Lab of Networking

Data Communication and Computer Networks
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SYSTEM
Laboratory Manual Preparation
For Data Communication and Computer Networks
GUIDELINE PREPARATION COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Prepared by melkamu endale Tepi Campus, Tepi, Ethiopia

april, 12, 2022
Preface
This manual guideline is prepared under College of computing and informatics by the
representative of each informatics department. This instructional Laboratory manual guideline
used as career structure for technical assistant staffs due to that one of the criteria for career
structure is preparing laboratory manual. The manual’s helps to form simple, transparent and
consistent work for promotion of career structure for technical assistant staffs and used to
evaluate manual prepared by instructor as education purpose. In addition to this, it will be used to
evaluate the proper preparation of the laboratory manual for purpose it supposed to be use.
TABLE CONTENT
Experiment No: 1 Network Architecture Characteristics
Experiment No: 2. Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Experiment No: 3. Introduction to network device
Experiment No: 4 Configure Peer-to-Peer Network with at least three hosts
Experiment No: 5 Sharing Specific Folders
Experiment No: 6 Setup FTP Client/Server
Experiment No: 7 Prepare and Test straight and Cross UTP cable
Experiment No: 8 Drawing of Network Layout with its Topology type and meaning for
Network set-up
Experiment No: 9 Explanation of OSI model with examples
Experiment No: 10 four layers of the TCP/IP model and seven layers of the OSI model to
the four layers of the TCP/IP model
Experiment No: 11 why multiplexing techniques are necessary in various communication

systems and how frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and time division multiplexing
(TDM) allow multiple signals to be transmitted over the same channel
Experiment No: 12 five different classes of IP addresses and Describe the characteristics and
use of the different IP address classes
Introduction to Networking
Computers are powerful tools. When they are connected in a network, they become even more
powerful because the functions and tools that each computer provides can be shared with other
computers. Network is a small group of computers that share information, or they can be very
complex, spanning large geographical areas that provide its users with unique capabilities, above
and beyond what the individual machines and their software applications can provide.
Experiment No: 1 Network Architecture Characteristics
Network Architecture Characteristics
•The term network architecture, refers to both the technologies that support the infrastructure and
the programmed services and protocols that move the messages across that infrastructure
4 basic characteristics for networks in general to meet user expectations:

-Fault tolerance,
-Scalability,
-Quality of service (QoS)
eg: consistent quality of video
-Security
Network Architecture Characteristics –Fault Tolerance

A fault-tolerant network is one that limits the impact of a failure, so that the fewest number of
devices are affected. It is also built in a way that allows quick recovery when such a failure
occurs. These networks depend on multiple paths between the source and destination of a
message. If one path fails, the messages can be instantly sent over a different link. Having
multiple paths to a destination is known as redundancy. Fault Tolerance means the ability to
continue working despite failures and Ensure no loss of services. Suppose you are returning
home from your college with best route you know and follow the same route every day, now one
day you see there is a blockage in the road, so what you will do, will you return to college or find
another way to reach home? Obviously you will find another way to reach your home.
The same happens in networking, your PC in connected with a wireless router and the router is
connected with router 1 and router 2 and these two router in turn is connected with the web
server. Now suppose you searched for a link or any website, but unfortunately the connection of
your wireless router with router 1 is disconnected, so now wireless router will make another
connection with router 2 and send the request to the web server. This what the Fault Tolerance
means.
Network Architecture Characteristics –Scalability
Certain characteristics of the Internet help it scale to meet user demand

–Hierarchical
–Common standards
–Common protocols
There is no single organization that regulates the Internet, the operators of the many individual
networks that provide Internet connectivity cooperate to follow accepted standards and protocols
The adherence to standards enables the manufacturers of hardware and software to concentrate
on product improvements in the areas of performance and capacity, knowing that the new
products can integrate with and enhance the existing infrastructure
Scalability means the ability to grow based in the needs and have good performance after
growth.
The best example of scalability in The Internet itself, now also many new users are connecting
through internet and communicating with other devices, but our network is working properly.
This what is scalability.
Network Architecture Characteristics: Quality of Service (QoS)

In order to maintain a high quality of service for applications that require it, it is necessary to
prioritize which types of data packets must be delivered at the expense of other types of packets
that can be delayed or dropped
Quality of Service (QoS) is also an ever-increasing requirement of networks today. New
applications available to users over internetworks, such as voice and live video transmissions,
create higher expectations for the quality of the delivered services. Have you ever tried to watch
a video with constant breaks and pauses? As data, voice, and video content continue to converge
onto the same network, QoS becomes a primary mechanism for managing congestion and
ensuring reliable delivery of content to all users.
Network Architecture Characteristics -QoS

•QoS mechanisms work to ensure quality of service for applications that require it.
Network Architecture Characteristics –Security

Security is the ability to prevent unauthorized access, misuse, or forgery. Also it is the ability
to provide confidentiality, integrity and availability.
Three Primary goals of Network Security

 Preventing theft of information
 Preventing unauthorized changes of information
 Preventing Denial of Service (DoS)
Basic measures to secure data networks
 Ensure confidentiality through use of
 User authentication
 Data encryption
 Maintain communication integrity through use of
 Digital signatures
 Ensure availability through use of
 Firewalls
 Redundant network architecture
 Hardware without a single point of failure
Chapter two
What is communication
Communication is the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to another.
Data communication is a process of exchanging data or information. In case of computer
networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium. This process
involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The hardware
part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the
data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated,
how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
What is data transmission
Data transmission is the transfer of data from one digital device to another. This transfer occurs
via point –to-point data streams or channels these channels may previously have been in the form
of copper wires but are now much more likely to be part of a wireless network.
Experiment No: 2. Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Experiment No: 3. Introduction to network device

Components of the network
End Devices
End devices are the node devices that serve as a source point or a destination point in the
communication that occurs on a computer network. With the coming advancements in
computer networking systems, we have nodes that can act as a client, a server, or both.
Functions of End Devices:
1. They serve as the originator of the data or information that flows through the network.
2. Act as an interface between end-users (humans) and the communication network having
several node devices.
Examples of end devices are
Security cameras:- is a video camera that records peoples activities in order to detect and
prevent crime.
Computers are collection of digital machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences or
logical operations automatically. Modern computers can perform generic sets of operation
known as programs these programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks
A VoIP phone is a device that uses the internet instead of a pair of direct connects copper wires
to provide telephone service. VoIP phone systems give you greater mobility, interoperability,
and connectivity.
A network printer is part of a workgroup or network of computers that can all access the same
printers at the same time. A network printer does not have to have a physical connection to the
network. Instead, it can be connected wirelessly and assigned to a workgroup. Network printers
efficiently meet the needs of multiple employees with a single printer.
wireless barcode scanners:- handheld electronic device used to scan a sticker containing a
barcode. The device emits a laser beam that can scan the barcode , providing you with valuable
data, such as price inventory levels.
Intermediary Network Devices: Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the
network and can connect multiple individual networks to form an internetwork. These
intermediary devices work as a connecting medium (along with other services being offered)
for other nodes and handle the tasks in the background ensuring that the data flows effectively
at desired flow rates across the entire computer network.
Examples of intermediary devices are:-

Hub: is a device that contains multiple ports to connect multiple computers or network devices
to each other. When a computer transmit data through a hub, the hub will broadcast the data to
all other computers attached to it.
Broadcast: the data are sent to every device on a network.
Switch: is a device that contains multiple ports to connect multiple computers or network
devices to each other. Unlike hub, switch can send the data to only the destined computer.
Router: is a device whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks and determine
the next network point to which the data should be forwarded toward its destination.
A modem converts data to a signal so it can be easily sent and received over a phone line,
cable, or satellite connection. For transmission over an analog telephone line—which was once
the most popular way to access the internet—the modem converts data between analog and
digital formats in real time for two-way network communication.
Firewall is a security device — computer hardware or software — that can help protect your
network by filtering traffic and blocking outsiders from gaining unauthorized access to the
private data on your computer.
Not only does a firewall block unwanted traffic, it can also help block malicious software from
infecting your computer.
Wireless Access Point (WAP)

 Device that allows wireless device to connect into a wired network
 Commonly used in home, small business, and even some large enterprise networks
 Act as wireless hub
Network Media
Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the
channel over which the message travels from source to destination.
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these
media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial
cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric
current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted pair cable

 Twisted pair cabling is the most popular network popular network cable for data
transmission
 It is lightweight, easy to install, inexpensive, and supports data speeds up to 100 Mbps.
 It is a pair of copper wires, copper wires are the most common and widely used wire for
transmitting signals due to their good performance at a low cost.
 A twisted pair cable consists of two conductors (normally copper), each pair of cables
twisted together to form a single media with its own plastic insulation.
 Out of these two wires, one wire carries the actual signal and other is used for ground
reference.
 To identify each cable, these cables are color-coated.
 A twist between wires is helpful in reducing noise (electromagnetic interference) and
cross talk.
 This type of cable is mostly used to provide voice and data transmission in telephone
networks.
The two types of twisted pair cables are

 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
 Shielded twisted pair (STP)
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
 There is no shield in unshielded twisted pair means no metal foil in UTP.

 UTP cable is more common than STP cables because it costs less than STP and easily
available due to its many use.
 Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is widely used for local area networks (LAN) and
telephone connections because of its low cost.
 Unshielded twisted pair cables do not provide high bandwidth or good protection from
interference like coaxial or fiber optics cables, but UTP cables are low-cost and easier
work with.
Shielded twisted pair (STP)
 These types of cables have metal foil covering each pair of insulator conductors.
 Shielding in STP cable helps to prevent electromagnetic noise and also eliminates crosstalk.
The data transmission rate is higher in STP.
 Because of metal foil covering, these cables are more expensive than coaxial and
unshielded twisted pair.
Coaxial cable
 Coaxial cable has two wires of cooper
 The core/inner cooper wire is in the center and is made of the soil conductor which is used
for actual data transmission. It is enclosed in an insulating sheath.
 The second/external copper wire is wrapped around and used to protect against external
electromagnetic interference (noise).
 This all is covered by plastic cover used to protect the inner layers from physical damage
such as fire or water.
Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes
a unique set of physical specification.
Common coaxial cable standards
 50-ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used for thick Ethernet or “thicknet”.

 50-ohm RG-58: used for thin Ethernet or ‘’cheapernet’’.
 75-ohm RG-59: used for cable television .
 93-ohm RG-62: used for ARCNET.
FIBER OPTICS CABLE
 A fiber optics cable is made of high-quality thin glass or plastic and is used to transfer
digital data signal in the form of light over thousands of miles.
 Fiber optics cables are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and
distortion are much less.
 Fiber optic cables provide high data transmission and are designed for long-distance.
 Fiber optics cable transmit data signals using light pulses generated by small lasers or
light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 The cable consists of one or more strands of glass, each slightly thicker than a human
hair.
 The center of each strand is called the core, which provide a pathway for light to travel.
The core is surrounded by a layer of glass known as cladding that reflects light inward to
avoid loss of signal and allow the light to pass through bends in the cable. Because of this
reflective cladding, no light can escape the glass core.
Most of the world’s internet use fiber optics cables because it provides higher bandwidth
and transmits data over longer distances.
Unguided media
An unguided media type transmission is used to transmit electromagnetic waves without using
any of the physical transmission media. Thus it is also called wireless transmission. Unguided
media type includes air as the media where electromagnetic energy can be flown easily without
any intrusion or hindrance. Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves which are transmitted in
all the directions of free spaces in an omnidirectional way i.e. signals get transmitted in all the
direction and is used widely in propagating the signals mainly for telecommunication. Telecom
domain has significant usage of Unguided Media Types.
Radio Transmission
The radio waves are propagated in sky mode and are omnidirectional which means that the
source transmitter transmits the radio wave in the sky and they are reflected from the sky and
received by the receiving antenna.
For radio transmission, the source transmitting antenna and receiving antenna are not required to
be aligned to each other. As radio transmission uses sky propagation the signal can be
broadcasted over a long distance.
Being omnidirectional in nature the radio waves can face issues such as interference if another
transmitting antenna is also sending a signal with the same frequency or bandwidth.
Microwave Transmission
The microwaves are unidirectional in nature and due to which it propagates in line-of-
sight mode. In line-of-sight propagation, the source transmitting antenna and the receiving
antenna needs to aligned to each other in such a way that they must be facing each other which
enables point-to-point transmission.
Infrared Transmission
As the infrared transmission is the high-frequency waves, they cannot penetrate the wall so you
can easily differentiate the communication going on inside the building and the communication
outside a building. In this way, there are no chances of interferences.
The most popular example of infrared transmission that we daily come across is your remote that
you use to operate AC, television, music system, etc. The remote emits infrared waves which are
received by the television and according to perform the action. Well, as the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave rises and we move from radio wave toward the visible light, the
electromagnetic wave behaves more like a light. When it comes to security the infrared waves
are more secure as there is no chance of eavesdropping because the infrared wave does not even
penetrate the wall. Therefore, you do not even require a license to use infrared transmission.
CHAPTER THREE
Network Types
Different types of networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the number of
machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach. There are usually said to be two categories
of networks
 Local Area Network (LAN) is limited to a specific area, usually an office, and cannot
extend beyond the boundaries of a single building. The first LANs were limited to a range
(from a central point to the most distant computer) of 185 meters (about 600 feet) and no
more than 30 computers. Today’s technology allows a larger LAN, but practical
administration limitations require dividing it into small, logical areas called workgroups.
A workgroup is a collection of individuals who share the same files and databases over the LAN.
 Wide Area Network (WAN) If you have ever connected to the Internet, you have used
the largest WAN on the planet. A WAN is any network that crosses metropolitan, regional,
or national boundaries. Most networking professionals define a WAN as any network that
uses routers and public network links. The Internet fits both definitions.
Experiment No: 4 Configure Peer-to-Peer Network with at least three hosts

To set a static IP on your Windows computer
1. Click Start Menu > Control Panel > Network and Sharing Center. Click Change adapter
settings.
2. Right-click on Local Area Connection and click on Properties.
3. Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and click on Properties.

Select "Use the following IP address" and enter the IP address, Subnet Mask and DNS server. Click
OK and close the Local Area Connection properties window.
How Workgroup works
A computer joining a workgroup is assigned to the same workgroup name this process makes
accessing the computers easier.
How to create a workgroup
Click on Start button Right-click on Computer and then click Properties 2 under Computer name,
domain, and workgroup settings, click Change settings.
3. In the System Properties dialog box, click the Computer Name tab and then click Change. In
the Computer Name/Domain Changes dialog box, under Member of, click Workgroup
4. Then do one of the following:
To join an existing workgroup, type the name of the workgroup that you want to join, and then click
OK.
To create a new workgroup, type the name of the workgroup that you want to create, and then click
OK
Note: Repeat the steps of setup of IP address and setup of Workgroup for third computer
Experiment No: 5 Sharing Specific Folders
Ensure that File and Printer Sharing is enabled. In order to share specific folders, you will
need to have this feature enabled. The method for enabling it varies slightly depending on which
version of Windows you are using. It is highly recommended that you do not enable folder
sharing when on a public network such as a school or coffee shop.
Windows 7 - Click the Start button, type "control panel", and press ↵ Enter. Double-click the
"Network and Sharing Center" icon. Click the "Change advanced sharing settings" link. Expand
the profile that you want to enable sharing on (Home/Work or Public). Turn on both "Network
discovery" and "File and printer sharing". Click the "Save changes" button and enter your
administrator password if necessary.
Find the folder you wish to share. Once File and Printer Sharing has been enabled, you can
share any folder on your hard drive with other people on your network. Navigate to the folder
that you want to share using Explorer. Right-click on it.
3, Select the "Share with" option. This will open the Sharing submenu. You can choose to
share it with everyone in your Homegroup or select specific people to share it with. When
choosing a Homegroup option, you can allow other Homegroup members to both read and write
to the folder, or limit them to just read from it.
Click the "Specific people" option to select which users you want to share with. This will
open a new window with a list of all the users that currently have access to the folder. You can
add users to this list and give them specific permissions for the folder.
 To share the folder with everyone, click the dropdown menu at the top and select
"Everyone". Click the Add button.
 To share with specific users, click the dropdown menu and select them or type in the
name and click Add.
6, Click the Share button. Your permission settings will be saved, and the folder will be
available on the network for all allowed users.
Client/Server Network A client/server network uses a network operating system designed to

manage the entire network from a centralized point, which is the server. Clients make requests of
the server, and the server responds with the information or access to a resource. Every computer
has a distinct role: that of either a client or a server. A server is designed to share its resources
among the client computers on the network. Typically, servers are located in secured areas, such
as locked closets or data centers (server rooms), because they hold an organization’s most
valuable data and do not have to be accessed by operators on a continuous basis. The rest of the
computers on the network function as clients.
Experiment No: 6 Setup FTP Client/Server

1. Navigate to Start > Control Panel > Administrative Tools > Server Manager in Windows
Server Manager
2. Go to Roles node. Right-click on Roles, and click Add Roles.
3. In the Add Roles window, open Server Roles and check Web Server (IIS).
4. Proceed through the setup wizard, and click Install. Wait for the installation to complete.
If IIS is installed already (as a Web server),
1. Navigate to Start > Control Panel > Administrative Tools > Server Manager
2. In the Windows Server Manager, go to Roles node, and expand Web Server (IIS).
3. Right-click on Web Server (IIS), and click on Add Role Services.
4. In the Add Role Services window, go to Roles Services, and check FTP Server.
5. Confirm that IIS Management Console is checked under Management Tools.

6. Click Next, and then Install. Wait for the installation to complete.
Transferring files
To transfer files, you should add an FTP site. Once the FTP site is enabled, clients can transfer to
and from the site using the FTP protocol.
Setting up an FTP site
1. Navigate to Start > Control Panel > Administrative Tools > Internet Information Services
(IIS) Manager.
2. Once the IIS console is open, expand the local server.
3. Right-click on Sites, and click on Add FTP Site.
4. In the Add FTP Site window, type the FTP server name and the content directory path, and
click Next. The directory path should be the same as the one we set permissions to allow
anonymous access above, we used: %SystemDrive%\ ftp \ftproot
5. In the Binding and SSL Settings window, type the IP address of the server. Check the Start
FTP Site Automatically option. Choose SSL Based on Constraint. Click Next.
6. Now, select Basic for authentication.

Note: Basic authentication means there is no encryption used. Thus, username/password are sent
in clear text. Basic authentication matches the username/password from the Active Directory
database. You can also create accounts in IIS. This can be done from under Management Tools
in Web Server (IIS) role. Under Authorization, you can select All Users to allow FTP access to
all users from the domain. Also, check both Read and Write under Permissions Based on
Requirement.
7. Click Finish. Now, the FTP site creation is complete.
Accessing files on the FTP server
To access files on the FTP server, open a file explorer and type ftp://serverIP. The FTP server
asks for a username and password. Enter the username and password (Windows or Active
Directory credentials) and click Logon. The files and folders display under the FTP server.
Experiment No: 7 Prepare and Test straight and Cross UTP cable
Straight network cable:
It is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices together directly. Straight
through or patch cables were used to connect from a host network interface controller (a
computer or similar device) to a network switch, hub or router. Both sides (side A and side B) of
cable have wire arrangement with same color. These are used when connecting Data Terminating
Equipment (DTE) to Data Communications Equipment (DCE).
HUB
Pin ID Side A Side B
AND Orange- Orange-
SWITCH
PC
white white
2 Orange Orange
3 Green- Green-
white white
4 Blue Blue
5 Blue- Blue-
White White
6 Green Green
7 Brown- Brown-
White White
8 Brown Brown
 Crossover network cable:

It is used to connect two devices of the same type: two computers or two switches to each other.
Both sides (side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with different color. These are used
when connecting Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) to Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) or
Data Communications Equipment (DCE) to Data Communications Equipment (DCE).
HUB HUB
AND AND
SWITCH
SWITCH
Pin ID Side A Side B
1 Orange- Green-white
white
2 Orange Green
3 Green-white Orange-
white
4 Blue Brown-
White
5 Blue-White Brown
6 Green Orange
7 Brown- Blue
White
8 Brown Blue-White
RJ45 Connector and Crimping Tool

RJ45 Connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are most common RJ45 is a standard type of
Connector for Network Cables. RJ4 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable
interface electrically. Standard RJ45 pin outs define the arrangement of the individual wires needed
when attaching Connector to Cable. A Crimping Tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a
connector to the end of cable Network cables and Phone cables are created using crimping tool to
connect RJ 45and RJ 11 connectors to the end of the cable.
Functionality Difference between Straight Cable and Cross Cable
Crossover cable is used when:
 Connecting a computer to a computer
 Connecting a router to a router
 Connecting a switch to a switch
 Connecting a hub to a hub and

 Connecting a router to a PC because both devices have the same components
Straight-through cables are used when:
 Connecting a router to a hub

 Connecting a computer to a switch
 Connecting a LAN Port to a switch or computer
 Connecting other dissimilar networking equipment
Prepare straight and crossover cable
1,
Use Crimping Tool or Cable Stripper clean the outer shell about 1 Inch (2.5 cm) from the one
end of the cable. The crimping tool has a razor blade that will do the trick with practice. To do
this:
• insert the end of the cable into the rear round hole of the crimper
• clamp the ends of the crimper and rotate the outer shell
2, Unwind and pair the similar colors.
3, Pinch the wires between your fingers and straighten them out as shown. The color order is
important to get correct. You make EIA/TIA-568B Direct UTP Cable Numbering in 8P8C
(RJ45) connector
Use Crimping Tool or Scissors to make a straight cut across the 8 wires to shorten them to 1/2
Inch (1.3 cm) from the cut sleeve to the end of the wires.
Carefully push all 8 unstripped colored wires into the connector. TRUE WAY - Note the position
of the blue plastic sleeve. Also note how the wires go all the way to the end.
TRUE WAY - A view from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires.
WRONG WAY - Note how the blue plastic sleeve is not inside the connector where it can be
locked into place. The wires are too long. The wires should extend only ½ inch from the blue cut
sleeve.
WRONG WAY - Note how the wires do not go all the way to the end of the connector.
CRIMPING THE CABLE carefully place the connector into the Ethernet Crimper and cinch
down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the connector will pierce into each of
the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that holds the blue plastic sleeve in place for a tight
compression fit. When you remove the cable from
the crimper, that end is ready to use.
Make sure to test the cables using line tester before installing them. Use Cable Tester
Experiment No: 8 Drawing of Network Layout with its Topology type and
meaning for Network set-up
Types of Network Topology
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
1, BUS
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
CHAPTER FOUR
Protocols
Rules & Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a

network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a
network.
Experiment No: 9 Explanation of OSI model with examples

Layers of OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO-‘International

Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each
layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to
transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.
Here are the 7 Layers of the OSI Model:

#1) Layer 1 – Physical layer
 The physical layer is the first and bottom-most layer of the OSI Reference Model. It
mainly provides the bitstream transmission.
 It also characterizes the media type, connector type and signal type to be used for
communication. Basically, the raw data in the form of bits i.e. 0’s & 1’s are converted
into signals and exchanged over this layer. Data encapsulation is also done at this layer.
The sender end and the receiving end should be in synchronization and the transmission
rate in the form of bits per second is also decided at this layer.
 It provides a transmission interface between the devices and the transmission media and
the type of topology to be used for networking along with the type of transmission mode
required for transmission is also defined at this level.
 Usually, star, bus or ring topologies are used for networking and the modes used are half-
duplex, full-duplex or simplex.
 Examples of layer 1 devices include hubs, repeaters & Ethernet cable connectors. These
are the basic devices that are used at the physical layer to transmit data through a given
physical medium which is suitable as per the network need.
#2) Layer 2 – Data-link Layer

 Data-link layer is the second layer from the bottom of the OSI Reference Model. The
main function of the data-link layer is to perform error detection and combine the data
bits into frames. It combines the raw data into bytes and bytes to frames and transmits the
data packet to the network layer of the desired destination host. At the destination end,
the data-link layer receives the signal, decodes it into frames and delivers it to the
hardware.
 MAC Address: Data-link layer supervises the physical addressing system called the
MAC address for the networks and handles the access of the assorted network
components to the physical medium.
 A media access control address is a unique device address and each device or component
in a network has a MAC address on the basis of which we can uniquely identify a device
of the network. It is a 12 digit unique address.
 Example of MAC address is 3C-95-09-9C-21-G1 (having 6 octets, where the first 3
represent the OUI, the next three represent the NIC). It can also be known as the physical
address. The structure of a MAC address is decided by the IEEE organization as it is
globally accepted by all firms.
The structure of MAC address representing the various fields and bit length can be seen
below.
 Error Detection: Only error detection is done at this layer, not error correction. Error
correction is done at the Transport layer.
 Sometimes data signals encounter some unwanted signals known as error bits. In order to
conquer with the errors, this layer performs error detection. Cyclic Redundancy check
(CRC) and checksum are few efficient methods of error checking. We will discuss these
in the transport layer functions.
 Flow control & Multiple Access: Data which is sent in the form of a frame between the
sender and a receiver over a transmission media at this layer, should transmit and receive
at the same pace. When a frame is sent over a medium at a faster speed than the
receiver’s working speed, then the data to be received at receiving node will be lost due
to a mismatch in speed.
 In order to overcome these type of issues, the layer performs flow control mechanism.
There are two types of flow control process:
Stop and Wait for flow control: In this mechanism, it pushes the sender after the data is
transmitted to stop and wait from the receiver’s end to get the acknowledgment of the frame
received at the receiver end. The second data frame is sent over the medium, only after the first
acknowledgment is received, and the process will go on.
Sliding window: In this process, both the sender and the receiver will decide the number of
frames after which the acknowledgment should be exchanged. This process is time-saving as
fewer resources are used in the flow control process.
 This layer also provisions to provide access to multiple devices to transmit through the
same media without collision by using CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access/collision
detection) protocols.
 Synchronization: Both the devices between which data sharing is taking place should be
in synchronization with each other at both the ends so that data transfer can take place
smoothly.
 Layer-2 Switches: Layer-2 switches are the devices which forward the data to the next
layer on the basis of the physical address (MAC address) of the machine. Firstly it
gathers the MAC address of the device on the port on which the frame is to be received
and later learns the destination of the MAC address from the address table and forwards
the frame to the destination of the next layer. If the destination host address is not
specified then it simply broadcasts the data frame to all the ports except the one from
which it learned the address of the source.
 Bridges: Bridges is the two port device which works on the data link layer and is used to
connect two LAN networks. In addition to this, it behaves like a repeater with an
additional function of filtering the unwanted data by learning the MAC address and
forwards it further to the destination node. It is used for the connectivity of networks
working on the same protocol.
#3) Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer is the third layer from the bottom. This layer has the accountability to
accomplish the routing of data packets from the source to destination host between the inter and
intra networks operating on the same or different protocols.
Apart from the technicalities, if we try to understand what it really does?

The answer is very simple that it finds out the easy, shortest, and time-efficient way out between
the sender and the receiver to exchange data using routing protocols, switching, error detection
and addressing techniques.
 It performs the above task by using a logical network addressing and subnetting designs
of the network. Irrespective of the two different networks working on the same or
different protocol or different topologies the function of this layer is to route the packets
from the source to destination by using the logical IP addressing and routers for
communication.
 IP Addressing: The IP address is a logical network address and is a 32-bit number which

is globally unique for each network host. It principally consists of two parts i.e. network
address & host address. It is generally denoted in a dotted-decimal format with four
numbers split by dots. For Example, the dotted-decimal representation of the IP address
is 192.168.1.1 which in binary will be 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001, and is
very hard to remember. Thus usually the first one is used. These eight bits sector are
known as octets.
 Routers work at this layer and are used for communication for inter and intra network-
wide area networks (WAN’s). Routers who transmit the data packets between the
networks do not know the exact destination address of the destination host for which the
packet is routed, rather they only know the location of the network to which they belong
to and use the information that is stored in the routing table to establish the path along
which the packet is to be delivered to the destination. After the packet is delivered to the
destination network, it then is delivered to the desired host of that particular network.
 For the above series of procedure to be done the IP address has two parts. The first part of
IP address is network address and the last part is the host address.
 Example: For the IP address 192.168.1.1. The network address will be 192.168.1.0
and the host address will be 0.0.0.1.
Subnet Mask: The network address and the host address defined in the IP address is not solely
efficient to determine that the destination host is of the same sub-network or remote network.
The subnet mask is a 32-bit logical address that is used along with the IP address by the routers
to determine the location of the destination host to route the packet data.
Example for combined usage of IP address & subnet mask is shown below:
For the above Example, by using a subnet mask 255.255.255.0, we get to know that the
network ID is 192.168.1.0 and the host address is 0.0.0.64. When a packet arrives from
192.168.1.0 subnet and has a destination address as 192.168.1.64, then the PC will receive it
from the network and process it further to the next level.
Thus by using subnetting, the layer-3 will provide an inter-networking between the two different
subnets as well.
The IP addressing is a connectionless service, thus the layer -3 provides a connectionless service.
The data packets are sent over the medium without waiting for the recipient to send the
acknowledgment. If the data packets which are big in size are received from the lower level to
transmit, then it splits it into small packets and forwards it.
At the receiving end, it again reassembles them to the original size, thus becoming space
efficient as a medium less load.
#4) Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The fourth layer from the bottom is called the transport layer of the OSI Reference model.
(i) This layer guarantees an end to end error-free connection between the two different hosts or
devices of networks. This is the first one which takes the data from the upper layer i.e. the
application layer, and then splits it into smaller packets called the segments and dispenses it to
the network layer for further delivery to the destination host.
It ensures that the data received at host end will be in the same order in which it was transmitted.
It provides an end to end supply of the data segments of both inter and intra sub-networks. For an
end to end communication over the networks, all devices are equipped with a Transport service
access point (TSAP) and are also branded as port numbers.
A host will recognize its peer host at the remote network by its port number.
(ii) The two transport layer protocols include:

 Transmission control protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
TCP is a connection-oriented and reliable protocol. In this protocol, firstly the connection is
established between the two hosts of the remote end, only then the data is sent over the network
for communication. The receiver always sends an acknowledgment of the data received or not
received by the sender once the first data packet is transmitted.
After receiving the acknowledgment from the receiver, the second data packet is sent over the
medium. It also checks the order in which the data is to be received otherwise data is re-
transmitted. This layer provides an error correction mechanism and flow control. It also supports
client/server model for communication.
UDP is a connectionless and unreliable protocol. Once data is transmitted between two hosts, the
receiver host doesn’t send any acknowledgment of receiving the data packets. Thus the sender
will keep on sending data without waiting for an acknowledgment.
This makes it very easy to process any network requirement as no time is wasted in waiting for
acknowledgment. The end host will be any machine like a computer, phone or tablet.
This type of protocol is widely used in video streaming, online games, video calls, voice over IP
where when some data packets of video are lost then it doesn’t have much significance, and can
be ignored as it doesn’t make much impact on the information it carries and doesn’t have much
relevance.
(iii) Error Detection & Control: Error checking is provided in this layer because of the
following two reasons:
Even if no errors are introduced when a segment is moving over a link, it can be possible for
errors to be introduced when a segment is stored in the router’s memory (for queuing). The data
link layer is not able to detect an error in this scenario.
There is no assurance that all the links between the source and destination will provide error
scrutiny. One of the links may be using a link layer protocol which doesn’t offer the desired
outcomes.
The methods used for error check and control are CRC (cyclic redundancy check) and
checksum.
CRC: The concept of CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) grounds on the binary division of the
data component, as the remainder of which (CRC) is appended to the data component and sent to
the receiver. The recipient divides data component by an identical divisor.
If the remainder comes up to zero then the data component is allowed to pass to forward the
protocol, else, it is assumed that the data unit has been distorted in transmission and the packet is
discarded.
Checksum Generator & checker: In this method, the sender uses the checksum generator
mechanism in which initially the data component is split into equal segments of n bits. Then, all
the segments are added together by employing 1’s complement.
Later, it complements once again, and now it turns into checksum and then is sent along with the
data component.
Example: If 16 bits is to be sent to the receiver and bits are 10000010 00101011, then the
checksum that will be transmitted to the receiver will be 10000010 00101011 01010000.
Upon receiving the data unit, the receiver divides it into n equal size segments. All the segments
are added using 1’s complement. The result is complemented once more and If the result is zero,
the data is accepted, else discarded.
This error detection & control method permits a receiver to rebuild the original data whenever it
is found corrupted in transit.
#5) Layer 5 – Session Layer

This layer permits the users of different platforms to set up an active communication session
between themselves.
The main function of this layer is to provide sync in the dialogue between the two distinctive
applications. The synchronization is necessary for efficient delivery of data without any loss at
the receiver end.
Let’s understand this with the help of an Example.

Assume that a sender is sending a big data file of more than 2000 pages. This layer will add
some checkpoints while sending the big data file. After sending a small sequence of 40 pages, it
ensures the sequence & successful acknowledgment of data.
If verification is OK, it will keep repeating it further till the end otherwise it will re-synchronize
and re-transmit.
This will help in keeping the data safe and the whole data host will never completely get lost if
some crash happens. Also, token management, will not allow two networks of heavy data and of
the same type to transmit at the same time.
#6) Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

As suggested by the name itself, the presentation layer will present the data to its end users in the
form in which it can easily be understood. Hence, this layer takes care of the syntax, as the mode
of communication used by the sender and receiver may be different.
It plays the role of a translator so that the two systems come on the same platform for
communication and will easily understand each other.
The data which is in the form of characters and numbers are split into bits before transmission by
the layer. It translates the data for networks in the form in which they require it and for devices
like phones, PC, etc in the format they require it.
The layer also performs data encryption at the sender’s end and data decryption at the receiver’s
end.
It also performs data compression for multimedia data before transmitting, as the length of
multimedia data is very big and much bandwidth will be required to transmit it over media, this
data is compressed into small packets and at the receiver’s end, it will be decompressed to get the
original length of data in its own format.
#7) Top Layer – Application Layer

This is the topmost and seventh layer of the OSI reference model. This layer will communicate
with the end users & user applications.
This layer grants a direct interface and access to the users with the network. The users can
directly access the network at this layer. Few Examples of services provided by this layer
include e-mail, sharing data files, FTP GUI based software like Netnumen, Filezilla (used for file
sharing), telnet network devices etc.
There is vagueness in this layer as is not all user-based information and the software can be
planted into this layer.
For Example, any designing software can’t be put directly at this layer while on the other hand
when we access any application through a web browser, it can be planted at this layer as a web
browser is using HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) which is an application layer protocol.
Therefore irrespective of the software used, it is the protocol used by the software that is
considered at this layer.
Software testing programs will work on this layer as the application layer provides an interface
to its end users to test the services and their uses. The HTTP protocol is mostly used for testing at
this layer but FTP, DNS, TELNET can also be used as per the requirement of the system and
network in which they are operating.
Conclusion
From this tutorial, we learned about the functionalities, roles, inter-connection, and relationship
between each layer of the OSI reference model.
List the seven layers of the OSI model and the encapsulation unit used to describe the data
grouping at each layer. Also list the networking devices that operate at each layer, if applicable.
Layer # Name Encapsulation Unit Devices or

or Logical Grouping Components that
Operate at this Layer
7 Application DATA
6 PRESENTATION DATA
5 SESSION DATA
4 TRANSPORT SEGMENT
3 NETWORK PACKETS ROUTER
2 DATA LINK FRAMES NIC,BRIDGE,SWITCH
1 PHYSICAL BITS TRANCEIVER,REPEATER
Experiment No: 10 four layers of the TCP/IP model and seven layers of the OSI model to
the four layers of the TCP/IP model
Steps 1, Use the table below to compare the OSI layers with the TCP/IP protocol stack. In
column two, indicate the proper name for each of the seven layers of the OSI model
corresponding to the layer number. List the TCP/IP layer number and its correct name in the next
two columns. Also list the term used for the encapsulation units, the related TCP/IP protocols
and utilities that operate at each TCP/IP layer. More than one OSI layer will be related to certain
TCP/IP layers.
The TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP reference mode “TCP/IP” is the acronym that is commonly used for the set of network
protocols that compose the Internet Protocol suite. Many texts use the term “Internet”
to describe both the protocol suite and the global wide area network. In this book,
“TCP/IP” refers specifically to the Internet protocol suite “Internet” refers to the wide area
network and the bodies that govern the internet
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven
layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to OSI refers to Open Systems
Transmission Control Protocol. Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict

boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries
TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and

presentation layer in the application OSI uses different session and presentation
layer itself. layers.
TCP/IP developed protocols then

model. OSI developed model then protocol.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
provide assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.
Connection less and connection oriented both

TCP/IP model network layer only services are provided by network layer in OSI
provides connection less services. model.
While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered

and is easy to replace with the change in
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in technology.
TCP/IP model.
The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access layer on the
behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
1. Network Access Layer –
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for the
physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing in
layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.
2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing
at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams
and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP and Inverse ARP.
3. Host-to-Host Layer –
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It
also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features.
Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It
is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-
effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
4. Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP,
HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window,
LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these
protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.
Chapter 5
Switching & Multiplexing
Switching
A network consists of many switching devices. In order to connect multiple devices, one solution
could be to have a point to point connection in between pair of devices. But this increases the
number of connection. The other solution could be to have a central device and connect every
device to each other via the central device which is generally known as Star Topology. Both
these methods are wasteful and impractical for very large network. The other topology also can
not be used at this stage. Hence a better solution for this situation is SWITCHING. A switched
network is made up of a series of interconnected nodes called switches.
Types of Switching
There are basically three types of switching methods are made available. Out of three
methods, circuit switching and packet switching are commonly used but the message switching
has been opposed out in the general communication procedure but is still used in the networking
application.
1) Circuit Switching
2) Packet Switching
3) Message Switching
Experiment No: 11 why multiplexing techniques are necessary in various

communication systems and how frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and
time division multiplexing (TDM) allow multiple signals to be transmitted
over the same channel
Step1. Introduction Up until now, we’ve always considered one transmitter sending one signal
over one channel (or a medium) to one receiver. But in real life, to efficiently utilize the
bandwidth of the channel, we often want to send multiple signals over one channel. In this
lesson, we will look at several techniques to combine multiple signals for transmission over one
channel. These techniques are known as multiplexing techniques. We will also briefly discuss a
basic error checking method known as parity code.
Step 2. Multiplexing Techniques Multiplexing is the process of sharing a single communication

channel (or medium) for transmission of multiple signals. Why is this important?
1. Often in communication (e.g. telephone systems) it is necessary or desirable to transmit

more than one voice or data signal simultaneously.
2. Telemetry: Many physical systems have multiple sensors which generate data that must be
transmitted back to a monitor or control system. (For example, chemical plants, space shuttle,
etc.) Oftentimes it is not practical or cost-effective to have a separate communication channel for
each sensor.
An overview of signal multiplexing is shown in Figure 1. Note that the channel (or medium or
link) shown in the figure can be a wire or free space (wireless communication) and
 A multiplexer (MUX)is a component that combines multipler signal into a single data stream,
and
 A de-multiplexer (DeMux)is a component that separate a single data stream into multiple
signals. In this lesson, we will introduce three basic types of multiplexing techniques: spatial
multiplexing, frequency division multiplexing (FDM), and time division multiplexing (TDM).
Fig 1. Overall concept of transmitting multiple signals over one channel with multiplexing.
Spatial Multiplexing: Transmits multiple wireless signals on a common frequency by either

using low power transmissions or carefully controlling radiation patterns to direct the signals to
different locations so they don’t interfere with each other. This technique is also known as
“frequency reuse”. This, for example, is why many radio stations across the country can transmit
at the same frequency, because they are separated far enough geographically and the
transmissions are low power.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): When Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

technique is used, multiples signals share the same channel by transmitting at different carrier
frequency within the channel’s bandwidth (i.e. they share the bandwidth of a common
communication channel). We use modulation with separate carrier frequencies equally spaced
over the frequency range.
 FDM is usually used for analog data.
 Some of the commutation systems that use FDM include cable TV (each signal gets a 6MHz
channel), FM stereo broadcasting (for Left and Right, and for Radio Data System (RDS)).
Example 1: Assume that a typical voice signal occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz, and we need to
transmit three separate voice signal simultaneously. Using Frequency Division Multiplexing with
Amplitude Modulation, choose three carrier frequencies such that the voice signals can be
combined without interfering with each other.
- First, we note that the modulated version of each of these signals will occupy 8 kHz of
bandwidth in the frequency domain, since the AM signal contains two sidebands (a copy and a
mirror image of the original signal). Therefore the most efficient method will place the signals
immediately next to each other, requiring a total of 24 kHz (i.e. 8 kHz per signal).
- Using modulation, we can choose carrier frequencies to space the signals in a desired 24 kHz
range. For example, we could select the following o Assign voice signal 1 to 16 – 24 kHz
bandwidth  modulated it with fc1 = 20 kHz o Assign voice signal 2 to 24 – 32 kHz bandwidth 
modulated it with fc2 = 28 kHz o Assign voice signal 3 to 32 – 40 kHz bandwidth  modulated it
with fc3 = 36 kHz
- Finally, combine these three modulated signals and send it via a common channel. Note that in
the case of radio transmission, we can achieve the multiplexing effect with a single transmitter
sending the combined signal or three different transmitters (e.g. different radio stations)
transmitting each of their respective modulated signals, since they will combine together in free
space.
- The overall process is illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Combining three low bandwidth voice signals into one high bandwidth channel using
FDM.
Example 2: Due to budget cuts, you’re told that you must achieve the same task with only half
the bandwidth! Determine a method to combine the three voice signals into a channel with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain.
- We’ll follow the same process, but we’ll use band-pass filters (BPF) to remove half of the
modulated signals before transmitting. We can do this, because the lower sideband is just a
mirror image of the upper sideband, and so we don’t need to transmit both of them to
communicate the required information.
- First, divide the bandwidth of the channel into three separate frequency ranges: 20 – 24kHz, 24
– 28 kHz, and 28 – 32 kHz.
- Then, assign each range to a signal and shift the original signals to assigned ranges. This is
done with modulation with a carrier frequency. For this example,
o Assign voice signal 1 to 20 – 24 kHz bandwidth  modulated it with fc1 = 20 kHz

- Then use a band-pass filter (BPF) to remove the lower sideband. For example, in the figure
below the BPF for signal 1 would have a lower cutoff frequency of 20 kHz and and upper cutoff
frequency of 24 kHz.
- Finally, combine these three modulated signals and send via a common channel.
- This process, known as “Single Sideband Transmission” is illustrated in Figure 3
Fig. 3. Combining three low bandwidth voice signals into one high bandwidth channel using
FDM with Band
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): When Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) technique is
used, multiple signals share the same channel by taking turn transmitting. Data is broken up into
frames and assigned to time slots. (Like cars merging in a lane). This technique is primarily used
for digital data.
 Each signal uses the entire bandwidth of the channel when transmitting.
 On the receiving end, the demultiplexing process requires synchronization of the frames. This
is often accomplished through a sync pulse.
 To help detecting transmission errors, additional error detection code (i.e. parity bits) may be
added to each frame.
Fig. 4. Conceptual view of TDM.
Example 3: UAV sensor reports (altitude, battery level, speed) are being sent using TDM. Each
sensor sends a 4-bit data packet a time. Assume that the first 3 data packets from each sensor are
shown in the table below, show the data stream in binary on the channel.
Note that in this figure, the bitstreams are shown in the form with time 1 to the right and the first
frame to the right, i.e. the order in which they would be received on the receiver end. However,
each individual frame is written with most significant byte to the left and least significant byte to
the right, as usual. Note also that when the parity bit is generated, the sync bit is not included in
the calculation.
Questions: Assuming that the data rate of the channel is 100 kbps.
A, What is the frame rate (frame per second – fps) of the channel?
b. What is the maximum bit rate for each sensor?

Chapter 6: Introduction to IP Addressing and Subnetting

Introduction to internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet protocol suite (TCP/ IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks
that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of
local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services,
such as the interlinked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support electronic mail.
Introducing IP Addresses
An IP address is a number that uniquely identifies every host on an IP network. IP addresses

operate at the Network layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack, so they are independent of lower-level
Data Link layer MAC addresses, such as Ethernet MAC addresses.
IP addresses are 32-bit binary numbers, which means that theoretically, a maximum of
something in the neighborhood of 4 billion unique host addresses can exist throughout the
Internet. You'd think that would be enough, but TCP/IP places certain restrictions on how IP
addresses are allocated. These restrictions severely limit the total number of usable IP addresses.
Many experts predict that we will run out of IP addresses as soon as next year. However, new
techniques for working with IP addresses have helped to alleviate this problem, and a standard
for 128-bit IP addresses has been adopted, though it still is not yet in widespread
Experiment No: 12 five different classes of IP addresses and Describe the characteristics and
use of the different IP address classes
In its basic form, the IP address has two parts:

• A network address
• A host address
The network portion of the IP address is assigned to a company or organization by the Internet
Network Information Center (InterNIC). Routers use the IP address to move data packets
between networks. IP addresses are 32 bits long according to the current version IPv4 and are
divided into 4 octets of 8 bits each. They operate at the network layer (Layer 3) of the Open
System Interconnection (OSI) model, which is the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model. IP
addresses are assigned in the following ways:
• Statically – manually, by a network administrator

• Dynamically – automatically, by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server
The IP address of a workstation, or host is a logical address, meaning it can be changed. The
Media Access Control (MAC) address of the workstation is a 48-bit physical address. This
address is burned into the network interface card (NIC) and cannot change unless the NIC is
replaced. The combination of the logical IP address and the physical MAC address helps route
packets to their proper destination.
There are five different classes of IP addresses, and depending on the class, the network and host
part of the address will use a different number of bits. In this lab, different classes of IP addresses
will be worked with and to help become familiar with the characteristics of each. The
understanding of IP addresses is critical to the understanding of TCP/IP and internetworks in
general. The following resources are required:
• PC workstation with Windows 9x/NT/2000/XP installed

• Access to the Windows Calculator
Step 1: Review IP address classes and their characteristics

Address classes There are five classes of IP addresses, A through E. Only the first three classes
are used commercially. A Class A network address is discussed in the table to get started. The
first column is the class of IP address. The second column is the first octet, which must fall
within the range shown for a given class of addresses. The Class A address must start with a
number between 1 and 126. The first bit of a Class A address is always a zero, meaning the High
Order Bit (HOB) or the 128 bit cannot be used. 127 is reserved for loopback testing. The first
octet alone defines the network ID for a Class A network address.
Default subnet mask The default subnet mask uses all binary ones, decimal 255, to mask the
first 8 bits of the Class A address. The default subnet mask helps routers and hosts determine if
the destination host is on this network or another one. Because there are only 126 Class A
networks, the remaining 24 bits or 3 octets can be used for hosts. Each Class A network can have
224 or over 16 million hosts. It is common to subdivide the network into smaller groupings
called subnets by using a custom subnet mask, which is discussed in the next lab.
Network and host address The network or host portion of the address cannot be all ones or all
zeros. As an example, the Class A address of 118.0.0.5 is a valid IP address. The network
portion, or first 8 bits, which are equal to 118, is not all zeros and the host portion, or last 24 bits,
is not all zeros or all ones. If the host portion were all zeros, it would be the network address
itself. If the host portion were all ones, it would be a broadcast for the network address. The
value of any octet can never be greater than decimal 255 or binary 11111111.
Class st st Network/ Default Number of Hosts per

1 Octet 1 Octet
Host ID Subnet Networks Network
Decimal High Order
(N=Networ Mask (Usable
Range Bits
k, H=Host) Addresses)
A 1 – 126 * 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 7 16,777,214

126 (2 – 2)
24
(2 – 2)
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 14 16

16,382 (2 65,534 (2
– 2) – 2)
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255. 2,097,150 8

254 (2 – 2)
0 21
(2 – 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 11110 Experimental; used for research
Note: Class A address 127 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback and diagnostic functions.
Subnetting is done by borrowing host bits and using them as network bits. For example network
address (192.168.1.0) and its subnet mask (255.255.2550) as expressed in binary. Notice that the
address bits that have corresponding mask bite set to 1 represents the network address. Address
Create two subnets and implement it with calculated subnet masking
Step 1 Borrow host bit from IP address (Example. 192.168.7.0) and use them as network bits. step.2
Create first subnet by borrowing one rightmost bit of host address as per below table.
Network address 192 168 7 0

11000000 10101000 00000111 00000000
Subnet Mask 255 255 255 128
11111111 11111111 11111111 10000000

Step, 3 Create second subnet by borrowing two rightmost bit of host address as per below table.
Network address 192 168 7 0

11000000 10101000 00000111 00000000
Subnet Mask 255 255 255 192
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
Step 4: Two subnets created are:

1.192.168.7.128
2.192.168.7.192
Experiment No 13 Use variable-length subnet mask (VLSM) to support more efficient use of
the assigned IP addresses
A class C address of 192.168.10.0/24 has been allocated.
Perth, Sydney, and Singapore have a WAN connection to Kuala Lumpur.
 Perth requires 60 hosts.
 Kuala Lumpur requires 28 hosts.
 Sydney and Singapore each require 12 hosts.
To calculate VLSM subnets and the respective hosts allocate the largest requirements first from
the
address range. Requirements levels should be listed from the largest to the smallest. In this
example Perth requires 60 hosts. Use 6 bits since 26 – 2 = 62 usable host addresses. Thus 2
bits will be used from the 4th Octet to represent the extended-network-prefix of /26 and the
remaining 6 bits will be used for host addresses.
Step 1
The first step in the subnetting process is to divide the allocated address of 192.168.10.0/24 into
four equal size address blocks. Since 4 = 22, 2 bits are required to identify each of the 4 subnets.
Next, take subnet #0 (192.168.10.0/26) and identify each of its hosts.
Here is the range for the /26 mask.
Step 2
Allocate the next level after all the requirements are met for the higher level or levels. Kuala
Lumpur requires 28 hosts next available address after 192.168.10.63/26 is 192.168.10.64/26.
Note from the above table that this is subnet number 1. Since 28 hosts are required, 5 bits will be
needed for the host addresses, 25 –2 = 30 usable host addresses. Thus 5 bits will be required to
represent the hosts and 3 bits will be used to represent the extended-network prefix of /27.
Applying VLSM on address 192.168.10.64/27 gives:
Step 3
Now Sydney and Singapore require 12 hosts each. The next available address starts from
192.168.10.96/27. Note from Table 2 that this is the next subnet available. Since 12 hosts are
required, 4 bits will be needed for the host addresses, 24 = 16, 16 – 2 = 14 usable addresses. Thus
4 bits are required to represent the hosts and 4 bits for the extended-network-prefix of /28.
Applying VLSM on address 192.168.10.96/27 gives:
Step 4
Since Singapore also requires 12 hosts, the next set of host addresses can be derived from the
next available subnet (192.168.10.112/28).
Step 5
Now allocate addresses for the WAN links. Remember that each WAN link will require two IP
addresses. The next available subnet is 192.168.10.128/28. Since 2 network addresses are
required for each WAN link, 2 bits will be needed for host addresses, 22 –2 = 2 usable addresses.
Thus 2 bits are required to represent the links and 6 bits for the extended-network-prefix of /30.
Applying VLSM on 192.168.10.128/28 gives:
The available addresses for the WAN links can be taken from the available addresses in each of
the /30 subnets

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Data Communication and Computer Networks

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

Prepared by melkamu endale Tepi Campus, Tepi, Ethiopia

Experiment No: 2. Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Experiment No: 3. Introduction to network device

Experiment No: 4 Configure Peer-to-Peer Network with at least three hosts

Experiment No: 5 Sharing Specific Folders

Experiment No: 6 Setup FTP Client/Server

Experiment No: 11 why multiplexing techniques are necessary in various communication

4 basic characteristics for networks in general to meet user expectations:

Network Architecture Characteristics –Fault Tolerance

Network Architecture Characteristics –Scalability

Certain characteristics of the Internet help it scale to meet user demand

Network Architecture Characteristics: Quality of Service (QoS)

Network Architecture Characteristics -QoS

Network Architecture Characteristics –Security

Three Primary goals of Network Security

Experiment No: 3. Introduction to network device

Examples of intermediary devices are:-

Wireless Access Point (WAP)

Twisted pair cable

The two types of twisted pair cables are

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

 There is no shield in unshielded twisted pair means no metal foil in UTP.

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Common coaxial cable standards

 50-ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used for thick Ethernet or “thicknet”.

FIBER OPTICS CABLE

Experiment No: 4 Configure Peer-to-Peer Network with at least three hosts

3. Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and click on Properties.

Experiment No: 5 Sharing Specific Folders

Client/Server Network A client/server network uses a network operating system designed to

Experiment No: 6 Setup FTP Client/Server

3. Right-click on Web Server (IIS), and click on Add Role Services.

5. Confirm that IIS Management Console is checked under Management Tools.

3. Right-click on Sites, and click on Add FTP Site.

6. Now, select Basic for authentication.

 Crossover network cable:

RJ45 Connector and Crimping Tool

 Connecting a hub to a hub and

 Connecting a router to a hub

Prepare straight and crossover cable

2, Unwind and pair the similar colors.

3. Used in small networks.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a

Experiment No: 9 Explanation of OSI model with examples

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO-‘International

Here are the 7 Layers of the OSI Model:

#2) Layer 2 – Data-link Layer

Apart from the technicalities, if we try to understand what it really does?

 IP Addressing: The IP address is a logical network address and is a 32-bit number which

#4) Layer 4 – Transport Layer

(ii) The two transport layer protocols include:

#5) Layer 5 – Session Layer

Let’s understand this with the help of an Example.

#6) Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

#7) Top Layer – Application Layer

Layer # Name Encapsulation Unit Devices or

The TCP/IP Model

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP refers to OSI refers to Open Systems

Transmission Control Protocol. Interconnection.