decrementless conduction.
 3.Infatiguability: A nerve fibre cannot be fatigued, even if it is stimulated for
a long time. This property of infatiguability is due to absolute refractory
period.
 4. . All or none law: It states that, when the tissue is stimulated with threshold
or more than threshold strength, the amplitude of response will remain the same but
for a stimulus of less than threshold strength, there will not be any response.

In physiology, a stimulus (plural stimuli or stimuluses)[1] is a detectable change in

the physical or chemical structure of an organism's internal or external environment.
The ability of an organism or organ to respond to external stimuli is called
sensitivity. 



Nerve Impulse

The neurons are cells with some special abilities. These cells get excited, because of the
membranes that are in a polarised state. Each neuron has a charged cellular membrane,
which means there is a voltage difference between the inside and the outside membrane.





 When a nerve is stimulated the resting potential changes. Examples of such
stimuli are pressure, electricity, chemicals, etc. Different neurons are sensitive
to different stimuli(although most can register pain). The stimulus causes
sodium ion channels to open. The rapid change in polarity that moves along the
nerve fiber is called the "action potential." In order for an action potential to
occur, it must reach threshold. If threshold does not occur, then no action
potential can occur. This moving change in polarity has several stages:
 Resting membrane potential (RMP):
 An electrical potential difference, or membrane potential, can be recorded
across the plasma membrane of living cells. The potential of unstimulated
cells, or resting potential, amounts to -9 to 100mV depend of the type of cell. A
resting potential is caused by a slightly unbalanced distribution of ions between
intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The following factors
are involved in establishing the membrane potential:
 1. High K+ conductance: it is relatively easy for K+ ions to diffuse across the
cell membrane. Because of the steep concentration gradient, K+ ions diffuse
from the ICF to the ECF.

 2. Maintenance of an unequal distribution of ions: the Na+-K+ ATPase
continuously pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ into it by active transport. As a
result, the intracellular K+ concentration is around 35 times higher and the
intracellular Na+ concentration is roughly 20 times lower than the extracellular
concentration.

 3. Cl- distribution: a passive distribution of Cl- between intra- and extra-
cellular spaces exists only as long as there is no active Cl- uptake into the cell.



 Depolarization
 The upswing is caused when positively charged sodium ions (Na+) suddenly
rush through open sodium gates into a nerve cell. The membrane potential of
the stimulated cell undergoes a localized change from -55 millivolts to 0 in a
limited area. As additional sodium rushes in, the membrane potential actually
reverses its polarity so that the outside of the membrane is negative relative to
the inside. During this change of polarity the membrane actually develops a
positive value for a moment(+30 millivolts). The change in voltage stimulates
the opening of additional sodium channels (called a voltage-gated ion channel).
This is an example of a positive feedback loop.




 Repolarization

 The downswing is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the
opening of potassium ion channels. Release of positively charged potassium
ions (K+) from the nerve cell when potassium gates open. Again, these are
opened in response to the positive voltage--they are voltage gated. This
expulsion acts to restore the localized negative membrane potential of the cell
(about -65 or -70 mV is typical for nerves).


 sodium potassium pump
 Hyperpolarization
 When the potassium ions are below resting potential (-90 mV). Since the cell is
hyper polarized, it goes to a refractory phrase.
 Refractory phase
 The refractory period is a short period of time after the depolarization stage.
Shortly after the sodium gates open, they close and go into an inactive
conformation. The sodium gates cannot be opened again until the membrane is
repolarized to its normal resting potential. The sodium-potassium pump returns
sodium ions to the outside and potassium ions to the inside. During the
refractory phase this particular area of the nerve cell membrane cannot be
 depolarized. This refractory area explains why action potentials can only move
forward from the point of stimulation.



 The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
 Synaptic
 Transmission
 Synaptic transmission is the process whereby one neuron (nerve cell)
communicates with other neurons or effectors , such as a muscle cell, at a
synapse. A typical neuron has a cell body (soma), branching processes
specialized to receive incoming signals (dendrites), and a single process (axon)
that carries electrical signals away from the neuron toward other neurons or
effectors. Electrical signals carried by axons are action potentials . Axons
often have thousands of terminal branches, each ending as a bulbous
enlargement, the synaptic knob or synaptic terminal. At the synaptic knob, the
action potential is converted into a chemical message which, in turn, interacts
with the recipient neuron or effector. This process is synaptic transmission



Synaptic transmission:
At the chemical synapse, the arrival of an action potential in the axon triggers the
release of transmitter form the presynaptic axon terminals (presynaptic membrane).
The transmitter then diffuses across the narrow synaptic cleft to bind
postsynaptically to receptors in the subsynaptic or postsynaptic membrane of a
neuron or of glandular or muscle cell. Depending on the type of transmitter and
receptor involved, the effect on the postsynaptic membrane may either be excitatory
or inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitters such as Acetyl choline (Ach) and
Norepinephrine (NE) open Ca2+ channels leading to an increase in the cytosolic
Ca2+ concentration, which increases the action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters
such as Glycine and Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) open K+ or Cl- channels,
as a result, excitatory postsynaptic potential related depolarization is reduced and
stimulation of postsynaptic neurons is inhibited.
.Synaptic knobs -the round endings of the axon 

Types of synapses

 there are two types of synapses:

1. electrical synapses
2. chemical synapses

 electrical synapses are a direct electrical coupling between two cells

o mediated by gap junctions, which are pores (as shown in the electron
micrograph) constructed of connexin proteins
 o essentially result in the passing of a graded potential (may be
depolarizing or hyperpolarizing) between two cells
 very rapid (no synaptic delay)
 passive process --> signal can degrade with distance --> may not
produce a large enough depolarization to initiate an action
potential in the postsynaptic cell
 bidirectional
 i.e., "post"synaptic cell can actually send messages to the
"pre"synaptic cell

in contrast, chemical synapses are:
o slow
o active (require ligand-gated channels)
o pseudo-unidirectional







 Principles of
Chemical Synaptic
Transmission

Neurotransmitter Recovery and

Degradation
Diffusion: Away from the synapse –
Reuptake: Neurotransmitter re-enters –
presynaptic
axon terminal
Enzymatic destruction inside terminal –
cytosol or
synaptic
 cleft
 Reflex action
A reflex , or reflex action, is an
involuntary and nearly instantaneous
.movement in response to a stimulus
 
A reflex is made possible by neural
pathways called reflex arcs which can act
on an impulse before that impulse reaches
.the brain
The reflex is then an automatic response to
a stimulus that does not receive or need
conscious thought
A reflex or reflex action is
an automatic and fast movement in
response
 to a stimulus
.

During a somatic reflex, nerve signals travel

along the following pathway
Somatic receptors in the skin, muscles and tendons-1
Afferent nerve fibers carry signals from the somatic -2
receptors to the posterior horn of the spinal cord or to
the brainstem
An integrating center, the point at which the -3
neurons that compose the gray matter of the spinal cord
or brainstem synapse
Efferent nerve fibers carry motor nerve signals from -4
the anterior horn to the muscles
Effector  muscle innervated by the efferent nerve fiber -5
carries out the response
 

These are the steps in the reflex arc in

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements,
:more
brain atdetail
sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The spinal cord is connected to the
the brainstem and is covered by the vertebrae of the spine. Nerves exit
A receptor in cord
the spinal the toskin
bothdetects a stimulus
sides of the (the change
body. The spinal in signals
cord carries -1 back
and forth between the brain and the nerves in the rest of the body.
.temperature)
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system
Sensory neurones
outside of the CNS.send
It iselectrical
made up of impulses to relay
nerves that send signalsneurones, -2
to and receive
whichsignals
are located in theThe
from the CNS. spinal
PNS iscord. They
divided connect
into the somaticsensory
nervous system
and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls body
.neurones to motor
movements that areneurones
under our control such as walking. The autonomic nervous
.Motor neurones
system controls send electrical
involuntary impulses
functions that t he to an effector-3
body
The effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move -4
.hand away)
The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the sympathetic and
the parasympathetic nervous systems. Nerves of the sympathetic nervous
system prepare the body for situations that require strength and heightened
awareness or situations that arouse fear, anger, excitement or embarrassment.
This is called the fight-or-flight response. It causes the heart to beat faster,
makes you breathe quicker and more shallowly, dilates the pupils and increases
metabolism. The parasympathetic nervous system has a calming effect on the
body. It returns heart rate and breathing to normal, constricts the pupils and
slows down metabolism to conserve energy.
 


Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system
system
Introduction . The sympathetic
The parasympathetic nervous system nervous system (SN
is one of the two main divisions of is one of two main
divisions of the
the autonomic nervous system
autonomic nervous
(ANS). Its general function is to system (ANS). Its
control homeostasis and the body's general action is to
rest-and-digest response mobilize the body's
fight-or-flight respon

Function Control Control

the body's
body's respons
response during
while at perceive
rest. threat.

Originates in Sacral Thoraci

region of and lum
spinal regions
cord, spinal c
medulla,
cranial
nerves 3,
7, 9, and
10

Activates response of Rest and Fight-or

digest flight

General Body Counterbalance; restores body to Body

Response state of calm. speeds
tenses u
become
more al
Functio
not critic
to surviv
shut do

Cardiovascular System (heart rate) Decreases heart Increases contractio

rate heart rate

Pulmonary System (lungs) Bronchial tubes constrict Bronchi

Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system
system
tubes d

Musculoskeletal System Muscles relax Muscles contract

Pupils Constrict Dilate

Gastrointestinal Increases stomach movement and Decreases

System secretions stomach
movement
and
secretions

Salivary Saliva production increases Saliva

Glands production
decreases

Adrenal No involvement Releases adrenaline

Gland

Glycogen to Glucose No Increases; converts glycogen to glucose

Conversion involvement for muscle energy

Urinary Increase in urinary output Decrease in

Response urinary output


 Neurotransmittersneurons are cholinergic: acetylcholineneurons are mostly adrenergic:

epinephrine / norepinephrine (acetylcholine)