Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2017; 5(3): 1446-1451
E-ISSN: 2320-7078
P-ISSN: 2349-6800
JEZS 2017; 5(3): 1446-1451
© 2017 JEZS
Received: 20-03-2017
Accepted: 21-04-2017
K Jayalakshmi
Department of Veterinary
Medicine, Veterinary College and
Research Institute, Orathanadu,
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
M Paramasivam
Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory,
Department of Agricultural
Entomology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
M Sasikala
Department of Veterinary
Pathology, Veterinary College
and Research Institute,
Orathanadu, Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu, India
TV Tamilam
Avian Disease Laboratory,
Thalaivasal, Salem, Tamil Nadu,
India
A Sumithra
Department of Social Sciences,
Horticulture College and
Research Institute, Periyakulam,
Tamil Nadu, India
Correspondence
K Jayalakshmi
Department of Veterinary
Medicine, Veterinary College and
Research Institute, Orathanadu,
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Review on antibiotic residues in animal products
and its impact on environments and human health
K Jayalakshmi, M Paramasivam, M Sasikala, TV Tamilam and
A Sumithra
Abstract
Antibiotics are mainly employed for chemotherapeutic, prophylactic purposes and also used as feed
additives to promote growth and improve feed efficiency. However, antibiotic residues in animal
products may occur, when administration of drug in extra label fashion and not following of withholding
period after treatment. Many of the administered drugs are not completely absorbed from gut and
excreted through faeces and urine as either parent compound or its toxic metabolites. The application of
manure or farm effluents in agricultural land leads to selection of resistant bacteria, development and
transmission of antibiotic resistance genes in the microbes. The antibiotic resistance in animal and human
leads to poor response to treatment during illness. The antibiotic residues in animal product causes
harmful effect on health and also interfere with the processing of milk and milk products. The present
review focuses on antibiotic residues in animal products and its impact on environments and human
health.
Keywords: Antibiotic, residue, antibiotic resistance
1. Introduction
Antibiotics are low to medium molecular weight compounds exhibiting a variety of chemical
and biological properties. This is mainly employed for chemotherapeutic and prophylactic
purposes and also used as feed additives to promote growth and improve feed efficiency [1].
The safe and effective use of antibiotic in animal production has received considerable
attention in most of the countries in the world. However, the antibiotic residues from milk,
meat and egg may persist for longer period after treatment, when administration of antibiotics
in label and extra label fashion and also not following of withholding period after treatment.
The minimum withholding period for milk and egg is 7 days and for meat is 28 days after
treated with antibiotics [2]. The extra-label drug use may take the form of increased dose,
increased frequency of treatment and use in an unapproved species, by an unapproved route of
inoculation or in short, by any means not explicitly described on the drug product label [3]. The
drug resistance has gained its importance due to the transmission of antibiotic resistance factor
to other enteric organisms which have posed a serious public health concern. In general,
harmful effects of drug and chemical residues on health, which may be mutagens,
carcinogenic, teratogenic, reduction in reproductive performance, drug allergy and acute
toxicity or poisoning in human [1]. The present review forms on antibiotic residues in animal
products and its impact on environments and human health.
2. Antibiotic residues
Several antibiotic classes are extensively administered to food-producing animals, including
tetracyclines, sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, lincosamides, aminoglycosides,
beta-lactams, cephalosporins and others [4-5]. Almost 90% of all antibiotics used in farm
animals and poultry are reported to be administered at sub-therapeutic concentrations. About
70% of this is for the purpose of disease prevention and 30% are for growth promotion [6]. The
risk of residue from the milk is higher in developing countries compared to develop one. This
might be related with lack of facilities for detection and regulatory bodies that control the drug
residues level in foods in the form of maximum residue limits (MRLs) [6]. The MRL is defined
as the maximum concentration of a residue, resulting from the registered use of an agricultural
or veterinary chemical that is recommended to be legally permitted or recognized as
acceptable in or on a food, agricultural commodity, or animal feed.
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Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies
 

The concentration is expressed in milligrams per kilogram of antibiotics residues in milk. The sensitivity and selectivity of
the commodity (or milligrams per litre in the case of a liquid biosensors are comparable to immunoassay methods [9]. These
commodity [6]. sensors have shown successful detection of β-lactams (β-Ls),
tetracycline, streptogramin and macrolide antibiotics at
Table 1: Recommended MRL for antibiotics in animal products as nanogram per millilitre concentrations in milk and serum [18-
per Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [7] 19]
. Microbial biosensor is mostly used for detection of
Codex (MRL) FDA quinolones (Qs) and tetracyclines (TCs). However, these were
Name of the not sensitive toward detection of macrolides, β-Ls,
µg/kg milk (Safe/Tolerance)
antibiotics aminoglycosides and sulphonamides [20].
(ppb) µg/kg milk (ppb)
Amoxicillin - 10/10
Ampicillin - 10/10 3.3 Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
Benzyl penicillin - 5/10 ELISA is most useful and specific test for screening of drug
Cloxacillin - 10/10 residues in meat, milk and egg. The Competitive ELISA is
Penicillin - 5/0 commonly used for quantitative analysis of tetracycline,
Cetiofur 100 50/1000 fluoroquinolones and chloramphenicol in meat [10, 21].
Cephapirin - 20/20 Competitive indirect chemiluminescent enzyme-linked
Chlortetracycline 100 30/0
immunoassay (CL-ELISA) is used to determine the
Oxytetracycline - 30/0
chloramphenicol (CAP) residues in milk and chicken muscle.
Tetracycline - 80/0
Erythromycin - 50/0
The sensitivity of CL-ELISA is 2-3 times higher than
Tylosin - 50/50 conventional ELISA [22] and able to detect trace amount of
Streptomycin - 125/0 CAP as low as 3.19 ng/kg in chicken muscle. In India
Dihydrostreptomycin 200 125/0 (Punjab), Gaurav et al. [23] reported that tetracycline residues
Gentamicin 100 30/0 in milk by competitive ELISA. Out of 133 cattle milk sample,
Neomycin 500 150/150 18 samples were found to be contaminated with tetracycline.
Chloramphenicol - 0/0 The concentration of tetracycline residues in cattle milk
Sulphadimidine 25 10/0 samples were found to be in the range 16-134.5 µg/l. Three
Sulphadiazine - 10/0 samples exceeded the maximum recommended tetracycline
Sulphamethoxine - 10/0 antibiotic residue levels (MRLs).
Sulphathiazole - 10/0 Sultan et al. [24] reported that enrofloxacin residues in liver
Sulphamethazine - 10/0 sample of poultry, sheep and cattle collected from slaughter
house of Mousl city, Iraq. Out 30 samples from each species
The various analytical methods are available for screening 17 poultry sample, 8 cattle sample and 5 sheep sample
and confirmation of antibiotic residues in animal products. exceeded the maximum residue limits (Permitted MRL by
They are microbial inhibition test, biosensor, Enzyme Linked European agency 100-300 µg/kg). The concentration of
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), High performance liquid enrofloxacin in liver sample of poultry, cattle and sheep were
chromatography (HPLC), Liquid chromatography with mass 10-10690, 30-3610 and 20-1320 µg/kg respectively. This may
spectrometry (LC-MS), Liquid chromatography-tandem mass be heavy use of enrofloxacin in poultry industry to control
spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and Ultra-performance liquid diseases.
chromatography-Mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) widely used
for confirmation and quantitative analysis of drug residues in 3.4 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
milk, meat and egg [5, 8-13]. Currently, HPLC is one of the most powerful tools in
analytical chemistry. HPLC usage is increasing day by day in
3. Screening method the field of residue analysis because, these having variety of
3.1 Microbial inhibition test mobile phases, the extensive library of column packings and
It is a qualitative or semi-quantitative test is used to detect the variation in modes of operations [5]. The residue analysis
antibiotic residues in milk and meat. Muller Hinton or of oxytetracycline and penicillin G in milk collected from
Nutrient agar is commonly used to perform agar diffusion Nazareth dairy farms, Ethopia [11]. Out of 400 milk samples
test. These tests comprise spores of specific bacteria (Bacillus 48 samples were found oxytetracycline and penicillin G in the
subtilis, Bacillus stearothermphillus, Micrococcus luteus etc), range of 45-192 and 0-28 μg/l, respectively. A total of 497
sensitive to particular antibiotics on agar gel including raw milk samples were collected from different region of
nutrients for bacterial growth and a pH indicator [14]. After individual farms at Macedonia and analysed for
addition of milk or meat, the plate is incubated at appropriate chloramphenicol, sulfonamides, quinolones and tetracyclines
temperature for growth and germination of bacteria. In the by HPLC-Diode array detection. The concentration of
absence of antibiotic residues, the growth of bacteria can be sulphonamides, quinolones and tetracycline in the range of
detected visually either by the change of opacity of the agar 13.5-147.9, 0.6-22.0 and 17.4-149.1μg/kg, respectively. None
medium or by the colour change of the pH indicator [8, 15-16]. of the samples showed chloramphenicol above MRL [25]. In
This method is cheap and simple, showed 100% sensitivity Iran cattle tissue (Triceps muscle, gluteal muscle, diaphargam,
and specificity for screening of residues [16], 85.51% of kideney and liver) from local market were examined for
poultry meat samples were positive for antibiotic residue, tetracycline group of antibiotics (tetracycline, oxytetracycline
most of them contained β-lactams and tetracyclines (75.81%), and chlortetracycline) by HPLC method. The tetracycline
macrolides (44.35%), sulphonamides (36.29%), concentration in Triceps muscle, gluteal muscle, diaphargam,
aminoglycosides (13.71%) group [7] and macrolides (12.5%) kideney and liver were 176.3, 405.3, 96.8, 672.4 and 651.3
group of antibiotics in commercial eggs of urmia, Iran [17]. ng/g, respectively. The concentrations of tetracyclines were
higher in liver and kidney sample compared to other sample
[13]
3.2 Biosensor and it was higher in cured meat product [11].
Biosensor is a latest technique used for screening of
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3.5 Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry
(LC-MS/MS)
Nowadays, the most frequently used analytical tool for
detection of a large number of multiclass veterinary drug
residues in food [26-27]. The analysis of antibiotics in milk by
LC-MS/MS is more specific and more reliable. Simultaneous
determination of 14 antibiotics from different classes includes
five β-lactams, four sulfonamides, three tetracyclines, one
macrolide and one cephalosporin by liquid chromatography
with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI) and triple quadrupole
mass spectrometry (MS/MS) [28], enrofloxacin and
tetracycline residues in chicken and pork by LC-MS/MS [21].
Aminoglycoside in animal tissue includes bovine kidney,
ovine kidney and poultry liver [29]. Out of seventy two
samples, twelve samples showed aminoglycosides includes
neomycin (1), streptomycin (5) and dihydrostreptomycin (6)
exceeded the MRL. The concentration of neomycin,
streptomycin and dihydrostreptomycin were 10000, 300 and
300 µg [29] and doxycycline in poultry muscle was 847.7µg/kg
[5]
.

Table 2: Antibiotic residues in animal products

Name of the antibiotic Instrumentation Substrate Residue level (ppb) Reference
Chicken 30.81
ELISA Kim et al. 2013 [21]
Quinolone Beef 6.64
HPLC-DAD Milk 0.6-22.0 Elizabeta et al. 2011[25]
Liver-Poultry 10-10690
Enrofloxacin ELISA Liver-Cattle 30-3610 Sultan et al.2014 [24]
Liver-Sheep 20-1320
ELISA Milk 16-134.5 Gaurav et al. 2014 [23]
HPLC-DAD Milk 17.4-149.1 Elizabeta et al. 2011[25]
Cattle tissue 176.3
Triceps muscle 176.3
Tetracycline
Gluteal muscle 405.3
HPLC-FL Abbasi et al. 2012 [13]
Diaphragm 96.8
Kidney 672.40
Liver 651.30
Oxytetracycline HPLC Cured meat 42-360 Senyuva et al. 2000 [11]
Doxycycline LC-MS/MS Poultry muscle 847.7 Jank et al. 2017 [5]
Minocycline LC-MS/MS Porcine muscle - Park et al. 2016 [30]
Gentamicin 90
ELISA Milk Zeina et al. 2013 [31]
Streptomycin 80
Penicillin HPLC Milk 0-28 Abebew et al. 2014 [12]
Tilmicosin,
Cloxacillin and LC-MS/MS Bovine milk - Jank et al. 2017 [5]
Ceftiofur
β-lactams,
Sulphonamides,
Tetracycline, LC-MS/MS Milk - Martin-Junior et al. 2007 [28]
Macrolides and
Cephalosporin
Enrofloxacin and Chicken
LC-MS - Kim et al. 2013 [21]
Tetracycline Pork
Flumequine UPLC-MS/MS Milk 2.58 Han et al. 2015 [32]
Sulphonamides HPLC-DAD Milk 13.5-147.9 Elizabeta et al. 2011[25]
Sulfapyridine 1.77
Sulfamethoxazole UPLC-MS/MS Milk 4.2 Han et al. 2015 [32]
Lincomycin 11.25
Chloramphenicol ELISA Chicken 12.64-226.62 Yiber et al. 2011 [10]

Several studies have been conducted worldwide to determine
the antibiotic residues in animal products (Milk, meat,
muscle, liver and kidney) summarized in (Table 2). Among
the different antibiotic classes, the presence of tetracycline
and fluoroquinolone residues in animal products has been
commonly reported. The antibiotic residues in milk, chicken
and liver in the range of 0.6-149.1, 30.81-226.62 and 10-
10690 µg/kg, respectively.
4. Effect of antibiotic residue on environment
The environmental contamination with antibiotics may occur
in several ways viz., drug manufacturing process, throwing of
unused drugs and containers or application of manure and
waste slurries. Animals excrete significant proportion of
antibiotics (17-90%) directly into urine and faeces as parent
compound or its toxic metabolites, because many of
administered antibiotics are not completely absorbed from
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gut [33-35]. Reports on concentration of antibiotic residue in
manure show large variations. It is depend on
individual/group treatment (potential dilution), duration of the
treatment and the time of sampling after treatment. The
highest and most frequently reported concentrations of
antibiotic residues in manure belong to the tetracycline group
of antibiotics. The reported levels regularly exceed 100 mg/kg
[35]
, with extremes up to 764 mg/kg chlortetracycline in swine
manure [36]. The second higher concentration of antibiotic
residue in manure is fluoroquinolone, the residue
concentration of ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin and norfloxacin
in manure are 45, 1420 and 225 mg/kg, respectively.
Penicillins show poor stability in manure and also possibly
degradation by soil microbes [37], for aminoglycosides data on
the occurrence in manure are lacking.
Antibiotics can enter the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem
through the discharge of farm effluents [38] with bioactive drug
 
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies
residue. Persistence of antibiotic residues in the environment
depends on physico-chemical properties of drug residue,
characteristics of the soil and climatic factors, temperature,
rainfall and humidity [39]. Tetracyclines (particularly
tetracycline and chlortetracycline) were found to be more
persistent in soils than in manure [40]. Poor degradability and
strong binding potential of flouroquinolones in the soil
resulting in long persistence in soils and sediments.
Sulphonamides are relatively stable and occur in environment
in bioavailable form.
4.1 Effect of antibiotic residue on soil microbes
The presence of antibiotic residues in the environment and its
effect on microbial community is depends on the type,
amount of residue and species of environmental microbes
present [41-42]. The antibiotic residues in the environment not
only changes the structure and abundance of the soil
microbial community, but also affects the ability of soil
microorganisms to degrade contaminants and their role in
ecological functions such as methanogenesis, nitrogen
transformation and sulfate reduction in soil and aquatic
environments [43]. For example sulphadiazine in soil reduce
the nitrogen turn over in addition to reducing microbial
activity. Oxytetracycline inhibits the nitrification in simple
aquatic system. Furthermore, antibiotics significantly reduced
numbers of soil bacteria, yielding dose related changes in the
fungal to bacterial ratio.
4.2 Antimicrobial resistance
The emergence of drug resistance has been observed
following the introduction of each new class of antibiotics [44]
and repeated exposure to sublethal dose of antibiotics.
However, selection of resistant bacteria in the environment
could occur, when antibiotic concentration greater than
minimum inhibitory concentration [45]. The use of manure for
soil fertilization should be considered a main agricultural
contributor to environmental contamination and transmission
of antibiotic residues, resistant bacteria and resistance genes.
Development of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been
commonly reported due to the overuse of antibiotics
worldwide. ARGs for tetracyclines and sulphonamides were
detected in rice paddy soils fertilized with swine manure in
USA [46]. The use of antibiotics in food animals selects for
bacteria resistant to antibiotics used in humans and these
might spread via the food to humans and cause poor response
to treatment during illness [47] Following introduction of
fluoroquinolones use in the poultry industry leads to
development of fluoroquinolone-resistant strains of
Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella sp, which have isolated
from poultry meat. Multiresistant Escherichia coli have been
evolved by the use of broad spectrum antimicrobials in both
livestock and humans. The development of antimicrobial
resistance in E. coli creates problem, because of transmission
of antimicrobial resistance genes to next generation [3].
5. Effect on health
Most of the currently used antibacterials are relatively non-
toxic, even at higher concentration but, few antibiotics pose a
serious public health issue. Antibiotic residues in milk are of
great public health concern since milk is being widely
consumed by infants, youngster and adults throughout the
globe [48]. The long term exposure to antibiotic residues in
milk may result in alteration of the drug resistance of
intestinal microflora [49]. Several antibiotics are potent
antigens or act as a haptens and occupational exposure on a
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daily basis can lead to allergic reactions. The most of the
allergic reactions have been reported against ß-lactam
antibiotic residues in milk or meat. It is a one of the
hypersensitivity reaction. It may be either IgE-mediated or
non IgE-mediated. The IgE-mediated response occurs shortly
after exposure to drug. These include urticaria, anaphylaxis,
bronchospasm and angioedema. Non IgE-mediated reactions
include hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, acute
interstitial nephritis, serum sickness, vasculitis, erythema
multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal
necrolysis [50-51].
Antibacterial agents like tetracyclines, nitrofurans and
sulfonamides are widely used as feed additives in cattle feed,
which may excrete in milk and sometimes associated with
toxicological effects in human [51]. The nitrofurans at higher
concentrations cause carcinogenic and mutagenic effects [52].
Recently Etminan and coworkers [53] reported the risk of
retinal detachment in individuals upon continued exposure to
fluoroquinolones. Chloramphenicol is also associated with
optic neuropathy [54] and brain abscess [55] with varied
intensities and clinical manifestations.
6. Conclusion
Use of antibiotics as feed additives at sub therapeutic dose
should be strictly prohibited. For therapeutic purpose, it must
be used in proper dose for proper time. There are two major
concerns in the presence of antibiotic residues in milk, meat
and egg. One is allergic reaction even at smaller dose, another
development of antibiotic resistance and disruption of soil
microbial community. Monitoring of antibiotic residues in
milk and milk products, meat and meat products, egg, faeces
and urine is necessary to safeguard the health of the
consumers as well as minimise environmental contamination.
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