RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY

APPLIED - Undertaken specifically for the

RESEARCH - The systematic approach to
obtaining and confirming new and reliable purpose of obtaining information to help
knowledge. It should be systematic and resolve a particular problem.
orderly moreover its purpose is new knowledge
which should be reliable.
DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
 dwells on theories, fundamental
RESEARCH IS NOT
relationships and analytical procedures
 Accidental Discovery. and techniques.
 Data Collection.  Provides the conceptual and analytical
 Searching out published research base for other economic research.
results in libraries or the internet.  synergistic and complementary with
subject matter and problem-solving
research.
RESEARCH IS
 Searching for explanation of events
phenomena, relationships and causes. SUBJECT-MATTER RESEARCH
 A process.  Research on a subject of interest to a
set of decision makers.
 Tends to follow subject-matter
All well designed and conducted research boundaries within a discipline (eg.
has potential application resource economics, production
economics, labor economics).
Failure to see applications can be due to:  is a cornerstone in economics – it
 Users not trained or experienced in the involves direct application of economics
to contemporary issues.
specialized methods of economic research and
reasoning.
PROBLEM-SOLVING RESEARCH
 Researchers often do not provide
adequate  Designed to solve a specific problem for
a specific decision maker.
interpretations and guidance on applications
of  holistic – uses all information relevant
to the specific problem (while
the research. disciplinary research tends to be
reductionist).
PUBLIC RESEARCH = A PUBLIC GOOD
PRIVATE RESEARCH = MAY ALSO BE DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - The attempt to
RIGOROUS determine, describe, or identify something.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH ANALYTIC RESEARCH - The attempt to

(B-A-D-S-P-D-A) establish why
BASIC - determine or establish fundamental something occurs or how it came to be.
facts and relationships within a discipline or
field of study. Develop theories.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

METHODOLOGY DEFINED & DESCRIBED
 Methodology – The study of the
general approach to inquiry in a given
field.
 Method – The specific techniques, tools
or procedures applied to achieve a given
objective.

THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH

 The process is initiated with a question
or problem (step 1)
 Next, goals and objectives are
formulated to deal with the question or
problem (step 2)
 Then the research design is developed
to achieve the objectives (step 3)
 Results are generated by conducting
the research (step 4)
 Interpretation and analysis of results
follow (step 5)

CREATIVITY IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

 Gather and use previously developed
knowledge
 Exchange ideas
 Apply deductive logic
 Look at things alternate ways
 Question or challenge assumptions
 Search for patterns or relationships
 Take risks
 Cultivate tolerance for uncertainty
 Allow curiosity to grow
 Set problems aside and come back to
them
 Write down your thoughts
 Freedom from distraction some time to
think

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.


REFERENCING STYLES
REFERENCE - detailed description of the
document from which you have obtained your
information. Referencing is a way of
demonstrating that you have done that
reading.
CITING - Acknowledging within your text the
document from which you have obtained your
information.
REFERENCES VS BIBLIOGRAPHY
References - items you have read and
specifically referred to (or cited) in your work;
Bibliography - list of everything you read -
whether or not you referred specifically to it.
Normally contains sources that have been
cited and also those found to be influential,
but decided not to cite
WHY DO WE NEED REFERENCE?
To acknowledge others works
To allow others (readers) to find the original
sources easily (cited reference)
TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
WHEN DO WE NEED REFERENCE?
To give the source of tables, pictures, figures,
statistics and diagrams which might be copied
or have been a source of idea.
To give credibility to an argument presented
by you.
To inform the reader of sources of direct
quotations or definitions.
REFERENCING STYLES
Associated Press Stylebook (APS) - used in
print journalism
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) - used in
writing about Business and Music
Council of Science Editors Manual (CSE) -
most often used in writing about Science
(numeric)
Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) - used for writing about
Engineering (numeric)
Modern Language Association Style Manual
(MLA) - used in writing about English
Literature and Modern Languages
Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA) - commonly
used in writing about Psychology, History,
Education, and Social Sciences.
The Harvard system - uses the author/ date
system
The Vancouver system - used in medical and
scientific journal
Example of Numeric Styles:
According to Myers[1] the reason for….
The reference is presented as a footnote at the
bottom of the page or at the end of your work:
[1] Myers, D. (2008) Construction economics:
a new approach, 2nd ed., London: Taylor and
Francis, p.159
Example of Author/Date Style
Barter (2003, p.258) has shown that…..
Source of References:
Book, Journal, Conference Papers, Annual
Report, Etc.,
Elements of References:
Author, Title of document, Date, Place of
publication, Etc.,
Some Basics in the APA Style: SUMMARY

APA style requires authors to use the past
tense or present perfect tense when using
signal phrases to describe earlier research:
Example:
Referencing is an important part of research
work.
It is a way of acknowledging others work and
helps to avoid PLAGIARISM.

Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found There are several referencing style manuals to
follow depends on the field of research and
It is good to use quotation when, guidelines given to you
You want to analyze or challenge the
quotation in question or if you feel the
quotation supports your own argument or
point of view.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often

had difficulty using APA style, especially when
it was their first time" (p.199).

Some Basics in the APA Style:

Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or

longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten
lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the
quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch
from the left margin.

If you use quotation or any specific detail its

good have page number in citation and
Secondary Referencing

The Basic Format in the APA Style:

Last_name, First_initial. Middle_initial.

(Publication Year). Title of book: Subtitle of
book. City, State_abbreviation: Publisher.*

*Don't include the parts of publishers' names

that are not required to locate the publisher.

For example: Publishers, Co., or Inc. However,

keep the words Books and Press.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.


THE PURPOSE AND PROCESS OF
ACADEMIC WRITING
ESSAY - derived from the Latin verb “exigere”
(Which means to: Examine, Test, Drive out)
Other Purposes - Discover knowledge, make a
point, Persuade the reader, Share information,
Analyze a topic, etc.
Think of Writing as a Step-by-Step Process
Read and Research, Brainstorm Ideas,
Develop a Working Thesis and Outline, etc.
Where Do I Get Ideas to Write About?
Read texts related to your topic, use
brainstorming techniques such as Free
Writing, Listening Ideas, Mind Mapping
Clustering - Write your main point in the
center of the page and circle it. Think of the
cluster as a tree, each idea branching off a
previous idea
Develop a Working Thesis - thesis comes at
the end of the introduction section of your
paper. It lets the reader know exactly what
overall point you are trying to make.
EX. Dr. Seuss’ propaganda cartoons during
World War II reduced Japanese Americans to
stereotypes, played on the fears of the
American public during a time of war, and
focused on the broad, generalized issues of the
situation rather than the individual
circumstances of the people involved.
Developing an Outline - Once you establish a
thesis use it to help you develop an outline of
the paper. An outline will help you help you
organize your ideas; keeps you focused and
saves time. For every main point, you will
need several supporting details.
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
Writing the Rough Draft - Now that you have
a thesis and outline, you may begin writing
your rough draft.
As you write this rough draft, keep the
following strategies in mind:
Organize information in your body
paragraphs, Hook the reader in the
introduction, keep your paper coherent with
transition words and sentences, etc.
Introductions - purpose of the introduction
paragraph is to: Hook the reader,
Contextualize your argument or topic,
Provide necessary background information
about the topic.
Strategies to Hook the Reader: Ask a
question, Tell a story, Use a quote, etc.
Give Context in the Introduction - What
does the reader need to know to understand
your paper or essay? Ex. Historical
Background, Issues relating to the topic,
Cultural Issues, etc.
Start Your Body Paragraphs with Clear
Topic Sentences
Topic sentence - Comes at the beginning of
a paragraph, Presents the most important
point you want to make in that paragraph,
lastly it is specific (or not so broad it would
require a full essay to explore)
Use Compelling Supporting Points to
Support Your Topic Sentence
Supporting points - examples or pieces of
evidence that support the claim you have
made in your topic sentence. They can be
Facts, Examples, Anecdotes, etc.
Make Sure to Elaborate with Concrete
Details - Once you have listed your
supporting points, you can now elaborate on
them by adding details or explaining what you
mean further.

EX. Remember, Writing is a Process!

Topic Sentence: Dr. Seuss emphasized the Every writing assignment is practice for the
danger posed by Japanese Americans during next one.
World War II.
Go through every step of the process, focus on
Main Point: His pictures show a parade of your ideas first, focus on grammar and
smiling Japanese marching down the West spelling last.
Coast collecting explosives.
Get feedback from a peer, instructor, or tutor
Detail: Each box of TNT these cartoon
characters carry plays on the often-irrational
fears Americans felt toward Japanese
Americans after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

PIE Formula - Another useful strategy to

organize information is to use the PIE formula
Point - The main point you want to make
Illustration - A quote or paraphrase from the
text
Explanation - Your explanation about what
the quote or paraphrase means

Use Transitions to Create Coherence

Use transition words or sentences to bridge
ideas so the reader does not get confused;
examples of which is “first”,” In addition”,
“Nevertheless”, “therefore”, etc.

Strategies for a Conclusion - Re-state your

thesis statement in a different way. Make a
strong closing comment. Leave the reader with
a closing thought.

Academic Conventions: Things to Do

ADRESS BOTH SIDES OF AN ARGUMENT,
CITE SOURCES, USE FORMAL TONE, TAKE A
STAND, CONCRETE DETAILS, GIVE
YOURSELF TIME TO DEVELOP YOUR PAPER
Academic Conventions: Things to Avoid
PERSONAL PRONOUNS, CONTRACTIONS,
SLANG, PERSONAL TONE, VAGUE IDEAS
AND PLAIGARISM.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.


PUBLIC SPEAKING
PUBLIC SPEAKING - VERBAL presentation
that is given live before an audience. CAN
cover a wide variety of different topics. GOAL
may be to educate, entertain, or influence the
listeners.
HISTORY OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Originated from ancient Greece and Rome
Public speaking in the time of the Greeks was
called rhetoric.
Rhetoric - used of words or phrases in a
hollow or insincere ways while sounding
genuine on the surface.
In modern times, what was known as the
Latin style of public speaking was popular in
the U.S. and Europe until the mid-20th
century.
After World War II, however, a less formal and
more conversational style of speaking started
to become popular
THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Over the years, public speaking has played a
major role in education, government, and
business. Words have the power to inform,
persuade, educate, and even entertain. And
the spoken word can be even more powerful
than the written word in the hands of the right
speaker.
 Improves confidence
 Better research skills
 Stronger deductive skills
 Ability to advocate for causes
HOW TO BECOME BETTER AT PUBLIC
SPEAKING?
REMEMBER: Public speaking is a skill. It can
be learned.
 Writing the speech - a well-organized,
engaging speech
 Overcoming a fear of speaking
 Practicing the Speech
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
 Prepare Your Presentation Slide
Designs
 Giving the Speech
 (Verbal Action) The expression of or
the ability to express thoughts and
feelings by articulate sounds.
 (Written Form) Formal address
FOUR BASIC PURPOSES OF SPEECH
 Informative – This speech serves to
provide interesting and useful
information to your audience.
 Demonstrative – Similar with
information. However, this speech aims
to educate.
 Persuasive – Works to convince people
to change in some way: they think, the
way they do something, or to start
doing something that they are not
currently doing.
APPEALS OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH
 Ethos - Ethics (Appeal for your
credibility or characters)
 Pathos – Emotions (Appeal to their
feelings)
 Logos – Logic (Appeal by using logic or
reason)
 Entertaining — The after-dinner
speech is a typical example of an
entertaining speech. The speaker
provides pleasure and enjoyment that
make the audience laugh or identify
with anecdotal information.
Four Basic Delivery of Speeches
 Manuscript Speech
 Memorized Speech
 Impromptu Speech
 Extemporaneous Speech
ABC OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
AUDIENCE – Who are they? What do they
know about your topic? Why are they at your
presentation?
BUILD – Get their attention, introduction,
Main Points, Strong Conclusion
COMMUNICATION – communicate verbally or
non-verbally

PLAIGARISM
PLAIGARISM – Comes from the Latin
Plagiarus meaning “kidnapper” Ex. Platon
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary
to steal and pass off the words and ideas of
another as one’s own; use another’s
production without crediting the source; to
commit literary theft; present as new or
original an idea or
product derived from an existing source.
TYPES OF PLAGIARISM
INTENTIONAL
 Submitting pre-written papers
downloaded or purchased from the
Internet as your own work.
 Cutting and pasting from more than
one source to create a paper without
quoting or citing the sources.
 Borrowing words or ideas from others
without giving credit.
UNINTENTIONAL
 Lazy paraphrasing and quoting.
 Haphazard citations.
 Lack of understanding of the research
process.
 Disengagement from the research
process.
UNDERSTAND THE PURPOSE
RESEARCH
By researching from the “outside,”
distance yourself from:
 the discovery of your own ideas
 the practice of expressing and refining
your ideas
 receiving feedback about YOUR ideas
and YOUR writing
 intellectual growth.
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
SURFACE RESEARCHING allows you to opt
out of an important part of your education
and encourages unintentional plagiarism.
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
 Don’t purchase papers online.
 Don’t cut and paste information.
 Don’t “recycle” your own work from
class to class.
 Do build enough time into your
schedule to complete the research
process. Don't procrastinate.
 Don’t allow stress to bully you into
submitting copied work. Simply, DON'T
CHEAT!

PLAGIARISM PREVENTION TIPS
Tip 1: Be authentic, to thine own research self
be true.
Tip 2: Take careful notes.
THE POWER OF SUMMARY
Why Summarize?
Push yourself to a complete
understanding of a complex source
Effective Summary
An effective summary captures the
main ideas and key supporting points
of a source while omitting the details.
THE NEED TO PARAPHRASE
Why Paraphrase?
Understand the logic of a complex
OF passage.
Effective Paraphrase
you A paraphrase restates someone else’s
ideas in fresh words and sentences.
Tip 3: Follow the correct citation format for
your discipline: (MLA, APA, Chicago, CBE,
ACS, VANCOUVER, IEEE)
ANTI-PLAGIARISM CHECKLIST
 All direct quotations are enclosed in
quotation marks and are correctly
documented.
 When paraphrasing, you have
translated the original into your own
words, using your own sentence
structure, and you’ve correctly cited
the source.
 You understand that if you’ve
summarized a section of material, you
still need to provide a citation.
 You’ve made sure that you haven’t
mistaken material that should be
documented for “common knowledge.”
 You’ve made sure that your paper isn’t
a patchwork of other people’s ideas
strung together with a few transitions.

THE “SOURCE FORMULA” (I-S-C-I)

Intro + Source Material + Citation +
Interpretation

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

MILITARY CORRESPONDENCE THREE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A LETTER
[H-B-C]
CORRESPONDENCE - a written  HEADING
communication which conveys information  BODY
and ideas to the reader or addressee.  COMPLIMENTARY ENDING
MILITARY CORRESPONDENCE - a military HEADING REMINDERS:
communication that concerns almost every
subject composed mostly of letters,  FONT, SIZE AND BOLD USAGE
endorsements and messages.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CORRESPONDENCE
[A-B-C-D]
 Accuracy- information must be factual
 Brevity- letter must be brief
 Clarity- words are simple & common to
reader
 Dignity- written communications must
command respect and should reflect
authority
COMPLIMENTARY ENDING
DO NOT SACRIFICE ACCURACY FOR BREVITY

TYPES OF CORRESPONDENCE [F-I]

 Formal Correspondence [M-N]
o Military Letter (Subject-To-Letter) TYPES OF AUTHORITY LINE
o Non-Military (Civilian Letter)  General officer with command function
 Informal Correspondence [D-R-P] and addressed to a member of his/her
o Disposition Forms[I-S] men:
 Informative DF EX:
 Summary DF BY COMMAND OF GENERAL SHANTI
o Routing Slip BY COMMAND OF LIEUTENANT GENERAL
o PAF Message SHANTI JR.

FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE [M-N]  General officer in joint, personal,

Military Letter (STL) – is the accepted format
in corresponding with other commands both
on and off the post addressed to the
Commander of higher headquarters or to the
subordinate units.
THINGS TO REMEMBER:
PAPER SIZE: A4 (8.27” x 11.69”)
MARGIN:
TOP (1ST PAGE), RIGHT = 0.75
TOP (2ND PAGE), LEFT, & BOTTOM = 1.25
HEADER AND FOOTER: 0.25
FROM TOP AND BOTTOM OF PAGES,
FONT ARIAL, SIZE 10, IN ITALIC & CENTERED
special offices, service or centers
addressed to his/her personnel:
EX:
BY DIRECTION OF (OFFICE DESIGNATION)
By DIRECTION OF THE CHIEF OF AIR
STAFF
 For an officer below the grade of
brigadier general addressed to a
member of his/her command or
general/personal/special staff or
centers/offices
EX:
BY ORDER OF COLONEL SHANTI

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

  If not addressed to a member of an ELEMENTS OF DISPOSITION FORM
officer’s
command/office/division/branch etc.

EX.
FOR THE (OFFICE DESIGNATION)
FOR THE AIR FORCE ADJUTANT

NON-MILITARY LETTER (CIVILIAN LETTER)

To be used when communicating with entities
outside the AFP
REMINDERS:
 Paragraphs NOT Numbered/Lettered SECURITY COMMENT NUMBER
 Does NOT encourage abbreviations CLASSIFICATION
 Bookman Old Style 12 – Letters to FILE REFERENCE DATE
SND & PRES SUBJECT BODY
 ARIAL 12 – All other Civilian letters ADRESSEE ENCLOSURE
ADRESSOR SIGNATURE
IDENTIFICATION OF THE WRITER
ELEMENTS OF CIVILIAN LETTER [H-B-C-S]
HEADING TYPES OF DISPOSITION FORM [I-S]
 LETTER HEAD/OFFICE OF ORIGIN INFORMATIVE DF – A type of DF used to
 DATE INFORM AND APPRECIATE the message
 INSIDE ADDRESS contained in the DF by the addressee
 ATTENTION LINE
 SALUTATION SUMMARY DF – A type of DF used to
BODY SECURE the Commander’s approval of
COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE recommended actions.
SIGNATURE

SECTIONS OF THE BODY OF SDF

INFORMAL CORRESPONDENCE [D-R-P] [S-C-R]
DISPOSITION FORM (DF) – A means of Summary – Include a basic synopsis of the
communications among staff offices and basic request; a statement of the problem;
between the staff offices and the commander. the facts or background of the subject;
and/ or a concise discussion of action taken
Applicable in giving instructions; to include pertinent laws; regulations or
transmitting orders, policy, advice of precedents.
information; requesting action, instruction,
policy, opinion; tracing action of check or Coordination – Contains synopsis of the
follow-up implementation of orders; and coordination made by paraphrasing the
recording comments, coordination and comments of the staff concerned. When no
recommendation. coordination is made, RECOMMENDATION
becomes the second section

Recommendation – This will state clearly and

concisely the specific action/s recommended.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

ROUTING SLIP  Classified – categorized into four
Used to transmit papers from office to (4) depending on the importance
office within headquarters or between section of the information in its text.
within office. used to speed up transmittal
correspondence direct to action section FOUR (4) CATEGORIES OF CLASSIFIED
without using the DF or formal endorsement. MESSAGES [T-S-C-R]
 TOP SECRET – would cause
NOTE: It is never used for approvals, exceptionally grave damage to the
disapprovals, concurrence and other nation, politically, economically or from
important comments, even though brief. security aspect.

PAF MESSAGE  SECRET – would endanger national

A message is a thought or idea, expressed security, cause serious injury to the
in brief, in plain or secret language and interest and prestige of the nation and
prepared in a form suitable for transmission would be of great advantage to a foreign
by any means of communications. nation.

STYLE: In GHQ and Major Services, the plain
text is used while in the field, the
abbreviations are used. It is written in capital
letters or in normal text form.
MESSAGE PRECEDENCE CATEGORY
[F-I-P-R]
 Flash (Z) – Reserved for initial enemy
contact report, operational or combat
messages (10 minutes)
 Immediate (O) – Reserved for
messages relating to situation which
gravely affect the security of national
forces/populace and require immediate
delivery to the addressee (30 mins - 1
hr)
 CONFIDENTIAL – which will not
endanger national security but will
cause administrative embarrassment,
unwanted injury to individual and be of
advantage to foreign nation.
 RESTRICTED – military information
not given higher security
classification but not intended for
general dissemination to the public.
(SKIPPED SLIDE 69 – 78)

 Priority (P) – reserved for messages

requiring expeditious action by the
addressee and or furnishes essential
information for the conduct of
operations in progress when lower
precedence will not suffice (1 - 6 hrs).
 Routine (R) – reserved for all types of
messages that justify transmission
by rapid means unless sufficient
urgency to require a higher precedence.

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION [U-A]

 Unclassified – routine messages
that do not contain information
which when disclosed to
unauthorized personnel will not be
detrimental to the interest and
security of the nation.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

STATISTICS IN RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH - A quest for knowledge through
 Likert scale
diligent search or investigation or
o Scale of measurement (nominal
experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of new knowledge, which is or ordinal)
done in a scientific method. o specify the frequency (number,
n) and relative frequency
SCIENTIFIC METHOD – A systematic body of (percentage, %)
procedures and techniques applied in carrying
out investigation or experimentation Frequency distribution (frequency
distribution table)
STATISTICS – A science which deals with the  a list, table, or graph that displays the
collection, organization, analysis, and frequency (number / count), relative
interpretation of numerical data. frequency (%) or summary statistics
(average, variance or quantiles) of the
MILITARY STATISTICS - a science studying occurrences within a particular group
both the quantitative and qualitative aspect of or interval.
military affairs prior to, during, and after a
war. FREQUENCY
 counts or absolute number of persons
TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS [D-I] who possess a certain characteristic of
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - summarizes interest
and presents military data in a form of
narrative, tables, and graphs with summary RELATIVE FREQUENCY
statistics; easier to analyze and interpret the  proportion (expressed in percentage, %);
data number of persons who possess a
characteristic of interest over a total
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - the process of number of persons in an observed
generalizing or drawing conclusions about the experiment
target population on the basis of results
obtained from a sample DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: SUMMARY
STATISCTICS
TYPES OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
SUMMARY STATISTICS / DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES
 Estimation - estimate the true values DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
(unknown parameters) MEASURES
o point estimation Measure of central Mean, Median & Mode
o interval estimation tendency
Quantile Percentile, decile &
 Test of hypothesis
Quartile
Measure of Dispersion Range and Variance (or
By observation in Commandant’s Paper or standard deviation),
Action Research: inter-quartile range

 Descriptive statistics (applied in the DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES

DESCRIPTIVE DEFINITION
results / findings)
MEASURES
o Graphs (e.g., pie chart or bar Measure of central A single value that
graph) tendency describes a set of data by
o specify the frequency (number, identifying the central
n) and relative frequency position within that set of
data
(percentage, %) Quantile A particular part of a data
o Table (e.g., frequency set;
distribution table) How many values in a
distribution are above or
below a certain limit
Measure of dispersion The extent to which
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
 individual items vary particularly
from one another and amphibious
from the central value operations
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
MEASURE OF DEFINITION TOOLS OF ANALYSIS
DISPERSION
Frequency distribution table will be
Range The difference between
the lowest and highest constructed to present the summary statistics
values (maximum & of the data. These statistics are the frequency
minimum value) (Expressed in count) and relative frequency
Variable The average degree to (expressed in percentage).
which each point differs
from the mean
Standard Deviation the spread of a group of
(+SD) numbers from the mean
Interquartile range measures the spread of
(IQR): 25TH – 75TH % the middle half of the
data

DATA DISTRIBUTION
DATA GRAPHICAL APPROPRIAT
DISTRIBUTION PRESENTATION E SUMMARY
STATISTICS
Normal data Mean (+SD)
(Using Non-normal
Shapiro-Wilk’s
test
for normality)

Non-normal Median (IQR):

data / Median
skewed data ( 25th%tile -
75th%tile)
Range (Min -
Max)

Descriptive Statistics: Graphical presentation

TYPES NATURE OF DESCRIPTION
VARIABLE
Bar Graph: Qualitative For comparison of
Horizontal Discrete absolute or
Vertical Quantitative relative counts
data between
categories
Pie Chart Qualitative Shows breakdown
of a group or total
where the no. of
categories is
not too many
Line Diagram Time Series Portrays trend
over time
Scatter Plot Quantitative Relationship
between two
quantitative
variables
Map Chart Qualitative Representation of
a land-sea area;
Most useful in
military
operations,

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

 The more common statistical tests according to its used
Statistical Tests Used
Parametric Test Data needs to be Normally
distributed
Two-sample t-test Used to test the difference in means
of two-independent groups; both
sets
of data must be metric and
normally distributed, and have
equal standard
deviations
Matched pairs t-test Used to test the difference in means
of two matched groups; data must
be
metric and difference between
group scores is normally distributed
One-way ANOVA Used to test the difference in the
(Analysis of means of three or more groups;
variance) data must
be metric and normally distributed
in each group, and all standard
deviations must be similar.
ANCOVA (analysis of Used for improving the precision of
covariance) an experiment; involves adjusting
the
observed response variable for the
effect of the concomitant variable;
results in improved precision for the
group means comparisons over
One-Way ANOVA methods if the
slope, differs from zero.
Non-Parametric Test Used to tests have no such precise
distributional requirements
Mann-Whitney test Used to test the difference in
medians of two independent groups;
data can
either be ordinal or metric
WIlcoxon test Used to test the difference in
medians of two matched groups;
data can
either be ordinal or metric
Chi-squared test Used to measure whether two
variables are independent or not;
does this
by comparing differences in
proportions across categories. Data
must be
categorical (or categorized metric)
and groups independent. When
sample
size is small, the chi-squared test
may not be appropriate. In a two-
group,
two-category case, Fisher’s test may
be used instead. The same data
conditions apply.
MacNemar test Used to measure the difference in
proportions of two matched groups
across two categories. Data can be
nominal or ordinal
Kruskal-Wallis test Used to test whether the medians of
three or more independent groups
are
the same. Data can be ordinal or
metric.
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS DIRECT COMMUNICATORS – Get to the
“Bottom Line” quickly; Don’t have much
COMMUNICATION – Process by which patience with those who “beat around the
information is exchanged between individuals bush”
through a common system of symbols, signs,
behavior. INDIRECT COMMUNICATORS – All about
PURPOSE respecting others, they value courtesy highly;
Always seek out the polite response.
 Get your message across to others
clearly and unambiguously’ LINEAR AND CIRCULAR DISCUSSION
 Only successful when both parties LINEAR – Discussion is conducted in a
understand the same information as a straight line, almost like an outline, with the
result of the communication connections among the points stated as you
move towards an end point, which is stated
GOALS: (I-P-B)
explicitly
 INFORM
 PERSUADE CIRCULAR – Discussion is conducted in a
circular manner, telling stories and developing
 BUILD RELATIONSHIPS a context around the main point, which is
often unstated because the listener will get the
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION point after giving them all the information,
Depends partly on your ability to convey thus there is a high reliance on the context
information clearly and simply, but also on
your ability to anticipate and eliminate COMMUNICATION ACROSS CULTURES
sources of confusion Cultures provide people with ways of thinking,
seeing, hearing, and interpreting the word;
WHY EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION? Members of any culture often perceive their
The ability to effectively communicate with own behavior as logical, since that behavior
others is one of the most important tools for works for them.
professional and personal success
CULTURE ENCOMPASSES MORE THAN
COMMUNICATION PROCESS (S-M-C-R-F-C) JUST RACE
 Source
 Message AGE SOCIOECONOMIC
 Channel CIRCUMSTANCE
 Receiver
 Feedback-Context GENDER EDUCATIONAL
LEVEL
CONTEXT IN COMMUNICATIOIN
Context May include the surrounding
environment or broader culture, power POWER RELIGION AND
dynamics, departmental, university, DIFFERENTIALS SPIRITUAL BELIEF
international cultures and the like.
DISABILITY PERSONALITY
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATORS USE THE
KISS (KEEP IT SIMPLE &
STRAIGHTFORWARD) PRINCIPLE. SEXUAL IDENTITY UPBRINGIN AND
LIFE EXPERIENCES
7 C’s of Effective Communication
CLEAR COMPLETE
CONCISE COURTEOUS Be aware of how past experience may color the
CONCRETE interpretation of the message you are trying to
CORRECT convey. In other words, strive to be culturally
COHERENT competent in your interactions with other.

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

UNDERSTANDING BIAS  Different channels have different
Neuroscientists have shown that the strengths and weaknesses
conscious mind provides 5% or less of our  Choose your channel for
cognitive activity during the day. Many people communication wisely
operate at just 1% consciousness.

Unconscious mind is often wrong, particularly

on matters that requires rational thinking; It POWER OF EMPATHY IN MITIGATING
uses instinct not analysis when making MISCOMMUNICATION
decisions.
 PUT ASIDE YOUR VIEWPOINT, AND
GOAL OF CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRY TO SEE THINGS FROM THE
To move from unconscious to intentional OTHER PERSON’S POINT OF VIEW
mode and begin to value differences.  VALIDATE OTHER PERSON’S
PERSPECTIVE
TO DO THIS WE NEED TO DEVELOP AKS:  EXAMINE YOUR ATTITUDE
 AWARENESS
 KNOWLEDGE
 SKILLS USING EMPATHY EFFECTIVELY
 Listen with your Ears, Eyes, Instincts
OTHER THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN  Ask what the other person would do
COMMUNICATING

 NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOR
 VOICE INFLECTIONS
 VOCABULARY

MAKE SURE YOU ARE WILLING TO LISTEN

AS MUCH AS YOU ARE OPEN TO SPEAK

LISTENING – One of the most important skills

you can acquire; How well you listen has a
major impact on your job effectiveness, and on
the quality of your relationships with others

ACTIVE LISTENING – Hearing what people

are actually saying.

FIVE KEY ELEMENTS OF ACTIVE

LISTENING (P-S-P-D-R)
 PAY ATTENTION
 SHOW THAT YOU ARE LISTENING
 PROVIDE FEEDBACK
 DEFER JUDGEMENT
 RESPOND APPROPRIATELY

CHANNELS IN COMMUNICATION
CAN INCLUDE:
 Verbal, F2F Meetings, Telephone and
Video Conference
 Written, Including letters, emails,
memos and reports

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

THE ACTION RESEARCH:
WALKTHROUGH
ACTION RESEARCH - To equip or enhance
students’ research skills to help them make
informed decisions.
Results-oriented, focus on analysis and
recommendations, Purpose is to provide
solutions to existing problems; “Applied”
research, Extra Feature: ACTION PLAN
UNIVERSITY THESIS – Process-oriented,
Focus on RRL, methods, and analysis.
Purpose is to “Contribute to the body of
knowledge: basic’ research”
PARTS OF AN ACTION RESEARCH (P-B-A)
PRELIMINARY PAGES - The opening pages of
your AR which contains the title, disclaimer,
the abstract of the paper, acknowledgements,
and table of contents.
BODY - The main meat of your paper, it
contains the body of the research from the
background up to the recommendations and
action plan (Chapters I-V).
Annexes - Contains the works/sources
cited in your paper, these auxiliary pages also
include the appendices of your paper.
CHAPTER 1 – PROBLEM AND CONTEXT
Background / Problem Statement /Purpose
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
 Contextual basis
 Environmental scan
 Look outside in and inside out
PROBLEM STATEMENT
 One main (broad) research question,
three sub-questions
 Short and concise
 Logical
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
 What needs to be done in order to
provide a solution to your research
question
 Overall and specific
 Follows the logic of your research
questions
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
A CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
Review of Related Literature / Conceptual Framework /
Definition of terms
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 Should follow the logical structure of
your research questions
 Thematic, not necessarily chronological
 Helps you define your variables
 Synthesis will emphasize how different
is your study and it bridges your
Chapter 1 through Chapter 3
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 Concepts placed in a logical and
sequential design
 Used to clarify concepts and propose
relationships between variables,
ultimately to provide a context for
interpreting study findings
 Commonly used for studies in which
existing theory is inapplicable or
insufficient
 4 TYPES: CONCEPTUAL, IPO, LINEAR
CONTINUUM, SYSTEM LOOPS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Conceptual (lexical) vs operational
definition
 Do NOT use dictionary definitions
 Include all variables and concepts
involved in your conceptual framework
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
Research Design / Data Collection Procedures /
Sampling Design / Instruments / Tools of Analysis
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Description and justification of the
methods to be employed
 A blueprint of the activities to take in
order to answer the research questions
TYPES OF RESEARCH (E-D-E)
 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Explanatory
POPULAR DESIGNS (F-S-C-F)
 Field surveys
 Secondary data analysis
 Case research
 Focus group research
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
 How the data will be or were gathered DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS
 Explain the data collection process:  Explaining the meanings of the result of
who (will) gather/ed the data, what data the described data
were/will be collected, problems  List down the implications of findings
encountered, etc.

SAMPLING DESIGN CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION,

Discuss the reason for choosing the sampling RECOMMENDATION & IMPLEMENTATION
design. Conclusion / Recommendation / Action Plan

 Probability Sampling CONCLUSION/S

o Simple Random Sampling
o Systematic Sampling
o Stratified Sampling
 Non-Probability Sampling
o Convenience Sampling
o Quota Sampling
o Purposive Sampling
INSTRUMENTS
Include all instruments used
gathering
 Survey
 Interview
 Focus Group Discussion
TOOLS OF ANALYSIS (S-W-P-F-S-C-B)
 SLOVIN’S FORMULA (IF
SURVEY)
 WEIGHTED MEAN
 PERCENTAGE METHOD
 In this section, there should be no new
data to be introduced
 Generalize your findings in relation to
the purpose/objectives
RECOMMENDATION/S
 The most important part of Chapter 5;
answers the ‘so what is/are the
answers/solutions?’ question
 This part highlights the best course/s
for data of action which will determine your
plan (Action Plan)
IMPLEMENTATION/ACTION PLAN
Should show concrete steps to be undertaken,
units/offices and personnel involved,
milestones, deliverables, timeline, and
USING expenditures.
REFERENCING:
 APA 7th Edition
 Using MS Word Referencing System
 Using Zotero

 FOUR POINT LIKERT SCALE

(SURVEY)

 SWOT ANALYSIS

 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

 BENCHMARKING

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION
Findings / Discussions or Analysis

FINDINGS
 Presentation of gathered data
 Utilize graphical or tabular
representations such as charts, graphs,
tables, and figures for easier reading

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

AFP MESSAGE (OPLAN/OPORD)
AFP MESSAGE - A message is a thought or CATEGORIES OF CLASSIFIED MESSAGES
idea, expressed in brief, in plain or secret [T-S-R-C]
language and prepared in a form suitable for
transmission by any means of  TOP SECRET - unauthorized
communication. disclosure would cause exceptionally
grave damage to the nation,
TYPES OF MESSAGES [A-P] politically, economically or from
 BY ADDRESS [S-M] security aspect.
o SINGLE ADDRESS MESSAGE
contains only one addressee  SECRET – unauthorized disclosure
o MULTIPLE ADDRESS would endanger national security,
MESSAGE contains two or cause serious injury to the interest
more addressees and that all of and prestige of the nation and would
them need to know the identity be of great advantage to a foreign
of the other addressees nation

 BY PURPOSE/FUNCTION [O-U-P]  CONFIDENTIAL – unauthorized

o OFFICIAL MESSAGES disclosure will not endanger national
specifically pertains to the official security but will cause
or related functions of the administrative embarrassment,
military establishments unwanted injury to
o UNOFFICIAL MESSAGES individual and to be of advantage to
personal messages foreign nation
o PRESS MESSAGES
originated by duly accredited  RESTRICTED – military information
news gathering individuals not given higher security
classification but not intended for
MESSAGE PRECEDENCE CATEGORY general dissemination to the public
[F-I-P-R]
OPLAN/OPORD - A plan for operations
 FLASH (Z) – Reserved for initial extending over a considerable space and time
enemy contact report, operational or
combat messages (10 mins) CHARACTERISTICS
 Prepared or issued at any level of
 IMMEDIATE (O) – Reserved for command having operational or
messages relating to situation which command jurisdiction over subordinate
gravely affect the security of national units
forces/populace and which require
immediate delivery to the addressee (30  May cover a single or series of
mins to 1 hour) connected operations carried out
simultaneously or in succession
 PRIORITY (P) – Reserved for messages
requiring expeditious action by the
addressee and/or furnishes essential  In a form of a directive from higher
information for the conduct of echelons of command to subordinate
operations in progress (1 to 6 hours) commanders to prepare their
supporting plans or orders
 ROUTINE (R) – Reserved for all types
of messages that justify transmission  Serves as a directive for planning and
by rapid means unless sufficient preparatory action, or for both
urgency to require a higher precedence
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
 preparatory action and the actual
direction of the operation

DIFFERENCES OF OPORD FROM OPLAN

 “Assumptions” are omitted

 Already a directive for specified

operations in the immediate future

 Issued prior to action (specified time

and factual data)

 Maybe written, dictated, given orally or

sent in message form

 Seldom used when an OPLAN has been

issued except when desired by the
Commander

PARTS OF OPLAN/ OPORD

Heading
• Body
Task Organization
I. SITUATION
II. MISSION
III. EXECUTION
IV. ADMIN AND
LOGISTICS
V. COMMAND AND
SIGNAL
• Ending

IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.

 logical outline.

CONCISENESS - as concise as possible; not

wordy reports.

RESTRAINT - Be objective: present findings in

POST OPERATIONS REPORT a conservative manner; let facts speak for
themselves. (No prejudices)
IMPORTANCE AND USES OF POR
 Commander must be informed CONVENIENCE - Convenient for the reader,
 Lessons Learned Tables should be properly referred to and
 Future reference follow
the sequence of presentation.
POR VARIATIONS
 After Operations Report
 After Training Report
 Course Completion Report
 After Activity Report
 After Conference Report

CLASSIFICION OF REPORTS
Manner of Presentation [I-F] – Classifications
are not all inclusive

 Informal Reports – Generally does

not require in depth information and
are routine in nature.

Ex. Morning Reports – DPOR, Weekly

and Monthly Reports

 Formal Reports – Provides specific,

and detailed information regarding a
particular subject or area.

Ex. Fact-Finding, Staff Study and Area

Study

EXAMPLE OF REPORTS [P-F-T-P-P]

 Performance Report
 Fact Finding Report
 Technical Report
 Problem-Determining Report
 Problem Solution Report

QUALITIES OF A GOOD REPORT

ACCURACY - Means completeness and
correctness; non-omission of important facts
and non-inclusion of erroneous data.

CLARITY - thoroughly study your subject to

come up with a
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.
IF YOU’RE LOOKING FOR SOME INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES, THIS IS NOT IT.