Oil Tanker Familiarization Handout Seaskills Maritime Academy

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION
SR.NO CONTENT PAG.NO
1 THE OIL TANKER

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 DEVELOPMENT STAGES
1.3 OIL TANKER TYPES
1.4 TANKER TERMINOLOGY
2 PETROLEUM PROPERTIES, TOXICITY AND HAZARDS

2.1 THE HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
2.3 HAZARDS FROM PETROLEUM CARGO
3 OIL CARGO CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING

3.1 TANK ARRANGEMENT
3.2 PIPING ARRANGEMENT
3.3 PUMP TYPES
3.4 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
3.5 DRAINING AND STRIPPING
3.6 MEASUREMENT OF CARGO LEVEL
3.7 CARGO HEATING
4 OIL TANKER OPERATION

4.1 LOADING
4.2 LOADED VOYAGE
4.3 DISCHARGING
4.4 BALLAST VOYAGE
4.5 TANK CLEANING
4.6 CRUDE OIL WASHING
4.7 USE OF INERT GAS
4.8 PURGING AND GAS FREEING
4.9 TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING FOR REAPIRS
4.10 HAZARD CONTROL
5 MARINE POLLUTION
5.1 CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION
5.2 PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION
6 SAFETY
6.1 PRECAUTIONS FOR PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL AND SHIP
6.2 FIRE FIGHTING
6.3 SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND ITS USE
6.4 EMERGENCY MEASURES
SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

CHAPTER 1
THE OIL TANKER
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A REVIEW OF SAFETY IN OIL TANKERS:
➢ Danger can always be present in a tanker.

➢ Most of the risk is removed by the designer. What risk remains can only be avoided
by taking care.
➢ This care must be taken by everybody aboard the ship. For you to be able to avoid
risks
➢ You must know what they are. This booklet warns you of the risks.
➢ It explains how they can arise. It instructs how they can be avoided by you.
➢ Terms are explained as we go along. If you already understand the terms, please be
patient-your shipmate may not.
➢ In this booklet petroleum means crude oil or products made from it.
➢ Petroleum can be handled safely. Care is absolutely necessary-throughout the whole
operation.
➢ To be able to exercise care you need to know something about petroleum.
➢ The characteristics of any substance which determine how it will behave under
various conditions are known as the properties of the substance.
1.2 DEVELOPMENT STAGES
1.2.1 STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TANKERS
In 1861 the first cargo of American oil, in barges, crossed the Atlantic from the Delaware
River to London in the sailing brig "Elizabeth Watts"; the trip to the Thames took 45 days.
The "Elizabeth Watts" is generally credited with being the first ship to carry a full cargo of
oil across the Atlantic.
Several factors tended to retard the development of the early tanker, not the least of these
was the attitude of owners and crews of the numerous wooden sailing ships of that period.
Not without cause they regarded oil as a dangerous cargo. Leakage from barrels in the
holds resulted in the spaces below deck becoming permeated with dangerous gas, which
slowly made its way into the living accommodation, this in turn meant disaster or extreme
discomfort as all lamps and cooking fires had to be extinguished. The barrel was found to
be uneconomic in use of cargo space and in 1869 a ship named "Charles" was equipped
with metal tanks inside the hull.
The use of the iron hull to some extent offset these difficulties, and several sailing ships
were built and converted for this trade. Several were fitted with specially built tanks for the
carriage of oil. The future of the oil trade was then thought to lie in the large iron hulled
sailing ship, fitted with iron tanks equipped with hand pumps for the rapid and safe
discharge of cargo. This also brought problems in that there was an expansion of the
volume of the oil with change in temperature. If the tanks were not filled with any
allowance for this expansion, serious surging effect occurred.
In addition, there was the problem of obtaining oil-tight joints and the menace of gas
leakage. The expansion problem was resolved by the fitting of expansion trunks. Probably
the most serious problem was that due to the leakage of oil because of the inefficient joints
and the resultant danger of fire. The "Charles" mentioned above traded for three years

before catching fire and being burnt to the waterline. The idea of using steamer for such
cargo was as yet unthinkable, due to the danger of vapour reaching the coal fires in the
machinery spaces.
In 1878, the first ship to use the hull or skin as a container for oil was built. This vessel
was called the "Zoroaster", and her building marked a major step in the development of the
modern tanker. To the bolder minded, the advantage from powered tanker became
apparent, apart from the question of propulsion, steam powered pumps were an added
advantage. In time the existing problem were overcome and the first ship specifically
designed for the carriage of oil in bulk, the "Gluckauf, was launched as a sail assisted
steamer in 1886.
1.2.2 EARLY DESIGN OF BULK OIL CARRIER
Towards the middle of the 1920's, the twin bulkhead ship made its appearance, and slowly
but surely the advantages of the new design made itself felt, and the center line bulkhead
type began to replaced in all but few special types and coasters, where size made the twin
bulkheads impracticable.
World War II accelerated the tanker's development and in so doing precipitated important
changes. Prior to the war the typical tanker was powered by a diesel or reciprocating steam
engine. Her pump room, located amidships, was fitted with steam driven reciprocating
pumps. These were sturdy, but slow.
A new Class of tanker, the T2, was developed and mass produced by the Americans during
the war. At 16,500 DWT, the T2 was considered a big ship in its day. The pump room,
located aft, incorporated three centrifugal pumps and a direct pipeline system. These
speeded up cargo handling significantly.
1.3 OIL TANKER TYPES
1.3.1 TYPICAL OIL TANKER 1940 -1960
In the intervening years other changes took place. Tankers got bigger. The mid ship house,
home of the deck officers and bridge for so many years disappeared.
The growth in the size of oil tankers has been remarkable. The deadweight of new tanker
construction keeps rising and the increase is rapid. The 23,000 tons tanker appeared in
1 944 and the 300,000 tons tanker in 1968. In 1975, the "Globtik Tokyo" has a deadweight
of 483,000 tons. With the advancement in construction technology and materials used,
tankers are now built bigger with increased in sizes to VLCC's and ULCC's.
1.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SHIPS INTO SUPER TANKERS (all accommodation and

machinery aft)
With conventional tankers, difficulties are experienced in handling persistent oil without
causing pollution in some way by the accidental escape of oil or oily water mixtures during
the ballast passage.
Oil pollution occurs in other ways. Tanks are sometimes overflowed at loading ports, and as
result quantities of oil escape overboard. The stranding of a loaded tanker in port, or off the
coast with subsequent damage, and the escape of large
Tankers and barges come in all sizes from the small harbour / lake variety to the biggest
ever built by man that move. The size of any particular tanker depends on many factors.
Use, cargo type, amount and demand, passage length and port restrictions at both load
port and the discharge port are among the most important of these. Tankers were classified
for freight purposes as follows:

1.3.3 DEADWEIGHT RANGE - METRIC TONNES DESCRIPTION
DEAD WEIGHT IN METRIC TONNES DESCRIPTION

Under 16,500 Coastal, Small, Harbour / Lake Tankers
16,500-24,999 General Purpose Vessels
25,000-49,999 Medium Range Vessels
50,000-79,999 LR1 (Large Range 1)
80,000-159,999 LR2 (Large Range 2)
160,000-320,000 VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier)
320,000 and above ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier)
1) Coastal, Small, Harbour / Lake Tankers
Under 16,500 DWT - These small ships supply terminals with a variety of products from
heating oils, gasoline and kerosene,
to more exotic fuels and chemicals. They are predominantly product carriers and are also
used extensively for bunkering service in harbours and busy ports.
2) General Purpose Vessels
16,500-24,999 DWT On a worldwide basis, this class of vessel probably covers the largest
range and variety of cargoes carried. This class of ship includes chemical carriers, special
service product and crude oil vessels and serves mostly coastwise terminal trades.
3) Medium Range Vessels
25,000-49,999 DWT. Medium sized tankers cover a broad range of vessel types. Ships of
this size category are capable of carrying almost any kind of petroleum product. The smaller
group will usually carry gasoline, jet fuels, chemicals and heating oil’s. The larger size of the
group will carry heavier fuel oils and crude oils.
4) LR1 (Large Range 1)
50,000 - 79,999 DWT
5) LR2 (Large Range 2)
80,000 - 159,000 DWT - Vessels in this class that are less than 100,000 dwt are divided
into two basic categories namely, "Dirty" and "Clean". The "dirty" vessels carry the "black" or
dirty cargoes such as crude oil, heavy fuel oils, asphalt etc. The "clean" vessels carry the
refined "white" clean products such as gasoline, jet fuels, kerosene etc. Chemical carriers
would also fall into the "clean" category. Because of the strict tank inspection requirements
for clean products, most proprietary vessels or those on long term charter or do not
routinely change their trading patterns from clean to dirty or vice versa. However, market
requirements and charter economics do require vessels to sometimes slip in and out of
these clean and dirty trades. Vessels in this class that are over 100,000 dwt tend to be
crude oil carriers only.
6) VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier)
160,000 - 320,000

7) ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier)
320,000 and above - Because of their huge sizes these vessels have been almost exclusively
only used for the carriage of crude oils. Only the smallest of this category has carried any
type of refined products. Several of these ULCC classed vessels were over 500,000.
1.3.4 TYPES OF CARGO
Classification of Petroleum
System of classification of petroleum
Any flammable liquid having a Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) of 14

Grade A Pounds per Square Inch Absolute (PSIA) or more, e.g., natural
gasoline, very light naphtha and liquefied petroleum gases (LPG).
Any flammable liquid having RVP of less than 14 PSIA and more
Grade B than 8 ½ PSIA e.g., automotive and aviation gasoline and some
unfinished gasoline.
Any flammable liquid having RVP of 8 ½ PSIA or less and flash point
Grade C of 80° F, e.g., most crude oils, some "cut back" asphalts, creosote
and some unfinished gasoline.
Any combustible liquid having flash point below 150° F and above
Grade D 80° F, e.g., kerosene, light fuel oils and a few very heavy crude oils
such as Lirik crude and Boscan crude.
Any combustible liquid having a flash point of 150° F or more, e.g.,

Grade E heavy fuel oils, diesel oils, lube oils, asphalts and tars.
Flammable Liquid The term "flammable liquid" means any liquid with a flash point of
80° F or less.
Combustible Liquid The term "combustible liquid" means any liquid having a flash point
above 80° F
.
In addition, the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) uses the
broad categories of
Non-Volatile Flash point of 60° C (140°F) or above as determined by the closed

cup method of testing.
Volatile Flash point below of 60° C (140°F) as determined by the closed

cup method of testing.

1.4 TANKER TERMINOLOGY
Evaporation-Vapour
All liquids can change-or be changed-into vapour. The process of changing into vapour is
called evaporation. It is usual to refer to such vapours as gases. Petroleum forms petroleum
vapour.
Burning
Liquid petroleum does not burn. It is petroleum vapour that burns. Danger increases
according to how readily a product evaporates. The lower the temperature at which
petroleum can evaporate, the more dangerous it is.
Mixtures
A petroleum vapour can only burn if it is mixed with oxygen. Oxygen is an important part of
the air around us. When we refer to a mixture in this booklet we normally mean a mixture
of petroleum vapour and air.
Flammable
You will recognize the word 'flame' in flammable. Flammable means capable of being set on
fire. A mixture which can be set on fire is a flammable mixture.
Flammable Limits
It is possible to have a mixture containing so little or so much petroleum vapour that it

cannot burn. Mixtures that have reached these strengths have reached the flammable
limits.
Flammable Range
Between these flammable limits there lies a quite narrow range of mixtures which are
flammable; this is known as the flammable range.
Flammable limits and flammable range are sometimes referred to as the 'explosive limits'
and 'explosive range'.
Most substances when heated expand. Evaporation causes rapid expansion. Burning of the
vapour causes heating and even greater expansion. If the expansion is confined pressure
may increase still further causing an EXPLOSION
Flash Point
The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapour to form a flammable
mixture is called its flash point.
Some products evaporate very rapidly. They produce plenty of gas at normal pressures and
temperatures. Gasoline is an obvious example. Vapour is nearly always present. A hot
enough spark will set it on fire. A word we shall use instead of set on fire is 'ignite'
Volatile
Liquids which evaporate readily are known as volatile liquids. Any petroleum with a flash
point below 60CC (140°F) is classed as Volatile. Spent refinery waste, spent caustic soda for
example-may contain volatile petroleum. If a cigarette lighter falls, it may operate.

Non-volatile
Some other petroleum evaporates less rapidly. Those with a flash point of 60° C or over are
classed as non-volatile. Gas oil and diesel oil are two examples.
Petroleum mist
Petroleum sprayed from a leaking pump or pipe may form a mist of droplets. Flammable
mixtures' may be where you least expect them. They are easily ignited. Sparks can set them
off.
Smoking
Smoking can be very dangerous. Secret smoking is more dangerous than controlled
smoking. There may be flammable gas in a toilet (for instance). Gas may have been drawn
into the ventilation system. A crafty smoke could be disastrous.
Smoking in bed
Smoking in bed is foolish anywhere. It is dangerous in any ship. It can be disastrous in a

tanker.
Lighters
If a cigarette lighter falls it may operate.
Matches
Non-safety matches are a menace. Even safety matches may light accidentally.
Torches
Ordinary hand torches (flashlights) spark.
Domestic equipment
Domestic equipment which can ignite flammable vapours includes Shavers, Radios, and
electric cooking appliances. Obey ALL instructions about smoking. The Captain will say
where smoking is allowed.
SMOKE ONLY WHERE SMOKING IS ALLOWED
In some ports the local authorities prohibit smoking anywhere in the ship. There are heavy
penalties for breaches of the regulations.
NEVER SMOKE IN BED
If you are allowed a cigarette lighter on board keep it in your cabin. Keep non-safety
matches away from smokers. Keep all matches away from areas where you are not allowed
to smoke. Use only special torches (flashlights) issued on board. Keep your electric shaver
and radio in your cabin. If there is any possibility of flammable vapour entering galleys or
accommodation. Do not use electrical appliances. Metal tools could cause sparks by being
dropped.

Aluminium
If aluminum or one of its alloys is knocked against rust there may be a flash of heat. The
heat can be enough to ignite a flammable mixture.
Aluminum paint
Aluminum paint over rust may be just as dangerous. If that is struck or rubbed the same
heat may be generated.
Acute toxic effect
The effect of man of single exposure of short duration to high concentration of toxic
compound or toxic vapour.
Antistatic Additive
A substance added to a petroleum product to raise its electrical conductivity above 100
picosiemens / metre (pS/m) to prevent accumulation of static electricity.
Approved Equipment
Equipment of design that has been tested and approved by an appropriate authority such
as a government or classification society. The authority should have certified the equipment
as safe for use in a specified hazardous atmosphere.
Asphyxia
The condition arising when the blood is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen, so that
loss of consciousness may follow.
Auto Ignition
The ignition of a combustible material without initiation by a spark or flame, when the
material has been raised to a temperature at which self sustaining combustion occurs.
Bonding
The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.
Cavitations
A process occurring within the impeller of a centrifugal pump when pressure at the inlet of
the impeller falls below that of the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped. Bubbles of
vapour which are formed collapse with considerable impulse force in the higher pressure
regions of the impeller. Significant damages can occur to the impeller surfaces.
Certified Gas Free
Certified gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested using an
approved testing instrument and proved to be sufficiently free, at the time of the test, of
toxic or explosive gases for a specified purpose, such as hot work, by an authorised person
(usually a chemist from shore) and that a certificate to this effect has been issued. If an
authorised person is not available, the test should be carried out by the Master or his
appointed deputy and the certificate will take the form of an entry in the tanker's log book.

Chronic toxic effect
The cumulative effect on man of prolonged exposures to low concentrations or of

intermittent exposures to higher concentrations of a toxic compound or a toxic vapour.
Cofferdam
The isolating space between two adjacent steel bulkheads or decks. This space may be a
void space or a ballast space.
Cold work
Work which can not create source of ignition.
Rubbish ,
Dirty waste, rags, sawdust and other rubbish is dangerous if left lying about. Heat may be
generated within bundles of rubbish. The heat may be enough to ignite flammable
mixtures. It may become hot enough to set itself on fire. The risk is increased if material is
left near steam pipes.
Cathodic protection
Some ships tanks are fitted with cathodic protection. This is a method of controlling
corrosion. Metal slabs known as anodes are fitted into tanks. They are on supports. If an
anode or its support is struck or dislodged a spark may result.
Electric tools
Electric tools and appliances used in tank cleaning and gas freeing can produce sparks, if
they are not of approved design. Lower steel hand tools in a canvas bag.
Tools
Metal hand tools could cause sparks by striking together, striking against other metal,
being dropped
"Non-sparking" tools could be hazardous as ferrous metals might become embedded.
Self -Stowing Mooring Winch
A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which wire or rope is made fast and automatically
stowed.
Sour Crude Oil
A crude oil containing appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide or mercaptans.
Spontaneous Combustion
The ignition of material brought about by a heat-producing (exothermic) chemical reaction

with the material itself without exposure to an external source of ignition.
Static Accumulator Oil
An oil with an electrical conductivity less than 100 picoSiemens/metre(pS/m), so that it is

capable of retaining a significant electrostatic change.

Static electricity
The electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and separation.
Static Non-Accumulator Oil
An oil with an electrical conductivity greater than 100 picoSiemens/metre (pS/m), which
renders it incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.
Stripping
The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from a tank or pipeline.
Tanker
A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk, including a combination carrier
when being used for this purpose.
Tension Winch (Automated or Self-Tensioning Mooring System)
A mooring winch fitted with a device which may be set to maintain the tension on a mooring
line automatically.
Terminal
A place where tankers are berthed or moored for the purpose of loading or discharging
petroleum cargo.
Terminal Representative
The person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an operation or duty.
Threshold limit value (TLV)
The time-weighted average concentration of a substance to which nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed, for a normal 8-hour workday or 40 hours work week, day after day,
without adverse effect
Topping off
The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.
Topping up
The introduction of inert gas into a tank which is already in the inert condition with the
object of raising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air.
Toxic
Poisonous to human life.
True vapour pressure (TVP)
The true vapour pressure of a liquid is the absolute pressure exerted by the gas produced
by evaporation from a liquid when gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing
temperature and the gas/liquid ratio is effectively zero.

Ullage
The depth of the space above the liquid in a tank.
Upper flammable limit (UFL)
The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above which there is insufficient air to
support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as upper explosive limit. (UEL)
Vapour
A Gas below its critical temperature.
Vapour seal system
Special fitted equipment which enables the measuring and sampling of cargoes contained in
inerted tanks without reducing the inert gas pressure.
Volatile petroleum
Petroleum having a flash point below 60°C (140°F) as determined by the closed cup method
of testing.
Viscosity
The property of a liquid which determines its resistance to flow.
Water fog
A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually delivered at a high
pressure through a fog nozzle for use in fire - fighting.
Water spray
A suspension in the atmosphere of water divided into coarse drops by delivery through a
special nozzle for use in fire-fighting.
Work permit
A document issued by a responsible person permitting specific work to be done during a

specified period in a defined area.

CHAPTER 2
PETROLEUM PROPERTIES, TOXICITY AND HAZARDS
2.1 THE HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
THE HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
1. Crude petroleum as discharged at the well head is a mixture of a large number of

different hydrocarbon molecules. .
2. The molecules are termed "light" or "heavy", according to the number of carbon
atoms forming the molecule.
3. Very light molecules such as methane, butane and propane tend to be gaseous
under normal atmospheric conditions.
4. Very heavy molecules such as asphalt and bitumen tend to be solid under normal
conditions.
5. Intermediate molecules such as petrol (motor spirit) and diesel oil tend to be liquid
under normal atmospheric conditions.
6. Very light gaseous molecules such as methane are extracted at the well head.
7. The petroleum remaining after the removal of products such as methane is termed
"crude-oil".
8. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons which under normal atmospheric conditions
are gaseous, liquid and solid.
9. In oil refining process, termed distillation, crude oil is split into a number of
factions.
10. Each petroleum faction has a range of physical properties specific to itself.
Crude oil being an organic compound, it basically consists of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
But the quality of these carbon and hydrogen compounds and the method with which they
are bonded, gives us a variety of hydrocarbon compounds having totally different chemical
and physical properties.
A carbon has four bonds with which it can combine with other carbon atoms or with atoms
of another element. A hydrogen atom has only one bond with which it can combine with
other atoms.
When a carbon atom with its 4

bonds combines with 4
hydrogen atoms it forms the
simplest of the hydrocarbon
compounds called "Methane
When two carbons combines

with 6 hydrogen atoms the
compound is ethane.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
2.2.1 Density of Hydrocarbon gases
The densities of the gas mixtures evolved from the normal petroleum liquids, when
undiluted with air, are all greater than the density of air. Layering effects are therefore
encountered in cargo handling operations and can give rise to hazardous situations. The
table below shows gas densities relative to air for the three pure hydrocarbon gas : propane,
butane and pentane, which represent roughly the gas mixtures that are produced
respectively by crude oils, by motor or aviation gasoline and by natural gasoline. These
figures are not significantly changed if inert gas is substituted for air Density Relative to
Air.
Pure Hydrocarbon 50% HC/ 50% air LFL

Propane 1.55 1.25 1.0
Butane 2.0 1.5 1.0
Pentane 2.5 1.8 1.0
It will be seen that the density of the undiluted gas from a product such as motor gasoline
is likely to be twice that of air and that from a typical crude oil about 1.5 times.
These high densities, and the layering effects that result from them, are only significant
while the gas remains concentrated. As it is diluted with air the density of the gas/air
mixture from all three types of cargo approaches that of air and at the lower flammable limit
is indistinguishable from it.
2.2.2 Viscosity
The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its flow characteristics. It measures the liquid's
resistance to flow and is measured by recording the time required for a given volume of
liquid at a constant temperature to flow through a small orifice of standard dimensions. The
unit of viscosity is centistokes (cSt).

2.2.3 The Pour Point
The lowest temperature at which the liquid will just flow under specified test conditions and
is roughly equivalent to the tendency of an oil to cease to flow from a container. It gives
useful indication of the lowest temperature to which the liquid can be cooled without
setting.
Both viscosity and pour point are useful parameters with regards to pumpability of a liquid.
For example, the upper limit of viscosity for centrifugal pumps is around 400 cst
2.2.4 Flashpoint
The flashpoint is the lowest liquid temperature at which an ignition source initiates a flash
of flame across the surface of the liquid, thereby indicating the presence of a flammable
gas/air mixture above the liquid.
At a given temperature there will be just sufficient liquid vapour lying on the surface of the
liquid to produce a flammable mixture at that point. The liquid vapour concentration at the
surface, at this temperature will be equal to the lower flammable limit. Combustion can
take place if an ignition source is present and the resulting flame will flash across the
surface of the liquid and then extinguish.
Flash points are used to compare volatilities of different liquid. A low flash point indicates
volatile liquid and therefore flammable or too-rich conditions should be expected. A high
flash point indicates nonvolatile liquid and too-lean conditions are normally present.
Liquids with flashpoint of 60° C or above are considered non volatile as determined by the
closed cup method of testing. These liquids produce, when at normal ambient temperature,
equilibrium gas concentrations below the lower flammable limit. They include distillate fuel
oils, heavy gas oils and diesel oils.
Liquids with flashpoint below 60° C are considered volatile as determined by the closed cup
method of testing. Some petroleum liquids in this category are capable of producing an
equilibrium gas/air mixture within the flammable range when in some part of the normal
ambient temperature range, while most of the rest give equilibrium gas/air mixture above
the upper flammable limit at all normal ambient temperatures. Examples of the former are
jet fuels and kerosene and the latter of gasoline and most crude oils. In practice, gasolines
and crude oils are frequently handled before equilibrium conditions have been attained and
gas/air mixtures in the flammable range may be present.
2.2.5 VAPOUR PRESSURE TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP
The vapour pressure is an indication of the tendency of a liquid to vapourise. If a volatile

liquid is placed in an open container, the vapour given off will disperse in the surrounding
air. The liquid may eventually evaporate completely.
If a volatile liquid is placed in an enclosed container, the vapour concentration above the
liquid will continue to increase until the space is saturated. Vapour above the surface of a
liquid exerts pressure which is known as vapour pressure. The vapour pressure varies
directly with the concentration of vapour above the liquid. The vapour pressure is thus zero
when no vapour is present and maximum when the space above the liquid surface is
saturated The maximum pressure, at the existing temperature is known as the saturated
vapour pressure (SVP). If the temperature of the liquid increases the vapour concentration
increases and causes the SVP to rise.

2.2.6 FLAMMABILITY
Almost all cargo vapours are flammable. When ignition occurs, it is not the liquid that
bums but the evolved vapour. Different cargoes evolve different quantities of vapour,
depending on their composition and temperature.
Flammable vapour can be ignited and will burn when mixed with air in certain proportions.
If the ratio of vapour to air is below or above specific limit, the mixture will not bum. The
limits are known as the lower and upper flammable limits, and different for each cargo.
Combustion of vapour/air mixture results in a very considerable expansion of gases which,
if constricted in an enclosed space, can raise pressure rapidly to the point of explosive
rupture.
2.2.7 FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMIT
Flammable limit is expressed as the percentage volume of the liquid vapour where
combustion can occur. Flammable limit is also referred to as the 'explosive limit' A mixture
of hydrocarbon gas and air cannot be ignited and burn unless its composition lies within a
range of gas in air concentrations known as 'flammable range'. The lower limit of this range,
known as the lower flammable limit (LFL), is that hydrocarbon concentration below which
there is insufficient hydrocarbon gas to support and propagate combustion. The mixture is
too lean for combustion. The upper limit of the range, known as the upper flammable limit
(UFL), is that hydrocarbon concentration above which there is insufficient air to support
and propagate combustion. The mixture is too rich for combustion.
The flammable limits vary somewhat for different pure hydrocarbon gases and for the gas
mixtures derived from different petroleum liquids. Very roughly the gas mixtures from
crude oils, motor or aviation gasoline and natural gasoline type products can be
represented respectively by the pure hydrocarbon gases propane, butane and pentane.'
Gas Flammable limits % Volume Hydrocarbon In Air Upper/ Lower
Propane 9.5 % / 2.2%
Butane 8 . 5 % / 1.9%
Pentane 7.8% / 1.5%
Flammable limits vary with:
➢ volume of the container in which the combustion takes place,

➢ temperature of the mixture,
➢ pressure of the mixtures,
➢ oxygen concentration and
➢ Direction of propagation.
In practice the lower and upper flammable limits of oil cargoes carried in tankers can, for
general purposes, be taken as I % and 10% by volume respectively.
2.3 HAZARDS FROM PETROLEUM CARGO
2.3.1 TOXICITY HAZARDS FROM PETROLEUM CARGO
Ingestion - when swallowed causes acute discomfort and nausea. Liquid can be drawn into
lungs during vomiting and this can have serious consequences.
Skin contact - Skin irritation, petrol removes oil from skin leading to dermatitis.

Toxicity of Petroleum Gases
1. Produce narcosis
2. Symptoms include headache & eye irritation
3. Diminished responsibility & dizziness(drunkenness)
4. At high concentration paralysis, insensibility & death
For man entry the atmosphere shall not have more than following
Petroleum gases 1% LEL

H2S gases 1 0 PPM
Benzene 1 PPM
CO 35 PPM
Toxicity hazards of petroleum to health
➢ Skin contact with liquid petroleum

➢ Ingestion (swallowing) of liquid petroleum
➢ Inhalation (breathing) of liquid petroleum
➢ Inhalation of petroleum vapour
➢ Compounds of lead contained in the cargo
The toxicity of petroleum gases can vary widely depending on the major hydrocarbon
constituents of the gases. Toxicity can be greatly influenced by the presence of some minor
components such as aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV of
100 ppm, corresponding to about 2% LFL, is established for gasoline vapours Such a figure
may be used as a general guide for petroleum gases but must not be taken as applicable to
gas mixtures containing benzene or hydrogen sulphide.
The TLV concentration is considerably below the lower flammable limit and combustible gas
indicators cannot be expected to measure concentrations of this order accurately. The
human body can tolerate concentrations somewhat greater than the TLV for short periods.
The following are typical effects at higher concentrations:
Concentration %LEL Effects
0.1%vol.(1,000 ppm) 10 irritation of the eyes within one hour
0.2%vol (2,000 ppm) 20 irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, dizziness and
unsteadiness within half an hour
0.7%vol (7,000ppm) 70 Symptoms as of drunkenness within 15 minutes
1.0%vol(10,000ppm) 100 Rapid onset of 'drunkenness' which may lead to

unconsciousness and death if exposure continues
2.0%vol(20,000 ppm) 200 Paralysis and death occur very rapidly

Precautions to avoid these hazards –
1. Strict control of entry into pump rooms, cargo spaces and other enclosed spaces.
2. Ensure thorough ventilation of any space to be confirmed before entry.
3. Continual monitoring of the atmosphere in working spaces for petroleum vapour,
toxic gases and hydrogen sulphide.
4. Thorough cleansing of personal clothing after contact with petroleum.
5. Use of adequate protective clothing in cargo handling operation.
2.3.2 OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
The enclosed spaces are oxygen deficient spaces. The oxygen content of the atmosphere in
an enclosed space may be low for several reasons. The most obvious one if the space is in
an inert condition, and the oxygen has been displaced by the inert gas. Also, oxygen can be
removed by chemical reactions such as rusting or the hardening of paints or coatings.
As the amount of available oxygen decreases below the normal 21 % by volume, breathing
tends to become faster and deeper. Symptoms indicating that an atmosphere is deficient in
oxygen may give inadequate notice of danger. Most persons would fail to recognize the
danger until they were too weak to be able to escape without help. This is especially so
when escape involves the exertion of climbing. While individuals vary in susceptibility, all
will suffer impairment if the oxygen level falls to 16% by volume.
Oxygen content in enclosed spaces may be lower. Exposure to an atmosphere containing

less than 10% oxygen content by volume inevitably causes unconsciousness. The rapidity of
onset of unconsciousness increases as the availability of oxygen diminishes, and death will
result unless the victim is removed to the open air and resuscitated.
An atmosphere containing less than 5% oxygen by volume causes immediate

unconsciousness with no warning other than gasp for air. If resuscitation is delayed for
more than a few minutes, irreversible damage is done to the brain even if life is
subsequently restored.
Entry into enclosed oxygen deficient spaces must never be permitted without breathing
apparatus until such spaces have been thoroughly ventilated and the atmosphere readings
indicate oxygen more than 19.5 % by volume. It may also be drawn into the lungs during
vomiting.
2.3.3 FIRE HAZARDS
Potential for fire and explosion
➢ The ability of petroleum to create vapour is a major factor. In

order to eliminate the risk of fire and explosion on a tanker, it
is necessary to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable
atmosphere being present in the same place at the same time.
It is not always possible to exclude both these factors and
precautions are therefore directed towards excluding or
controlling one of them.
➢ Volatility is the ability of the liquid cargo to vaporize.
➢ Volatility increases with temperature and reaches a maximum at
the boiling temperature of the liquid. Liquids with flashpoint
below 60C are considered volatile. (The flashpoint of an oil
indicates the lowest temperature at which the oil will give off
sufficient hydrocarbon vapour, to form a flammable gas mixture with air near the
surface of the oil). At a given temperature there will be just sufficient liquid vapour lying
on other surface of the liquid to produce a flammable mixture at that point.

➢ When hydrocarbon vapour is mixed with oxygen (usually from the atmosphere) an
explosive mixture is produced.
➢ A mixture of hydrocarbon vapour and air will only ignite and bum of its composition s
within the 'flammable range'.
➢ The concentration of hydrocarbon vapour present in air is used to define "flammable
range".
➢ The working flammable range of a mixture of petroleum vapour and air can be taken to
be from 1% to 10% by volume.
➢ The flashpoint of an oil indicates the lowest temperature at which the oil will give off
sufficient hydrocarbon vapour to form a flammable gas mixture with air near the
surface of the oil.
➢ The use of inert gas in cargo tanks can reduce the oxygen content below that necessary
to produce a flammable mixture. When an inert gas, typically flue gas, is added to a
hydrocarbon gas/mixture the result is to increase the lower flammable limit
hydrocarbon concentration and to decrease the upper flammable limit concentration.

• Flammable gas molecules

o Oxygen molecules

2.3.4 HEALTH HAZARDS
Ingestion
The risk of swallowing significant quantities of liquid petroleum during normal tanker and
terminal operations is very slight. Petroleum has low oral toxicity to man, but when
swallowed it causes acute discomfort and nausea. It may also be drawn into the lungs
during vomiting.
Inhalation
The main effect of petroleum gas on personnel is to produce nrosis. The liquid petroleum
ingested will tend to vaporize and the vapour could be inhaled into the lungs and there is a
serious risk of suffocation through interference with the normal oxygen / carbon dioxide
transfer taking place during breathing, especially with higher volatility products such as
gasoline and kerosene.
Skin Contact
Many petroleum products, especially the more volatile ones, can cause skin irritation and
remove essential natural oils from the skin, leading to dermatitis. They are also irritating to
the eyes. Certain heavier oils can cause serious skin disorders on repeated and prolonged
contact. Direct contact with petroleum should always be avoided by wearing the appropriate
protective equipment especially gloves and goggles. The symptoms include headache and
eye irritation, with diminished responsibility and dizziness similar to drunkenness. At high
concentrations these lead to paralysis, insensibility and death.
2.3.5 HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Ecological effects resulting from spill may include physical and chemical changes in
habitants, changes in growth, physiology and behaviour of individual organisms and
species, toxicity and increased mortality in individual organisms and species and
destruction or modification of entire communities or organisms through the combined
effects of toxicity and smothering.
Floating oil may contaminate mammals and birds that swim or dive through the surface of
water.
On fine sandy beaches, the oil is likely to remain on the surface where it can be removed.
On beaches of cobble, gravel or coarse sand, the oil may penetrate with the tidal water table
down to hard substrata.
Interference with recreational use and enjoyment of coastal areas is an expected
consequence of oil spills.

CHAPTER 3
OIL CARGO CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING
3.1 TANK ARRANGEMENT
3.1.1 CARGO TANKS
A crude oil tanker can have five or more cargo tanks incorporated on board depending on
their size. The cargo range may be divided by an oil-tight longitudinal center line bulkhead
and five or more transverse bulkheads. The longitudinal center line bulkhead divides the
cargo range into port and starboard tanks and the transverse bulkheads divide the ship
longitudinally.
The cargo range may also be divided by two oil-tight longitudinal bulkheads which divide
the cargo range into the port, center and starboard tanks and with five transverse
bulkheads the total number of cargo tanks on board will then be fifteen.
Cargo Tanks: Old vessels may have port, centre and starboard tanks. New double skin
vessels may only have centre tanks. The structures in the cargo tanks include stringers,
frames and girders. On the double skin tankers all the strength members are located in the
ballast tanks and therefore cargo tanks will have a flush surface. All cargo tanks will have
heating coils for heating cargo.
On new vessels only cargo lines will pass through the cargo tanks. Every tank will have
main line and stripping line suction. The end of suction pipe will have a bell mouth type.
On new tankers fixed tank cleaning machines are installed in the cargo tank. Every cargo
tank will have a fixed ullaging device
3.1.2 PUMP ROOM
The pump room is the grand central station of an oil tanker all pipelines meet and
interconnect in a relatively small area, usually located in the forward of accommodation and
aft of all cargo tanks, in between the forward bulkhead of the engine room and the slop
tanks. Access to the pump room is from the main deck and the pump room is situated right
down below the deck and goes up to the bottom of the ship.
All cargo and ballast pumps are located in the pump room. The prime mover is located in
the engine room. The shaft for the centrifugal or screw pumps passes through the
bulkheads between the engine room and pump room. Pump rooms are provided with fixed
fire fighting system. Some tankers have two pump rooms, one located midship and the
other located aft.
The pump room blower must be exhaust type with a capacity of 20 changes per hour. The
suction lines terminate at the pumps. The discharge lines originate from the pumps. Pump
rooms are provided with high bilge alarms. Modern tankers are provided with fixed hydro
carbon detector in the pump room.
The chance of oil leak in the pump room is high due to leak from pump shaft or pipeline. A
permit system is required for entering the pump room

3.1.3 SEGREGATED BALLAST

TANKS
Segregated ballast means the

ballast water introduced into a
tank which is completely separated
from cargo oil and fuel oil system
and which is permanently allocated
to the carriage of ballast.
These tanks are used for carrying

segregated clean ballast. Ballast is
thus kept free of oil and can be
pumped into and out of the tanks
with no risk of pollution. The fore
peak tank, after peak tank and the
double bottom tanks are also used
for this purpose.
On new tankers only ballast lines

will pass through these tanks.
Crude tankers of over 20,000 tons
and product tankers of over 30,000
tons require segregated ballast
tanks. The capacity of the
segregated ballast tanks shall be
such that the vessel shall operate
safely in the ballast voyage without
recourse to the use of cargo tanks
for ballast under normal operating
conditions. With segregated ballast
the ship's draught and trim shall
meet the following requirements:
➢ Moulded draught amidships

not less than ( 2.0 + 0.02L )
➢ The trim shall be not
greater than 0.015 L
➢ Propeller fully immersed
The segregated ballast tanks must

protect 30 - 45 % of the cargo tank
areas. For vessels built after July
93, for vessels of 5000 tonnes DWT
and above, the entire cargo tank
length shall be protected by ballast
tanks or spaces other than cargo or
fuel oil tanks around the wing
spaces and double bottom spaces.
On these vessel the size of the wing
tanks shall be not less than 2 metres. The minimum vertical depth of double bottom tanks
shall be not less than B/15 or 2 metres whichever is lesser.
The segregated ballast system should be a system, which is completely separated from
cargo oil and fuel oil systems. Nevertheless, provision may be made for the emergency
discharge of segregated ballast by means of a connection to a cargo pump through a
portable spool piece. In this case non-return valve should be fitted to the segregated ballast

connections to prevent the passage of oil to the segregated ballast tanks. The portable spool
piece should be mounted in a conspicuous position in the pump room and a permanent
notice restricting its use should be prominently displayed adjacent to it.
3.1.4 SLOP TANKS
All tankers of over 150 G.T. other than those engaged on specific trades are required to
have a slop tank. Tankers of over 70,000 T DWT must have two slop tanks. Means shall be
provided for transferring tank washings from cargo tanks and dirty ballast residues into
slop tank. The arrangement shall be such the oil water from the slop tank or combination of
slop tanks can be decanted into the sea complying the provisions of regulation 9 Annex 1 of
Marpol 73/78. The capacity of the slop tank shall be 3 % of the oil carrying capacity of the
ship. This can be reduced to 2% if a vessel is fitted with a closed cycle washing arrangement
or SBT. This can be reduced to 1.5% for vessels fitted with SBT and closed washing
arrangement.
3.1.5 Cofferdam
A narrow empty space between two bulkheads, intended to prevent leakage between
adjacent compartments, as between cargo tank and the engine room. A cargo pump room
also acts as a cofferdam.
3.1.7 Peak Tanks
These are tanks located in the forward most and after most part of a vessel normally used
to carry ballast water only.
3.1.8 Deep Tanks
Deep tanks are located in the engine room spaces and they are for storage of fuel oil for the
ship's consumption. There are usually one pair of deep tanks on board, the No.1 Deep FO
Tank (Port) and the No.1 Deep FO Tank (Starboard). On some tankers there may be two
pairs of deep tanks, also located within the engine room spaces; the Fore Deep FO Tank
(P&S) and Aft Deep FO Tank (P&S).
Tankers of an older design may have one deep FO tank located at the forward part of the
ship, in between the Fore Peak Tank and the No.1 Cargo Tank
3.2 PIPING ARRANGEMENT
• Deck Lines: The lines on deck from the manifold leading to the pumproom and tank
• Drop Lines: The direct line from the deck line to the lines in the cargo tanks.
• Stripping Lines: Smaller diameter than the main line in the cargo tank used for
stripping the tank. It could be a dedicated stripping line or it may be connected to
the main line.
• Cross over: The connection between two groups.
• By Pass: It is a line leading from the discharge line to the suction line of a pump.
When the liquid flows through the bypass line, it bypasses the pump.
• Master Valve: Isolating valve on the line. It is in the pumproom and in the tank.
• Tank suction valves: These are suction valves for every tank.
• Sea suction valves: The valve fitted to the sea suction.

3.2.1 Integral Pipeline System
Most modem tankers are fitted with a direct pipeline system for handling cargo. The tanks
are divided into groups, or systems, with different pump and line for each system, the
diagrams below shows a direct pipeline arrangement for a tanker.
The system incorporates three lines and three pumps, each handling two tanks across (that
is, two center tanks and four wings tanks). Crossovers are provided between systems.
This is another possible arrangement for the same ship. This time incorporating two lines
and two pumps one for the center tanks and one for the wing tanks. In both cases a
separate line runs across from each pump along the bottom of the tank range to the tanks
in its system. Shorter sections of pipe branch off from the main lines to each individual
tank.
DIRECT FLOW SYSTEM
All pipe lines from inside the tanks and cargo pump
room are connected to deck pipe lines (external
piping) by means of drop line and discharge lines
respectively The deck lines ends at the manifolds on
either side of the vessel on deck.
CROSS OVERS
The various systems are connected by sections of

pipe known as cross overs. Each cross-over is fitted
with a valve or valves thus making it possible to
isolate the systems or link them together, as
desired. When loading the same product in all the
tanks, as on 3 crude oil tanker, cross-overs are
generally opened to allow cargo to flow freely

through all systems. In case of differing products, as on a product tanker, cross-overs must
be closed to prevent mixing.
Line-drops route cargo into the under deck piping system therefore, individual tank valves
must still be opened before cargo can enter the tanks. A tank drop, on the other hand,
serves a single tank oil bypasses the main piping system and flows directly into the tank.
Tank drops are more apt to be found on tankers carrying refined cargoes, where the need
for separation makes it desirable to bypass the main system.
RING MAIN SYSTEM
This system provides for handling of several different types of oils simultaneously. The main
pipelines in the cargo tanks are laid in a ring format. Each cargo tank can be pumped out
through one direct suction line or through a system of crossover valves and master valves
by an indirect suction line. The system is very versatile.
This system of pipeline layout on a tanker combines the versatility of the ring main system
with the simplicity of the direct line system. Modern product tankers often use this system.
This system is sometimes known as the "cruciform' System. The combined system provides
a superior tank-wise / group-wise segregation of cargo and also gives greater availability of
pumps and lines.
The MARPOL LINE is a small diameter line running from the pumproom to the manifold.
This line is used to discharge the final cargo residue from ship's tanks and pipeline into the
shore pipeline. To keep the line content to a minimum, the cross sectional area should not
exceed 10% of the cross sectional area of the discharge line.
3.2.2 Valves
The main pipeline carries oil along the bottom of the tank range. Along the way it connects
to branch lines, one per tank. At the end of each branch line the piping spreads into a bell
mouth, an arrangement which resembles a large vacuum cleaner. This allows suction to be
taken close to the bottom of the tank.
In addition, a tank valve is fitted near the end of the branch line. This valve is operated in
one of the two ways; (1) automatically, from the cargo control room and (2) manually, from
the deck above. While an increasing number of ships have been fitted with automatic
valves, many still use manual control.

At each place where the bottom piping passes through a bulkhead and enters the next
tank, a valve is fitted in the line. This is a master valve. Master valves provide separation
between tanks on the same line and make it possible to isolate a single tank completely.
Three types of valves are used on tankers - Butterfly valve, Gate valve and Globe valve
BUTTERFLY VALVE
A butterfly valve consists of a disc shaped blade which rotates on an axis formed by a
spindle set diametrically within the disc. The rim of the disc in the closed position, normally
mates against some form of flexible seal which is attached to the valve body. When the valve
is closed the disc presents its full face in the direction of flow. When the disc is turned
through 90° the valve is open.
GATE VALVE
A gate valve consists of a wedge shaped blade fitting into a mating slot formed within the
valve body. The blade is raised or lowered by rotation of a threaded spindle which can be
fixed or rising. When the valve is opened the blade is raised from the slot clear of the bore
thus allowing the flow through the valve. A gate valve is heavier and bulkier than the
butterfly valve.
GLOBE (MUSHROOM) VALVE
A globe valve consists of a roughly spherical shaped body with an internal partition
containing an opening which is the valve aperture and the seat. When the valve is opened,
the disc mounted on a threaded spindle is raised from the seat thus allowing flow through
the valve aperture.
NON RETURN VALVE
A Non Return valve allows liquid to flow

only one direction. It consists of a flap
tightening against a seat if the direction of
flow is changed.

3.3 PUMP TYPES
3.3.1 Reciprocating (Positive Displacement) Pump
A reciprocating pump consists of a piston, usually powered by steam which slides back and
forth in a cylinder On the intake stroke the movement of the piston creates a vacuum, thus
draining oil into the cylinder through the intake valve. On the discharge stroke the piston
forces oil through the discharge valve, creating a pressure on the discharge side of the
pump.
Early reciprocating pumps were of simple design, hut eventually the more sophisticated
duplex pumps came into use. These are essentially two pumps in one, designed so the
intake stroke of one synchronizes with the discharge stroke of the other The result is
greater capacity and smoother operation.
Reciprocating pumps are sometimes called positive displacement pumps. Unlike centrifugal
pumps they need not be fed by gravity, and can pump a tank to the bottom until dry. This
is an important advantage. Some older tankers employ reciprocating pumps exclusively
thus eliminating the need for separate stripping pumps and much additional piping for a
stripping system. But reciprocating pumps have one serious drawback, they are slow.
3.3.2 Rotary positive- displacement "screw" and screw type pumps
The basic elements of design in this particular type of pump are three screws, consisting of
a central power rotor and two idle rotors. The thread surfaces are so shaped that they form
a tight seal both in relation to themselves, and the sleeve. As the screws rotate, the seal
formed by the threads move axially and quite uniformly, thus acting as a piston moving
continuously in one direction. The advantages of this type of pump, is its self priming, and
it does not set up vibration or pulsation even at high speeds. Screw pumps of this type are
primarily found on board small tankers which carry high viscosity cargoes such as
molasses. These pumps are simple in construction and easily maintained. The cargo flow
through these pumps is smooth and free of the pulse effect as in the case of piston pumps.
In small tankers, it is possible to draw the cargo from the bottom of the tank directly to the

deck level where the pumps are located. The great advantage with screw pump lies in their
self-priming characteristic.
3.3.3 Screw displacement pump
ROTO-DYNAMIC (CENTRIFUGAL)
Centrifugal pumps are continuous-flow, gravity-fed pumps, consisting of one or more

spinning impellers. These impellers draw oil through a central inlet and hurl it outward by
centrifugal force, This action creates a vacuum on the inlet side and pressure on the
discharge side of the pump.
Centrifugal pumps cannot function without a continuous gravity-flow of cargo. For this
reason they are generally located in an after pump room, thus using the normal stern trim
to drain cargo more efficiently, From their position at the bottom of the pump room,
centrifugal pumps can draw cargo within one or two feet of the bottom of each tank The
residue is then removed through a separate stripping system, usually employing
reciprocating or some other type of positive displacement pumps, Centrifugal pumps are
controlled in a variety of ways, for example, when steam turbines are used as the power
source, the pumps are started and stopped by operating the turbine steam valves, either
remotely from the cargo control room or manually at the turbine itself. Some newer types of
centrifugal pumps are self-priming, In some cases, air exhausters are fitted to help prevent
pumps from losing suction, Another method is to provide a continuous flow of oil to the
impellers as with a stripping pump lines up to take suction from the discharge side of the
pumps, The devices make it possible to take the tanks much lower with the main
centrifugal pumps, and when used carefully they virtually eliminate the need for stripping,

3.3.4 Eductor
The eductors operate on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. The driving fluid is
accelerated to a very high velocity due to the construction of the inside nozzle causing a
very low absolute pressure and making a high suction capability. The best performance is
achieved with a small back pressure as possible. One of the advantages of the eductor is
that it is able to suck a mixture of liquid, air/gas and solid particles. Provided an eductor
has adequate driving liquid , it will not lose suction. There are no moving parts so there are
no problems of gland sealing and lubrication. They are ideal for stripping cargo tanks and
can also be manufactured of high corrosion resistant material. Eductors are self priming
and they require very little maintenance, due to the
absence of moving parts.
The efficient operation of an eductor depends on:
➢ The pressure of the motive liquid

➢ The suction lift
➢ The discharge head to be overcome

3.4 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
All centrifugal pumps need to have

control flow of liquid in the suction side.
Hence priming may be required at low
heads in tanks.
START-UP PROCEDURES:
Centrifugal pumps will not operate

unless filled with oil, so it is sometimes
necessary to prime them before
beginning the discharge. To do this,
open a full tank on the same line as the
pump, then open the vent cock on the
pump. The sound of air escaping from
the vent cock will be heard. When a
steady stream of oil replaces the air, the
pump is full (primed) and ready for use.
It is rarely necessary to bleed air from a

reciprocating pump when starting on a
full tank. A few strokes will flood the
cylinders with oil and force air out the discharge line, thus eliminating the need to open the
vent cock. Therefore, when a reciprocating pump does lose suction, it can almost always
prime itself from a full tank. Priming in this manner eliminates the need for a special trip
into the pump room to open the vent cock.
3.5 DRAINING AND STRIPPING
3.5.1 STRIPPING
The main function of a stripping system is to handle liquid or ballast left in the cargo tanks
after the main pumps have discharged the bulk.
The second, but no less important function is to handle tank draining and wash water
which gathers in the bottom of the cargo tanks when tank cleaning is undertaken.
A stripping system generally consists of a pipeline, sometimes two or more, which serve all
the cargo tanks. Normally the stripping system is separate from the main suction piping,
though frequently connections are provided, by which the stripping pumps and lines can be
used to wash the main suction lines.
Stripping pipelines vary from 6 in. to 12 in. in larger vessels. They are generally served by
one or more positive displacement pumps which can either be steam-driven reciprocating or
electrically-driven rotary pumps. The pumps are generally connected up so that they can
strip on the main suction lines if need be. On the discharge side, stripping pumps are
normally cross-connected to discharge directly ashore via the main delivery lines, overboard
or into one or more slop tanks.
In some cases the stripping pipeline system is eliminated and the vessel's stripping pumps
are used on the main suction lines. This subsequently means a longer discharge. Some
vessels are equipped with eductors which can be used to assist stripping of cargo tanks.
Eductors used in conjugation with a cargo pump are fast and reliable. They make a major
contribution when tank cleaning, as they save wear and tear on the stripping pumps, as
scale and sludge can be handled without damage to valves and impellers.

Where reciprocating main pumps are fitted or if Deep Well or other self-priming pumps are
installed, stripping systems are generally eliminated for purposes of cargo handling. The
amount of oil left in the individual cargo tanks which the ships' centrifugal pumps are
unable to remove, can vary enormously. Even when a vessel's pumps and pipelines are in
good condition, a pump will lose suction with two or three feet of oil in the tank An
experienced tanker officer can reduce but never- entirely eliminate this type of occurrence.
It is therefore wise when estimating the amount of oil left in the ship's tanks, together with
the amount of time required to strip them, to be as conservative as possible. In other words,
arrange the discharge so that tanks become available for stripping in plenty of time. This is
particularly important for vessels filled with single stripping line vessels with two stripping
lines are generally able to keep the stripping up to date much more easily.
3.5.2 DRAINING
DRAINING WITH RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Reciprocating pumps are far better suited for draining than centrifugal pumps. They will
not lose suction when small quantities of air mixed with oil enter the pump, which does not
require much air to make it lose suction.
When draining with a reciprocating pump, the speed of the pump would be reduced till the
pump has a nice easy stroke, and the gauge shows a maximum vacuum. The pump can
safely be left running until it is heard to suck air in the tank. By shutting down the suction
valve, and reducing the aperture, the pump is assisted in draining the tank dry.
DRAINING WITH CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Draining with centrifugal pumps depends entirely on being able to keep air out of the
pump. Whirlpools and eddies around the suction often allow sufficient air to reach the
pump for suction to be lost. For this reason, when using this type of pump on tanks where
the level of the liquid is dangerously low, it is advisable to shut in the suction and partly
crack open another tank to help feed the pump. In this manner the rush of oil from the low
tank is reduced and less likely to create whirlpools, and at the same time the pump is
obtaining sufficient oil from the full tank to compensate for the oil lost when the suction
valve was shut in.
Centrifugal pumps are often fitted with a vacuum line which leads to a draining pump, the
principle being that any air or gas entering the pump is immediately drained off by the
vacuum draining pump before the main pump has time to lose suction.
PRIMING PUMPS
When a pump loses suction as a result of excessive suction lift, or gas or air entering the
pump, the pump needs to be primed before suction can be regained. When a full tank is
available, the suction head can be utilised to flood the pump chambers, and the gas and air
released from the pump via the air cock. A centrifugal pump can be primed whilst the pump
is stopped or stationery, but a reciprocating pump must be put in motion.
When no suction head is available, the static head is utilised by opening the drop valve and
allowing the oil to reach the suction and fill the pipeline.

3.6 MEASUREMENT OF CARGO LEVEL
To ascertain the liquid level in a tanker's cargo oil

tanks, it is necessary to measure manually,
mechanically and electronically.
The amount of liquid in the tank; measuring from

the bottom of the tank to the surface of the liquid,
The resulting measurement is known as Innage'
The amount of space between the top of the tank
(ullage plug) and the surface of the liquid. This
measurement is known as 'ullaging',
1. Ullages or soundings taken manually by using

the flexible steel or alloy tapes are considered to be
the most precise way of gauging tanks, and it is
used on many tankers. It has its disadvantages,
however. Besides being messy and time-
consuming, hand taping can be dangerous. In that
it necessitates opening the ullage plug, thereby
releasing vapours which should otherwise divert
through the vent system.
2 In the earlier version of the automatic tank gauge

systems, the float was suspended from a special
hatch by means of an ordinary ullage tape. The
tape was passed over a flywheel directly under a
clear view screen complete with screen wiper. The
other end of the tape was secured to a weight
suspended in a tube filled with cleaning solvent,
extending to the bottom of the tank.
The float is heavier than the weight in air, but
when the tank is being filled or emptied it floats on
top of the liquid rising or falling as the liquid level
alters, The tape records the ullage automatically.
Larger and modern ships fitted with the float ullage
system are equipped with a remote read-out in the
cargo control room. There are a large number of
automated tank-gauging systems based on
hydrodynamic principles and such system have a
marked similarity.
BUBBLER GAUGES
In type of gauge the head of the liquid of known

density is derived by measuring the back pressure
generated by the injection of gas or vapour. This
pressure is normally displayed at the required
position on a manometer calibrated directly in level
units.
ELECTRONIC GAUGES
The electronic measurement of the height of the

liquid is undertaken by a transmitter or a probe

CAPACITANCE GAUGES
This type of gauges measures the change in the

electrical capacitance between the two probes as
the product takes up the space between them.
PNEUMATIC OR HYDRAULIC LEVEL GAUGES USING

CLOSED CELL
In these gauges a pressure sensitive cell is located near

the bottom of the container and changes in pressure are
transmitted either by electronic, pneumatic or hydraulic
means to a remote location.
SAAB
The central processing unit computes the ullage using

information received from the transmitter.
MMC OIL WATER INTERFACE PROBE TYPE
This portable unit can measure Ullage, temperature and

oil water interface

3.7CARGO HEATING
A particular viscosity range is required for storage and handling and that this is maintained
by controlling the temperature of the oil. Heavy fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick
and sluggish when cold, and, in order that such oils can be loaded and discharged without
delay it is necessary to keep them heated. Due to the fact that a loaded tanker has
comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the sea water through which the vessel is
passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the ship's side and bottom,
and across the decks, rapidly reduces the temperature of the cargo and makes the task of
heating much harder. Warm sea water, however, has the reverse effect, and can be very
useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with a minimum of steam.
The methods of heating the cargo are by the use of:
➢ Steam supplied to coils or other forms of extended heating surface, for normal
petroleum cargos.
➢ A mineral oil heating fluid supplied to heating apparatus for special (heavy)
petroleum cargos.
Steam is used to heat the oil in a ship's tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of
the vessel's deck. At intervals, manifolds are arranged from which steam for the individual
cargo tanks is drawn. Each tanks has its own steam and exhaust valves, which enables the
steam to be shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will. Generally the main steam lines
are well lagged, but obviously it would not be a practical proposition to lag the individual

lines leading from the manifold to the cargo tanks. The heating arrangements in the actual
cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread over the bottom of the tanks at a
distance of 15 to 45 centimeters from the bottom plating. In wing tanks it is the usual
practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but not up the ship's side.
The wing tanks insulate the center tanks on both sides, while they are subject themselves
to the cooling action of the sea, not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship's
side. It is therefore arranged to set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger
share of the steam than the center tanks.
When it becomes necessary to heat cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The
coils in the bottom of the tank become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity, the
warm oil rises slowly and is replaced by the colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation
system in each tank.
When a heating coil section is in use, both inlet and outlet valve shall be fully open so that
the water separator shall govern the flow of steam in the heating coil section. Adjustment of
cargo temperature is carried out by opening / closing one or more sections.
Leakage in heat exchanger pipes or matrix units will permit oil to contaminate the
condensate system in steam heating systems or water to contaminate the oil cargo. Dangers
exist in heating heavy cargos such as bitumen if water is present in the cargo. The water
will counteract the effects of the coils and act as a cooling agent. Due to the fact that
bitumen is loaded at high temperature, the tanks must be completely free from water, as
even small pools of water will cause the bitumen to froth.
When subjected to heat, oil not only expand but gives of vapour and loss through
evaporation with spirit cargos would be very considerable if natural ventilations were
allowed. On the other hand, if the vessel's cargo tanks were completely sealed and then
subjected to a rise in temperature, the cargo would gradually give of more and more vapour,
until the vapour exerted a pressure on the liquid surface of the cargo, and on the
surrounding plating and other component parts of the cargo tank. If the temperature
should increase further, eventually the pressure would release itself by fracturing the
weakest portion of the cargo tank.
In tankers carrying heavy lubricants oils which require heating, the coils are generally
ordinary steel pipe, but tankers carrying crude oils which have to be heated are equipped
with cast iron or alloy coils. Steel heating coils does not stand up to the corrosive action of
crude oil cargos because the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive corrosion from the
lighter fractions in the crude.
Oil vaporization increases with rise in temperature.

CHAPTER 4
OIL TANKER OPERATION
4.1 LOADING
Most oil tanker spills occur while loading the loading operations should therefore command
extra diligence from the ship's officers. Nearly all spills are preventable. Most are caused by
human errors, with carelessness, impatience, and simple negligence leading the list.
The responsibility for safe cargo handling operations is shared between the ship and the
terminal and rests jointly with the master and the responsible terminal representative. The
manner in which the responsibility is shared should therefore be agreed between them so
as to ensure that all aspects of the operations are covered. All safety and pollution
regulations must be complied by both ship and terminal personnel.
The prevention of spills starts before the first barrel of oil enters the tanks. In fact before
any loading operations, the ship's officers perform a series of inspection which greatly
reduce the chance of cargo contamination, spills, explosions and fires. Before starting to
load cargo or ballast, the responsible officer and the terminal representative must also
formally agree that both the ship and the terminal are ready to do so safely.
Begin the transfer slowly, making sure there are no leaks at the hose connections and that
cargo is in fact, entering the tanks. Do this by checking the automatic tapes for movement,
if the tanker is equipped with. As oil flows into the tank, it is normal to hear the sound of
air escaping around the ullage plug. This indicates that the oil is, indeed, entering the tank
and that all valves on the line are open.
In general, where pumps are used for cargo transfer, all valves in the transfer system (both
ship and shore) should be open before pumping begins, although the discharge valve of a
centrifugal pump may be kept closed until the pump is up to speed and the valve then
opened slowly. In the
case of ships loading by
gravity, the final valve to
be opened should be
that at the shore tank
end of system.
If the flow is to be
diverted from one tank
to another, either the
valve on the second tank
must be opened before
the valve on the first
tank is closed, or the
pumping should be
stopped while the
change is being made.

The Chief Officer

normally fills out a
loading plan and posts
this plan in the ship's
office or the cargo
control room. In
addition, he makes out
a set of loading orders
outlining the way in
which he wants the
cargo loaded. The
loading orders
specifies the sequence
of filling the tanks and
any special
instructions such as
which important
valves to be opened,
closed, or lashed. He
will also instruct
which tank or tanks
should be loaded last.
Cargo loading through the cargo pump
The quantity of cargo loaded into the tanks is checked by measuring the ullages depending
on the toxicity and/or volatility of the cargo, it may be necessary to prevent or minimize the
release of vapour from the cargo tank headspace during measurement and sampling
operations Wherever possible, this should be achieved by use of closed gauging and
sampling equipment.
Equipment required for the measurement of ullage and temperature within cargo tanks
may be either fixed (permanently installed) or portable and samples will normally be drawn
using portable equipment. Closed gauging or sampling will be undertaken using the fixed
gauging system or by using portable equipment passed through a vapour lock. Such
equipment will enable ullages, temperatures, water cuts and interface measurements to be
obtained with a minimum of cargo vapours being referred to as 'restricted gauging
equipment'.
When it is not possible to undertake closed gauging and/or sampling operations, open
gauging will need to be employed This will involve the use of equipment passed into the
tank via an ullage or sampling port or a sounding pipe and personnel may therefore be
exposed to greater concentrations of cargo vapour.
As cargo compartments may be in a pressurised condition, the opening of vapour lock

valves, ullage ports or covers and the controlled release of any pressure should be
undertaken by authorised personnel only.
When measuring or sampling, care must be taken to avoid inhaling gas. Personnel should
therefore keep their heads well away from the issuing gas and stand at right angles to the
direction of the wind. Standing immediately upwind of the ullage port might create a back
eddy of vapour towards the operator. In addition, depending on the nature of the cargo
being handled, consideration may have to be given to the use of appropriate respiratory
protective equipment. When open gauging procedures are being employed, the tank
opening should only be uncovered long enough to complete the operation.

The venting of tanks into the atmosphere is controlled as necessary. Once the dense
hydrocarbon gas layer has formed above the surface of the liquid its depth increases only
very slowly. As the liquid rises in the tank the hydrocarbon gas layer rises with it. Above
this layer the atmosphere originally present in the tank persists almost unchanged and it is
this gas which in the early stages of loading enters the venting system. In an initially gas
free tank, therefore, the gas vented at first is mainly air (or inert gas) with a hydrocarbon
concentration below the LFL. As loading proceeds, the hydrocarbon content of the vented
gas rises.
Concentrations in the range of 30%-50% by volume are quite usual in the vented gas
towards the end of the loading, although the very high concentration immediately above the
liquid surface remains in the final ullage space on completion of loading. Subsequently
evaporation continues until an equilibrium hydrocarbon gas concentration is established
throughout the ullage space. This may be very high indeed, depending upon the cargo
composition and temperature; values as high as 90%-95% by volume have been observed
with crude oils. However, this gas is only vented by breathing of the tank, and thus only
intermittently.
When unusually deep gas layers are encountered, very high concentration of gas,
approaching 100% by volume, may be vented for prolonged periods during loading.
Excessive amount of gas may be present on or around the tanker, which may call for
special precautions to be taken.
The events during the loading operation are recorded.
4.2 LOADED VOYAGE
A positive pressure of inert gas should be maintained in the ullage space at all times in
order to prevent the possible ingress of air. If the pressure falls below the low pressure
alarm level, it will be necessary to start the inert gas plant to restore an adequate pressure
in the system.
Loss of pressure is normally associated with leakages from tank openings and falling air
and sea temperatures. In these cases it is all the more important to ensure that the tanks
are gas tight. Gas leaks are usually easily detected by their noise and every effort must be
made to eliminate leaks at tank hatches, ullage lids, tank cleaning machine openings,
valves etc. Leaks which cannot be eliminated should be marked and recorded for sealing
during the next ballast passage or at another suitable opportunity. Over pressurisation of
cargo tanks is caused by compression of ullage space due to the inadequate release of
vapour or by the overfilling of tank. The consequences may result in serious deformation of
the tank structure and its peripheral bulkheads or catastrophic failure which can seriously
affect the structural integrity of the vessel and could lead to fire, explosion and pollution.
Thus the vapour pressure should be checked at regular intervals and also the cargo vapour
may be vented to control pressure.
The major safeguard against tank over pressurisation is the adherence to good operating
procedures. On ships without an inert gas system, a procedure should be established to
control the setting of isolating valves on the vent lines. The current position of the isolating
valves should be recorded thus preventing them form being incorrectly or casually operated.
The valves are checked to be set in the correct position for operation and monitored that
they remain correctly set. The operation of the valves should be restricted to authorised
personnel only.
The temperature of the cargo is controlled according to the type of oil carried. Heavy
fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and, in order that
such oils can be discharged without delay it is necessary to keep them heated during the
voyage. Some types of heavy virgin gas oil have very high pour points, and it is necessary to
keep the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid. Some crude oils which contain paraffin

wax or have high pour point are also heated during the voyage to stop excessive deposits of
wax forming on cooling surfaces The heating arrangements in the cargo tanks consists of a
system coils spread over the bottom of the tank. When it becomes necessary to heat cargo,
the steam is turned on the individual tanks
4.3 DISCHARGING
As with the loading operation, the responsibility for safe discharging operations is shared
between the ship and the terminal representative. The manner in which the responsibility is
shared should again be agreed between both parties so as to ensure that all aspects of the
operations are covered. All safety and pollution regulations must also be complied.
On the basis of the information exchanged, an operational agreement should be made in

writing between the responsible officer and the terminal representative. A discharge plan
indicating the expected timing and the sequence in which the ship's tanks are to be
discharged is included in the agreement. The Ship/Shore Safety Check List should also be
completed.
To ensure safe control of operations at all times, it should be the responsibility of both
parties to establish, agree in writing and maintain a reliable communication system. Before
discharging commences, the system should be adequately tested. A secondary standby
system should also be established and agreed. The use of one VHF/UHF channel by more
than one ship/shore combination should be avoided. When different products or grades are
to be handled their names and descriptions should be clearly understood by the ship and
shore personnel on duty during the discharging operations. The Chief Officer again
normally fills out a discharging plan and posts this plan in the ship's office or the cargo
control room. In addition, he makes out a set of discharging orders outlining the way in
which he wants the cargo discharged. The discharging orders specifies the sequence of
discharging the tanks and any special instructions such as which important valves to be
opened, closed, or lashed. He will also instruct which tank or tanks should be discharged
last.
The shore valves must be confirmed to be fully open to receiving tanks before the ship's
manifold valves are opened. If there is a possibility that, owing to the elevation of the shore
tanks above the level of the ship's manifold, pressure might exist in the shore line and no
non-return (check) valves are filled in the shore line, the ship must be informed and the
ship's manifold valves should not be opened until an adequate pressure has been developed
by the pumps.
Discharge should start at a slow rate, and only be increased to the agreed rate once both
parties are satisfied that the flow of oil to and from designated tanks are confirmed. During
discharge the flow of cargo should be controlled by the ship in accordance with the
agreement reached with the terminal. The discharge rate should not be substantially
changed without informing the terminal.
Tankers correctly operating their inert gas systems usually conduct closed discharging
operations. On ships without an inert gas system, discharge should normally take place
with all ullage, sounding and sighting ports closed.
At most discharge terminals vapours from cargo tanks are not permitted to be vented.
Ballast is loaded during discharge operation for the ship to float at the required draft and
trim upon completion of discharging. Before ballasting of tanks containing hydrocarbon
vapour is carried out, the responsible officer must consult with the terminal representative
and all safety checks and precautions applicable to the loading of volatile petroleum
observed. The agreement of the terminal representative must be obtained before the
simultaneous handling of cargo and ballast, other than segregated ballast, takes place.
During ballasting of cargo tanks that contain hydrocarbon vapour, gas is expelled which
may be within the flammable range on mixing with air. This gas should therefore be vented

through the recognized vent lines as during loading. The amount of oil left in the individual
cargo tanks which the ship's centrifugal pumps are unable to remove can vary enormously
The pump will lose suction with 30 to 60 centimeters of oil left in the tank even if the ship's
pumps and pipelines are in good condition. The tank will now have to be strip using the
stripping pump. However, centrifugal pump equipped with vacuum assistance are capable
of draining cargo tanks without the help of stripping pumps. Stripping of cargo tanks is
carried out by use of eductors.
On completion of discharge the ship's cargo deck lines should be stripped by the stripping
pump and discharged ashore via the Marpol line. After stripping cargo lines, the hoses are
disconnected.. Cargo manifolds should be securely blanked. The contents of portable or
fixed drip trays should be transferred to a slop tank or other safe receptacle.
4.4 BALLAST VOYAGE
An empty tanker rides high in the water and is vulnerable to the attack of an angry sea.
Instead of slicing through the swells, the bow tends to bounce along the top of them. This
action creates dangerous stresses on the ship's structure. The ship is also less
maneuverable; the propeller and rudder only partially submerged when a tanker is 'light'
lose much of their efficiency.
One obvious solution (the one tanker companies prefer) is to make sure a tanker always
sails with cargo in her tanks. This not only makes her more seaworthy but more profitable
too.
This arrangement is ideal but often impractical. For example, the typical crude oil tanker
can only carry cargo in one direction from the oil fields to the refinery or receiving terminal.
The long voyage outbound to the oil fields must be made with no cargo in the tanks at all.
And here is where ballast (sea water) must take the place of the missing cargo. A number of
tanks are allocated for ballast.
On older ships ballast is delivered into the empty cargo tanks with the main cargo pumps.
Special ballast lines run from the skin of the ship to the pumps. Sea valves regulate the
flow of water to and from the sea.
On new ships and some old ones, certain tanks are reserved for clean ballast only. A
separate pump and pipeline are provided for the ballast; the ballast is thus kept free of oil
and only clean ballast need be pumped overboard.
Ballasting involves more than just filling tanks with seawater, it must be carefully planned.
The following factors must be considered when planning the distribution of ballast.
STRESS
Generally speaking, ballast must be spread evenly through the tanks, taking care not to
concentrate it in the middle or at the ends. Since more tanks are left empty when ballasting
than when loading cargo, these empty tanks must be distributed carefully. Additional
empty tanks increase the possibility of creating a dangerous hog or sag condition. Stress
should therefore be calculated for each ballast plan used.
DRAFT
A ballasted ship normally draws much less water than a loaded ship. The draft calculation
is sometimes critical, however, as when crossing a shallow bar at low tide.
TRIM
On most tankers, 1 to 3 meters of stern trim are satisfactory during a ballast passage.
However, the trim must be increased during tank cleaning to improve efficiency of the

stripping pumps. At least 3 meters of trim are required for this purpose more on large
vessels. Maximum trim allowed is 0.0 15L
PROPELLER IMMERSION
A ship's propeller must remain submerged to operate at full efficiency. The ballast load
should be planned with this fact in mind.
WEATHER EXPECTED ON THE BALLAST PASSAGE
Weather is a vital consideration in ballast planning. Bad weather can force a tanker to take
on as much as 60 percent of her loaded deadweight in ballast; sometimes even more. In
good weather this amount is naturally much less. One of the most important things is to
prevent pounding, which occurs when the bow crashes over oncoming swells instead of
slicing through them Enough forward draft must be maintained to keep the bow well
submerged.
4.5 TANK CLEANING
Whenever repairs or inspections must be made inside the tanks, they must first be cleaned
and gas-freed. This operation is a routine part of the ballast passage. Tanks to be cleaned,
must be empty when the cleaning is performed. Ballasting should be planned with this in
mind. When more than a few tanks are to be cleaned, it is usually necessary to shift or
discharge ballast from some of the ballasted tanks this is also the case when using the
load-on-top technique for ballast handling. Some tankers have tanks solely designated for
ballast, served by a dedicated ballast system. These tanks are called the segregated ballast
tanks.
In heavy weather the capacity of the segregated ballast may be insufficient making it
necessary to pump additional ballast into the dirty cargo tanks. Such ballast if put in the
dirty cargo tanks is heavily contaminated with oil and becomes dirty ballast.
The tanker may have only clean or segregated ballast on board on board upon arrival in the
loading port. The clean ballast may be discharged over board into the sea during loading
which would not pollute the surrounding waters. It makes very little oil to produce a trace
on the water's surface; therefore, ballast containing even a small amount of oil must not be
pumped overboard in port.
Laws forbid the discharge of dirty ballast within the prohibited zones Limited amounts of
ballast may be discharged on the high seas beyond the prohibited zones, but this is strictly
regulated too. The amount of oil, which may be discharged, on the high seas is specified by
the MARPOL 73/78).
At the discharging port the ship pumps water ballast into selected empty cargo tanks in the
usual manner. On the voyage to the loading port, other tanks are washed in preparation for
clean ballast (Each branch line is flushed first by pumping a few barrels of sea water into
tanks which are to be cleaned).
Tank cleaning slops are pumped into the aftermost center tank and retained on board. The
newly cleaned tanks are then filled with ballast, which, if the tanks have been washed
properly, should be clean enough to pump overboard.
In the meantime the initial dirty ballast has had time to settle out that is, free-oil in the
ballast has had time to float to the surface. Most of the clean bottom water can therefore be
pumped overboard (to within perhaps 1.5 meters of the bottom). The remaining water and
oil are then stripped to the slop tank.

The slop is allowed to settle in the same manner before pumping out the clean bottom
water. It is important to drain off as much of this water as possible, since any remaining in
the slop tank must be commingled with the next cargo.
Pumping this water overboard is a delicate task; it should be done slowly and carefully. It is
difficult to determine the precise position of the interface between clean water and floating
oil, so there is always a risk of pumping some oil overboard. This should be guarded
against. An Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System (ODMCS) should be in operation
during the discharge overboard of oil-water mixture.
After following the procedure just described, a tanker is, for all practical purposes, in clean
ballast. Before any of this ballast is pumped overboard, however, it may be necessary to
flush the pumps and bottom piping into the slop tank. This is done before draining the
bottom water from the slop tank, so that additional water introduced while flushing can
also be settled out and discharged. Upon arrival at the loading port, a small amount of
emulsified oil and water will remain in the slop tank. The new cargo can be "loaded on top"
and commingled with this mixture with no adverse effect.
The load-on-top technique works well on crude carriers making long ballast passages, but it
cannot be used by all tankers. For example, on ships carrying refined products, loading on
top would produce serious contamination in most cargoes. Product Tankers making short
hauls along the coast must therefore deal with slops and dirty ballast on another manner.
One obvious answer is to pump slops ashore at the loading terminal, where they can be
processed in shore separators. Because product tankers load nearly all their cargoes at
refineries, where facilities for handling slops and dirty ballast are available, this has become
the logical solution to their ballast problem.
Tank Cleaning
The reasons for cleaning tanks include
➢ Change in cargo.
➢ Repair work or inspection.
➢ Prevention of sludge accumulation.
➢ Preparation for clean ballast.
➢ Preparation for shipyard.
The tanks may be cleaned with water or crude oil. On the ballast voyage only water is used,
sometimes mixed with chemicals. Tank cleaning are carried out by using the tank cleaning
machines, either fixed or portable.
Tank cleaning machines are designed to deliver sea water under high-pressure in a rotating
stream which arcs through every possible angle. Thus nearly all surfaces in the tank are
exposed to the stream. Those not struck directly are hit by water splashing at high velocity
from other parts of the tank (although it is sometimes necessary to clean problem areas,
either by lashing a portable machine nearby or installing a special nozzle permanently in
that area.)
A special pump delivers seawater into the system (often employing the fire main) at
pressures ranging from 7 to 12kgs/cm2. Pressures are adjusted according to the type of
product being cleaned from the tank. The pump is often located in the engine room, when
this is the case it is necessary to call the engineers to start or stop the cleaning water or
change the pressure (On some tankers the cargo pumps can deliver into the tank cleaning
system, making a special pump unnecessary.)

Seawater can either be used cold or heated to temperatures up to 190°F or 106°C (by
means of a heat exchanger in the engine room). This, too, depends on the previous product
and the degree of cleanliness required.
On ships carrying heavy crude and fuel oils, for example, it is common to wash tanks at
10kgs/cm2 and at 80°C. A ship carrying refined products, on the other hand, might use
cold seawater at 8 kg/ cm2. This depends, once again, on the type of product carried and
the reason for cleaning the tanks.
The tank washing should preferably be carried out in a non-explosive atmosphere. This may
be an inert or, alternatively, too lean or too rich atmosphere.
INERT
An atmosphere made incapable of burning by the introduction of inert gas and the
resultant reduction of the overall oxygen content. The oxygen content of the tank
atmosphere should not exceed 8% by volume.
Too Lean
An atmosphere made incapable of burning by the deliberate reduction of the hydrocarbon

content to below the lower flammable limit.
Too Rich
An atmosphere which is above the flammable range.
If an inert gas system (IGS) is fitted and operating, tank washing should take place in an
inert atmosphere. If an IGS is not fitted, tank washing should preferably take place in a too
lean atmosphere. Before washing, the tank should be ventilated to 'gas-free' or reduce the
gas concentration of the atmosphere to 10% or less of the lower flammable limit. Gas tests
must be made at various levels and due consideration given to the possible existence of
local pockets of flammable gas. Mechanical ventilation and gas testing should continue
during washing. Ventilation should, as far as possible, provide a free flow of air from one
end of the tank to the other.
The tank washing water is transferred to the slop tank. The slop tank can be used
in the open cycle mode or the recirculation mode,
(A) OPEN CYCLE
As the slop tank fills with slops, oily residues gradually floats to the surface. The water
which settles at the bottom is, in most cases, clean enough to discharge overboard.
When the level of the slop tank rises above the water line, it can normally be gravitated to
sea with little risk of oil going overboard (provided that adequate time has been allowed for
settling). On some tankers the slop tank is opened to sea as soon as the water level rises
sufficiently. The tank is then left open throughout the tank cleaning operation, thus
allowing clean water to gravitate out. from the bottom as dirty water is introduced. This
method does not work on all ships, however, and should be used with caution.
When tank cleaning is completed, the clean bottom water from the slop tank is pumped to
sea, and the dirty top portion is retained. These remaining slops can be discharged in port
or mingled with the next cargo,

(B) RECIRCULATION
At the discharging port the ship pumps water ballast into selected empty cargo tanks in the
usual manner. On the voyage to the loading port, other tanks are washed in preparation for
clean ballast. (Each branch line is flushed first by pumping a few barrels of seawater into
tanks, which are to be cleaned.)
Tank cleaning slops are pumped into the aftermost center tank and retained on board. The
newly cleaned tanks are then filled with ballast, which, if the tanks have been washed
properly should be clean enough to pump overboard.
In the meantime the initial dirty ballast has had time to settle out; that is, free-oil in the
ballast has had time to float to the surface. Most of the clean bottom water can therefore be
pumped overboard (to within perhaps 1.5 meters of the bottom). The remaining water and
oil are then stripped to the slop tank.
The slop tank is allowed to settle in the same manner before pumping out the clean bottom
water. It is important to drain out as much of this water as possible, since any remaining in
the slop tank must be commingled with the next cargo. Pumping this water overboard is a
delicate task; it should be done slowly and carefully. It is difficult to determine the precise
position of the interface between clean water and floating oil, so there is always a risk of
pumping some oil overboard. This should be guarded against. On some tankers, pump
room oil-in-water detectors have been used successfully to combat this problem
After following the procedures just described, a tanker is, for all practical purposes, in clean
ballast. Before any of this ballast is pumped overboard, however, it may be necessary to
flush the pumps and bottom piping into the slop tank. This is done before draining the
bottom water from the slop tank, so that additional water introduced while flushing can
also be settled out and discharged.
Upon arrival at the loading port, a small amount of emulsified oil and water will remain in
the slop tank. The new cargo can be "loaded on top" and commingled with this mixture with
no adverse effect.

4.6 CRUDE OIL WASHING
A crude oil tanker fitted with inert gas system and approved fixed tank washing equipment
in its cargo tanks can use crude oil from the cargo as the washing medium. This operation
may take place either in port or at sea between discharges ports it is most frequently
carried out while the tanker is discharging cargo and permits the removal of oil fractions
adhering to or deposited on tank surfaces. These deposits, which would normally remain on
board after discharge, are then discharged with the cargo.
As a consequence, the need to water wash the discharged tanks during the ballast voyage
for the removal of residues is much reduced and, in some cases, entirely eliminated. Water
rinsing will be necessary if the tank is to be used for clean ballast. Only fixed tank washing
machines may be used for crude oil washing. The oxygen content of the tank must not
exceed 8% by volume. Before arriving in a port where it is intended to crude oil wash, the
tank washing system should be pressure tested to normal working pressure and examined
for leaks. All machines which are to be used should be operated briefly to check for leaks
beyond the shut-off valve. Any leaks found should be made good: During crude oil washing
the system must be kept under constant observation so that any leak can be detected
immediately and action taken to deal with it.
The most popular crude oil washing method is to divide washing of individual tanks into
two distinct phases:
➢ Top Wash (Sometimes divided into two separate operations.)

➢ Bottom Wash.
(A) TOP WASH
This commences when the tank is still about one-third full. Through-deck- mounted
machines are turned on and the exposed areas of the tank are washed with jets of crude
under a pressure of 7-12 kgs/cm2, according to the type and number of machines used.
The exposed areas are left with a thin film of crude oil, while wax and clingage drop into the
bottom of the tank and are discharged with the cargo ashore. Normally a cargo pump is
used to provide crude to the tank-washing machines, many of the machines have an
individual capacity of 50 to 175 CUB/HR.
(B) BOTTOM WASH
When the crude .oil in the tank is getting fairly low, bottom washing commences. In some
cases this will involve bringing into use machines fitted on mounts or platforms near the
bottom These machines are normally submerged when the cargo is in the tank, but are very
useful, not only to wash sludge off the tank bottoms, but to reach areas of the tank
screened by some structural members and frames from being effectively cleaned.
Bottom washing depends largely on the bottom being kept uncovered, so that the crude jets
can move the sludge. To do this, stripping must be effective and, if possible, should be
conducted by use of one or more eductors driven by a cargo pump. The eductor would
normally discharge into one or both of the slop tanks. Slop-tank levels must be carefully
monitored.
Not all fixed-deck or submerged-mounted machines are suitable for crude washing Various
makes are in use among the more popular is the Lavomatic Selective Are Tank-Cleaning
machine. This machine is suitable for both crude and water washing. This machine is a
fixed through-deck mounting. \\ \s fitted with a single nozzle on the end of the drop-pipe
and operated by a simple gear train. The machine and drop-pipe can be withdrawn for
maintenance through the aperture in the deck. . The Lavomatic machine has its
driving/timing mechanism mounted above the deck. This can be portable or an integral
part of each machine. The portable version can be hydraulically or pneumatically driven

The fixed driving/timing device mechanism is hydraulically operated. With the aid of the
driving/timing device the angle of the nozzle on each machine can be controlled for top
washing or bottom washing cycles, so the are and radius of action meet the requirements of
the particular wash cycle.
4.7 USE OF INERT GAS
Inert gas is used in cargo tanks to replace the air, and thereby oxygen. Hydrocarbon gas
normally encountered in petroleum tankers cannot burn in an atmosphere containing less
than approximately 11% oxygen by volume. Accordingly one way to provide protection
against fire or explosion in the vapour space of cargo tanks is to keep oxygen level below
that figure This is usually achieved by using a fixed piping arrangement to blow inert gas
into each cargo tank in order to reduce the air content, and hence the oxygen content, and
render the tank atmosphere nonflammable. The flammable limits vary for different pure
hydrocarbon gases and for mixtures derived from different petroleum liquids. For practical
purposes the lower and upper flammable (LFL and UFL) of crude oil vapours are taken to be
1 % and 10% respectively by volume.
As inert gas is added to the hydrocarbon gas/air mixture, the flammable range decreases
until a point where the LFL and UFL coincide This point corresponds to an oxygen content
of approximately: II %. No hydrocarbon gas/air mixture can burn at this oxygen level. For
practical purposes and to allow a safety margin, 8% is taken as the level of oxygen at which
no hydrocarbon gas/air mixture can burn under any circumstances To prevent fire or
explosion in a tank containing hydrocarbon gas/air mixture it is therefore necessary to
produce and supply inert gas having an oxygen
Content not normally exceeding 5% and to displace the existing air in the tank until the
resultant oxygen level throughout the tank does not exceed 8% by volume. Cleaned and
cooled uptake gas from the ship's main or auxiliary boiler is often used for this purpose, its
main constituents being nitrogen and carbon dioxide Alternatively, cleaned and filtered
combustion gas from an oil burning gas generator or a gas turbine fitted with an
afterburner can be used
A final oxygen level of 8% or less will be more easily achieved if the oxygen content of the
inert gas in the inert gas main is considerably less than 8%. Ideally the inert gas should not
contain oxygen but this is not possible in practice. When using flue gas from a main or
auxiliary boiler, an oxygen level of less than 5% can generally be obtained, depending on
the quality of combustion control and the load on the boiler. When using an independent
inert gas generator or a gas turbine plant with afterburner fitted, the oxygen content can be
automatically controlled with finer limits, usually within the range 1.5% and 2.5% by
volume and not normally exceeding 5%. Whatever the source, the gas must be cooled and
scrubbed with water to remove soot and sulfuric acids before being supplied to the cargo
tanks.
Replacement of a tank atmosphere by inert gas can be achieved by either inerting or

purging. In each of these methods one of two distinct processes, dilution or displacement,
will predominate. Dilution takes place when the incoming inert gas mixes with the original
tank atmosphere to form a homogeneous mixture through the tank so that, as the process
continues, the concentration of the original gas decreases progressively. It is important that
the incoming inert gas has sufficient entry, velocity to penetrate to the bottom of the tank,
To ensure this a limit must be placed on the number of tanks which can be inerted
simultaneously. Where this is not clearly stipulated in the operations manual, only one
tank should be inerted or purged at a time.
Displacement depends on the fact that inert gas is slightly lighter than hydrocarbon gas so
that, while the inert gas enters at the top of the tank, the heavier hydrocarbon gas escapes

from the bottom through suitable piping. When using this method it is important that the
inert gas has a very low velocity to enable a stable horizontal interface to be developed
between the incoming and escaping gas although, in practice, some dilution inevitably
takes place owing to the turbulence caused in the inert gas flow. This system generally
allows several tanks to be inerted or purged simultaneously.
Whatever method is employed, and whether inerting or purging, it is vital that oxygen or
gas measurements are taken at several heights and horizontal positions within the tank to
check the efficiency of the operation.
A mixture of inert gas and petroleum gas when vented and mixed with air can become
flammable. The normal safety precautions taken when petroleum gas is vented from a tank
should therefore not be relaxed.
Tanks should be kept in an inert condition at all times except when it is necessary for them
to be gas free for inspection work, i.e. the oxygen content should be not more than 8% by
volume and the atmosphere should be maintained at a positive pressure. The atmosphere
within the tank should make the transition form the inert condition to the gas free
condition without passing the flammable condition. When a ship is in a gas free condition
before arrival at a loading port the tanks must be inerted prior to loading.
In order to maintain cargo tanks in a non-flammable condition the inert gas plant will be
required to:
➢ Inert empty cargo tanks.

➢ Be in operation during cargo discharge, deballasting, crude oil washing and tank
cleaning.
➢ Purge tanks prior to gas freeing.
➢ Top-up the pressure in the cargo tanks when necessary during other stages of the
voyage.
4.7.1 INERT GAS SYSTEM: (BOILER FLUE GAS SYSTEM)
The inert gas system uses boiler flue gas to produce inert gas. In the ship's boiler oxygen
combines with all the constituents of fuel oil namely hydrogen, carbon and sulphur to
produce water vapour, carbon dioxide and sulphur oxides.
Some of the oxygen takes no part in the combustion process and therefore remains as
oxygen. Nitrogen the major constituent of air being inert, plays no part in the chemical
reaction and remains unchanged.
In practice, stoichiometric combustion cannot be used in steam boilers as this would give
rise to incomplete combustion and soot generating. In order to obtain good combustion and
a smokeless flue gas, it is necessary to have about 10-20% excess air.
It is also important to fire the boiler with lowest air/fuel ratio which gives complete
combustion with a minimum of smoke.
The products of combustion are hot. (temperature about 4000 C) and corrosive. These gases
must be cooled and treated to remove the corrosive components before distribution to the
cargo tanks.
Carbon Dioxide
This gas amounts to about 13% of the flue gas and should be kept as high as possible, but
a high level of carbon dioxide results in an increase in the percentage of carbon monoxide
and this should be kept in mind when adjusting the combustion control

Water Vapour
This is a product of combustion, which cannot be reduced by adjusting the firing

conditions. Water vapour causes corrosion and should be removed as much as possible
before distribution to the cargo tanks
Sulphur Oxides
This is a product of combustion formed by the oxidation of the sulphur in the fuel Some of
the sulphur dioxide is further oxidized to sulphur trioxide which combines with water
vapour to form small amounts of sulphuric acid vapours.
Sulphur dioxide is corrosive when dissolved in water and sulphuric acid is corrosive when
condensed to liquid. Both sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are undesirable as they
cause corrosion and should be removed as much as possible. The quantity of these gases
can be reduced by using low sulphur fuel.
Nitrogen
This gas amounts to about 77% of the flue gas and is an excellent inert gas which being the
main objective should be kept as high as possible.
Oxygen
This gas is undesirable and should be kept low. However, due to practical reasons it is not
possible to reduce the oxygen content below a certain limit. Reducing the oxygen content
further would result in incomplete combustion with generation of soot.
Carbon Monoxide
This is a toxic gas which is present in the flue gas due to incomplete combustion of the
carbon in the fuel. Carbon monoxide can be minimised by keeping the firing equipment of
the boiler in good condition with a minimum of unburnt carbon.
Solids
These are in the form of ash and soot particles. Soot particles can be reduced by good firing
but not entirely eliminated. Solids can accumulate in the piping system causing blockages
and on the blower impeller causing imbalance. Soot particles also carry a. static charge
which can give rise to high electrostatic potential in the tank and should be removed as
much as possible.
MAIN FUNCTIONS
It is evident that for the boiler flue gases to be usable as inert gas, the inert gas system
should fulfill certain functions. These are:
➢ To cool the flue gas to a temperature close to the sea-water temperature.

➢ To remove water droplets from the gas.
➢ To remove as much as possible of the sulphur oxides in the flue gas.
➢ To remove solids from the gas to the maximum possible extent.
➢ To transport the cooled and clean gas to the cargo tanks. .
➢ To regulate the quantity of gas according to the demand for gas in the cargo tanks.

MAIN COMPONENTS
The main components of the inert gas

system are
➢ Flue gas isolating valve

➢ Scrubber.
➢ Demister.
➢ Blowers.
➢ Re-circulating valve and line.
➢ Gas regulating valve.
➢ Water Seal.
➢ Non return deck isolating valve.
➢ Pressure vacuum breaker.
➢ Pressure vacuum breather
➢ Tank isolating valve.
➢ Mast riser with by-pass valve.
➢ Purge pipe or standpipe.

4.8 PURGING AND GAS FREEING
The purpose of gas-freeing is to replace the cargo vapours, inert gas or any other gases in
the cargo tank with air. It is generally recognised that tank cleaning and gas freeing is the
most hazardous period of tanker operations. This is true whether washing the tank for
clean ballast, gas freeing for entry, or gas freeing for hot work. It is therefore essential that
the greatest possible care is exercised in all operations connected with tank cleaning and
gas freeing.
Hydrocarbon vapours remain inside a cargo tank after cargo discharge Hydrocarbon
vapours are mixed with inert gas on a ship fitted with an Inert Gas System or with air in a
ship if so fitted.. Purging a tank with inert gas will prevent the development of an explosive
atmosphere in a cargo tank. In an inerted cargo tank there is no explosive atmosphere.
However, soot particles in inert gas create an additional ignition hazard in an explosive tank
atmosphere. Gas freeing a non-inerted tank will bring the tank atmosphere within the
explosive range for some time.
Gas-freeing is usually done by mechanical means such as by fixed or portable fans driven
by air, steam, water or hydraulic fluid. The Inert Gas System may also be used for gas-
freeing. Care must be taken that the tank atmosphere does not come within the flammable
range during gas freeing operations. The gas-freeing operation is verified by regular checks
of the tank atmosphere. The tank atmosphere is checked by measuring the percentage of
oxygen and the ppm values of cargo vapours or of toxic constituents of inert gas. Meters are
available showing the percentage of the lower flammable limit (LFL) by volume. Adequate
samples should be taken from different points about the space to ensure that it is free of
vapours throughout. It is important to remember that, depending on its density, vapour
may accumulate preferentially at the top or bottom of the space and also in locations where
the flow of ventilating the air is least.
A cargo tank is gas-free only when the oxygen content is 21 % by volume and no vapours
from the cargo or toxic constituents of inert gas can be measured in values above the
threshold limit value (TLV).
Gas-freeing equipment should be operated as long as necessary to ensure that the cargo
tank or other spaces are sufficiently free from flammable and harmful vapours for the
particular purpose.
4.9 TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING FOR REAPIRS
Before personnel can enter any tank, the atmosphere must be checked for oxygen content,
hydrocarbon content and, after carrying some cargoes, toxic gas content. In order to be gas
free for entry without breathing apparatus, a tank must be ventilated until tests confirm
that the hydrocarbon gas concentration through the tank is not more than 1 % of the LFL
and there is 21 % of oxygen by volume.
Even when tests have shown a tank to be safe for entry, pockets of gas should always be
suspected. Hence, when descending to the lower part of a tank, further atmosphere tests
should be made. After tank washing has been carried out, manual residue removal may be
necessary. The residue removal generates more hydrocarbon gas. Regeneration of
hydrocarbon gas should always be considered possible, even after loose scale has been
removed. Adjacent bulkheads and pipelines may constitute additional source of
hydrocarbon gas. While personnel remain in a tank, ventilation should be continuous and
frequent atmosphere tests should be undertaken. In particular, tests should always be
made before each daily commencement of work or after any interruption or break in the
work. Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the resulting readings are
representative of the condition of the entire space.

A gas-free certificate is needed from a qualified chemist (Port Chemist) before contractor's
work can be carried out.
An additional hot work permit is required for any hot work. Hot work is any work involving
welding or burning, and any other work including certain drilling or grinding operations,
electrical work and the use of non-intrinsically safe electrical equipment, which might
produce an incendive spark.
Such certificate and permit must be reissued every day that work is carried out, or such
lesser period as the port authority stipulates because the space for entry may not remain
gas free.
All operations utilizing the cargo or ballast system, including tank cleaning, gas freeing,
purging or inerting should be stopped before hot work is undertaken, and throughout the
duration of the hot work If hot work is interrupted to permit pumping of ballast or other
operations using the cargo, venting or inerting system hot work should not be restarted
until all precautions have been re-checked, and a new hot work permit has been issued.
No hot work should be carried out on bulkheads of bunker tanks containing bunkers, or
within 0.5 metres from such bulkheads.
Adjacent cargo tanks, including diagonally positioned cargo tanks, should either have been
cleaned and gas freed to hot work standard, or cleaned and hydrocarbon vapour content
reduced to not more than I % by volume and kept inerted, or completely filled with water
Other cargo tanks which are not gas free should be purged of hydrocarbon vapour to less
than 2% by volume and kept inerted and secured On a vessel without an inert gas system,
all cargo tanks except tanks containing slops should be cleaned and gas freed Slops should
be placed in a tank as far as possible from the hot work area, and the tank kept closed
Adjacent ballast tanks, and compartments other than cargo tanks, should be checked to
ensure they are gas free and safe for hot work If found to be contaminated by hydrocarbon
liquid or vapours, the cause of the contamination should be determined and the tank(s)
cleaned and gas freed.
All interconnecting pipelines to other compartments should be flushed through with water,
drained, vented and isolated from the compartment where hot work will take place Cargo
lines may be subsequently inerted or completely filled with water if considered necessary.
Vapour lines and inert gas lines to the compartment should also be ventilated and isolated.
Heating coils should be flushed.
All sludge, cargo-impregnated scale, sediment or other material likely to give off vapour
which is flammable, should be removed from an area of at least 10 metres around the area
of hot work. Special attention must be given to the reverse sides of frames and bulkheads.
Other areas that may be affected by the hot work, such as the area immediately below
should also be cleaned.
An adjacent fuel oil bunker tank may be considered safe if tests using a combustible gas
indicator give a reading of not more than 1% LFL in the ullage space of the bunker tank,
and no heat transfer through the bulkhead of the bunker tank will be caused by the hot
work..

4.10 HAZARD CONTROL
In order to eliminate the risk of fire and explosion on a tanker, it is necessary to find a
source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being present in the same place at the same
time It is not always possible to exclude both these factors and precautions are therefore
directed towards excluding or controlling one of them.
In the case of cargo compartments, pump rooms, and at times the tank deck flammable
gases are to be expected and strict elimination of all possible sources of ignition in these
locations are essential. The precautions against fire are as follows:
➢ Prohibiting smoking except in designated spaces Smoking must be prohibited on

tank deck or any other place where petroleum gas may be encountered and absolute
prohibition of smoking in calm weather.
➢ Naked lights must be prohibited on the tank deck and in any other place where
there is risk that petroleum gas may be present.
➢ The use of matches and lighters outside the accommodation spaces should be
prohibited, except in places where smoking is permitted. Matches and cigarette
lighters should not be taken outside these places by personnel, nor should they be
carried on the tank deck or in any other place where petroleum gas may be
encountered The risk involved in carrying matches, and more particularly cigarette
lighters, should be impressed on all personnel. Matches on board should only be of
the 'safety type'
➢ Permitting only galley equipment of an approved design to be used. Unauthorised
and inexperienced persons should not be allowed to use such facilities
➢ Exercising close control over the condition and use of tools and equipment. Ensure
that all portable electrical equipment including lamps, torches, UHF &VHF
transceivers are of the approved type and must be examined for possible defects
before being used Special care should be taken to ensure that the insulation is
undamaged and that cables are securely attached and will remain so while the
equipment is in use Special care should also be taken with electrical equipment on
flexible cables (wandering leads) to prevent mechanical damage to the flexible
cables.
➢ Any other electrical or electronic equipment of non-approved type, whether mains or
battery powered, must not be active, switched on or used on the tank deck or in
areas where flammable gas may be present. This includes radios, mobile telephones,
radio pagers, calculators, photographic equipment and any other portable
equipment that is electrically powered but not approved for operation in hazardous
areas. It should be borne in mind that equipment such as mobile telephones and
radio pagers, if switched on, can be 'activated remotely and a hazard can be
generated by the alerting or calling mechanism and, in the case of telephones, by
the natural response to answer the call.
➢ Stopping all cargo operations if an electrical storm is imminent or taking place.
➢ Keeping accommodation doors and windows closed.
The dangers of fire and explosion are from:
• Accumulations of oily rags, waste and other flammable material.

• Cathodic protection units becoming detached and falling into cargo spaces with the
possibility of spark generation.
• The use of aluminum paint on areas of rust, thereby generating heat.
• The generation of static electricity, and electrical discharge thereby, from. Flow of
petroleum (non-conductor) through metal pipelines (conductor)

• Concentration of static at oil free, surface during loading.

• Water washing of cargo tanks.
• Lowering sampling or ullaging equipment into a tank.
• Water slugs from a high capacity tank washing machine, and
• Surging of water ballast.
An important countermeasure to prevent electrostatic hazards is to bond all metal objects

together. On ships, bonding to earth is effectively accomplished by connecting all metal
objects to the ship's structure. The ship's hull is naturally earthed through the sea water.

CHAPTER 5
MARINE POLLUTION
5.1 CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION
CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION
Marine pollution at sea can occur as a result of
➢ Strandings and collisions,

➢ Lightering operations,
➢ Tank washing and line flushing, and
➢ Deballasting.
Marine pollution in port can occur as a result or.
➢ Leaking hoses and loading arms,

➢ Overflow from tanks,
➢ Equipment failure, and
➢ Improperly set sea valves.
5.2 PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION
Marine Pollution
There are requirements for the discharge of oil into the sea which must be observed the
MARPOL 73/78 In order to comply with these requirements, LOT procedures must be
observed during deballasting, decanting and tank cleaning operations. The oil residues
which remain from the tank cleaning or from tanks containing dirty ballast are retained on
board in a slop-tank after the bulk of clean water has been discharged overboard. After a
settling period in the slop tank, any remaining clean water can be discharged overboard
leaving the final oil residue on which the next cargo of oil is loaded on top.
Most crude oil tankers must crude oil wash their cargo tanks to minimize oily wastes.
Tanks which have held crude oil usually contain sediments and deposits. These residues
mainly consist of waxy and asphaltic substances which have settled out from the cargo"
Crude oil has the certain property whereby it can be used to dissolve its own residues,
dispense and suspend the sediments in the cargo. As result of this Thixorophic property,
crude oil used for tank washing drains effectively leaving only a surprisingly thin film upon
the tank surface.
Cleaning with water gives reasonably good result only when water jets with sufficient
impact force are directly hitting the surfaces within a tank. Accordingly the cleaning affect
is almost non-existent as far as reflected jets and drainage are concerned. When using
crude oil a surprisingly good , cleaning result is obtained even from drainage and reflected
jets of crude oil; the so called 'splash-back-effect'. The superiority of crude oil to water is the
considerable reduction in pollution potential since less oil remains on board after discharge
and less oil-contaminated water is handled during ballast passage.
Terminals should have safety and pollution regulations which must be complied by both
tanker and terminal personnel. All tankers at the terminal should be aware of such
regulations, together with any other regulations relating to the safety of shipping which may
be issued by the appropriate port authority. A sufficient number of personnel to deal with
an emergency should be present on board the ship and in the shore installation at all times

during the ship's stay at the terminal. The ship movements alongside must be restricted by
adjusting the moorings. Before cargo handling commences, all deck scuppers must be
effectively plugged to prevent spilled oil escaping into the water surrounding the tanker or
terminal. Accumulations of water should be drained periodically and scupper plugs
replaced immediately after the water has been run off. Oily water should be transferred to a
slop tank or other suitable receptacle.
A permanently fitted spill tank, provided with suitable means of draining, should be fitted
under all ship and shore manifold connections. Should no means be provided, drip trays
should be placed under each connection to retain any leakage. All valves and blanks must
be checked prior to cargo operations. When not in use, sea and overboard discharge valves
connected to the cargo and ballast systems must be securely closed and lashed and may be
sealed. In-line blanks should be inserted where provided. When lashing is not practical, as
with hydraulic valves, some suitable means of marking should be used to indicate clearly
that the valves are to remain closed. Both ship and shore personnel should maintain a
close watch for the escape of oil at the commencement of and during loading or discharging
operations. In particular, care should be taken to ensure that pipeline valves, including
drop valves are closed if not in use at the start of and at regular intervals throughout
loading, discharging ballasting and tank washing watch should be kept to ensure that oil is
not escaping through sea valves.
Strict control must be exercised whilst loading to prevent tanks overflowing. Cargo or
bunker tanks which have been topped up should, be checked frequently during the
remaining loading operations to avoid an overflow.
If leakage occurs from a pipeline, valve, hose or metal arm, operations through that
connection should be stopped until the cause has been ascertained and the defect
remedied. If a pipeline, hose or arm bursts, or if there is an overflow, all cargo and bunker
operations should be stopped immediately and warnings should be given to all involved. It
should not be restarted until the fault has been rectified and all hazards from the released
oil eliminated. If there is any possibility of the released oil is of petroleum gas entering an
engine room or accommodation space intake, appropriate preventive steps must be taken
quickly.

CHAPTER 6
SAFETY
6.1 PRECAUTIONS FOR PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL AND SHIP
Protective clothing
Protective clothing should be worn as necessary to protect personnel during cargo

operations from the hazards associated with the cargo. The suits, gloves, boots, goggles and
face shields etc should be suitable for the cargo to be carried. In particular, hand protection
(e.g. gloves) should be worn when handling cold equipment, valves or slip tubes, face
protection should be worn when there is the danger of liquid emission Respiratory
protection should be provided for cargo operations involving toxic or asphyxiating gases,
Gloves
➢ The correct type of gloves should be chosen according

to the hazard being faced and the kind of work being
undertaken. For .e.g. leather gloves are generally best
when handling rough or sharp objects.
➢ Heat resistant gloves when handling hot objects.
➢ Rubber, synthetic or PVC gloves when handling
acids, alkalis, various types of oils, solvents and
chemicals in general.
➢ The exact type selected will depend upon the
particular substance being handled.
➢ Safety shoes
➢ Foot injuries most often result from wearing of
unsuitable footwear rather than from failure to wear
safety shoes or boots. It is nevertheless strongly
advisable that all personnel whilst at work on board
ship, wear appropriate safety footwear.
➢ The hazard commonly encountered cause injury as
result of impact, penetration through the sole,
slipping, heat, and crushing. Safety footwear is
available which is designed to protect against these
or other specific hazards.
Safety shoes for use on deck should have a steel toe cap,
non-slip sole and acid and chemical resistant.
Respiratory protective equipment:
Respiratory protective equipment of the appropriate type is essential for protection when
work has to be done in conditions of irritating, dangerous or poisonous dust, fumes or
gases. The equipment may either be a respirator, which filters the air before it is breathed
or breathing apparatus which supplies air or oxygen from an uncontaminated source. The
selection of the correct respiratory protective equipment for any given situation requires
consideration of the nature of hazard, the severity of the hazard, work requirements and
conditions. Sometimes just a dust mask is sufficient protection against dust in the air.
6.2 FIRE FIGHTING
Fire requires a combination of fuel, oxygen and a source of ignition Most combustible or
flammable substance, some only when heated, give off gas which burns if ignited .vhen
mixed with an appropriate quantity of oxygen, such as air

Fire can be controlled and extinguished by the removal of heat, fuel or air The main aim
when fighting fires must therefore to reduce the temperature or to remove the fuel or to
exclude the supply of air with the greatest possible speed
Fire Extinguishing Media
The extinguishing media normally used to fight and control fires are:
➢ Water in the form of (a) a jet. (b) a spray and (c) a fog
➢ Foam formed by
➢ (a) chemical reaction (chemical foam)and
(b) foam-forming material into a stream of water (air foam).
➢ Halon (inhibiting effect on combustion)
➢ Carbon Dioxide Gas.
➢ Steam
➢ Dry Chemical powder
➢ Sand
It is of vital importance to apply the correct extinguishing media to particular types of fire.
For an oil fire, the correct media to apply are:
➢ Foam
➢ Carbon Dioxide
➢ Halon
➢ Water Fog.
➢ Steam
➢ Dry Chemical powder (for small fires)
➢ Sand (for small fires)
For a fire involving electrical apparatus which has not been isolated from the electrical
supply (danger of electric shock), the correct media are
➢ Inert gas
➢ C02
➢ Dry Chemical powder
➢ Halon
If the electrical apparatus is isolated from the electrical supply, then any suitable medium
could he used.
Water although an excellent medium for fighting fires involving solid materials, it should
not be used on deep seated burning oil because of the danger of spreading the fire by
splashing on the oil and the violent boiling of water. Water in the form of a wide angle spray
(fog) can be used to shield personnel from radiant heat. Owing to the danger of electrical
shock, water and foam should not be directed towards any electrical equipment unless the
power supply has been switched off.
6.3 SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND ITS USE
6.3.1 Safety equipment and its use
All protection and safety equipment should be inspected regularly and kept ready for
immediate use in a clearly marked and accessible place.

Practical demonstrations, training and drills should be conducted regularly so that

personnel can become experienced in the use of all protection and safety equipment carried
on board and know the location of all equipment.
6.3.2 Oxygen Indicator
Human beings quickly perish without oxygen it is always a good idea to check the air inside
the compartment with an oxygen indicator a reduction under 18% indicates insufficient
oxygen, and the compartment must be ventilated thoroughly until a safe reading is
achieved.
Oxygen analyzers are normally used to determine whether an atmosphere for example
inside a cargo tank, may be considered fully inerted or safe for entry. Fixed analyzers are
used for monitoring the oxygen content in the boiler uptake and the inert gas main.
Portable analysers are used for measuring the oxygen content in the enclosed space. Before
use the analyzer is calibrated using nitrogen to purge the sample cell of zero check and air
at 20% oxygen for span.
Persons entering enclosed space use personal oxygen monitors to continuously measure the
oxygen content of the atmosphere. They provide audible and visual alarm when atmosphere
becomes deficient in oxygen so as to give the wearer adequate warning of unsafe conditions.
6.3.3 Combustible gas indicator
Before entering a tank, always check the vapour content with a combustible gas indicator.
The indicator draws a sample of the tank atmosphere by means of a 'sniffer' attached to a
long tube
This sample should be taken close to the bottom of the tank, where petroleum vapours
(which are heavier than air) are most likely to accumulate. Concentrations of vapour should
also be suspected near bellmouths, corners, beam faces, and puddles of oil or sludge
Combustible gas indicators are designed to detect explosive concentrations of vapour in %
LEL. However, petroleum vapours are poisonous in concentrations well below the lower
explosive limit (the LFL about: 1-2 percent for most products). Therefore, the slightest
movement of the needle indicates an unsafe condition. Important notes on the combustible
gas indicator are as follows:
• They detect vapour at the point of the sample only. Pockets of vapour may be
present in the other parts of the tank.
• They do not work properly in oxygen-deficient atmospheres. They may indicate a
safe condition, when infact, a high concentration of vapour is present along with a
deficiency of oxygen. When in doubt, use an oxygen indicator.
• Tankscope measures the % of hydrocarbon. A reading of 1% by tankscope will give
100% by Combustible gas indicator. Tankscope is used while purging the tank.
6.3.4 Chemical Absorption Indicator
The chemical absorption indicator is designed to measure concentrations of gases and

vapours. The chemical absorption indicators give accurate indications of vapour
concentration whatever may be the oxygen content of the mixture.
The Gas Detector Pump consists of the detector tube and bellows pump. The Gas Detector
Pump is a one-handed, manually operated bellows pump.
A sample is drawn through a solid chemical agent in the glass tube. The detecting chemical
becomes discoloured if vapour is present, the length of discolouration, which can be read off

the tube or off the graduated scale placed alongside the tube, gives a measure of vapour
concentration. Remote sampling can be done by connecting the pump, connecting tube,
remote sampling line and detector tube together, in that order.
6.3.5 Detector tubes
In the case of the detector tubes, distinction is made between short-term tubes (measuring
period a few minutes) and long-term tubes (measuring period several hours). Also there are
various types of tube construction. The tube and pump together form a unit, i.e., pumps
from one manufacturer cannot be used with tubes obtained from another manufacturer.
The detector tubes are specific for one (or sometimes more than one) particular chemical
vapour. Such vapour, or vapours, need not have flammable or combustible properties. The
tubes are intentionally designed to measure accurately low vapour concentrations and
should always be used when the chemical vapour presents a serious vapour inhalation
hazard.
It is important that the correct volume of sample, according to the manufacturers

instruction, is passed through the detector tube, otherwise the measurement will not
indicate accurately the concentration within the space being examined. Too Iow sample
volume will give a low value. With some instruments the length of hose is a critical factor in
obtaining a correct reading.
6.3.6 Warning
Use of a bellows pump that leaks may result in the under-estimation of a hazard and could
result in property damage, injury or death
Manual Bellow Pump With Stroke Counter Delivering 100 cm Per Stroke
6.3.7 SELF-CONTAINED COMPRESSED AIR BREATHING APPARATUS
Tanks or compartments which are not gas-free, which contain smoke or which are deficient
in oxygen should not be entered unless breathing apparatus is worn When breathing
apparatus is used, a lifeline should always be worn. Signals should be arranged with an
attendant who should always be standing by outside. Due to the nature of the equipment
the freedom of movement of the wearer may be restricted; passage through relatively small
openings may be difficult. A self-contained breathing apparatus is designed on the open
circuit system; the exhaled air is discharged to the atmosphere. The apparatus has a single
cylinder and the standard one contains about 1200 liters of air at a pressure of about 132
atmospheres Larger capacity cylinders containing 1800 liters of air at 200 atmospheres and
2250 liters of air at 200 atmospheres
PRECAUTIONS
1. The pressure gauge should be checked before entering the contaminated area and also at
frequent intervals while within the contaminated area.
When attempting a rescue the wearer should never take off the face mask to give air to the
person being rescued as the rescuer will only create a hazard for himself, and oossibly for
others.
2. It should always be remembered that air supply time is dependent upon the amount
of exertion involved and the wearer should leave the contaminated area in plenty of time.
3. The self-contained breathing apparatus should be stowed fully assembled where it is
readily accessible.

6.4 EMERGENCY MEASURES
All tankers and terminals should have procedures ready for immediate implementation in
the event of an emergency. The procedures must anticipate and cover all types of
emergencies which might be encountered in the particular activities of the tanker or
terminal. Although the main aim of the procedures will be to respond to a fire, all other
possible emergencies such as hose or pipeline bursts, cargo overflow, pump room flooding,
men overcome by gas within tanks, breakouts of vessels, weather or blackouts, must be
covered. Similarly, while the deployment of fire-fighting equipment will be prominent in any
emergency procedures, equipment such as breathing apparatus, resuscitation apparatus
and stretchers must also be covered, together with details of means of escape or exit.
The procedures should be familiar to the personnel involved, who should be adequately
trained and clearly understand the action they would be required to take when responding
to the emergency. This can best be achieved by regularly exercising the plan. Exercises will
also serve to highlight the need for any revisions to be made to the plan associated
emergency procedures and further training requirements. Care should be taken when
formulating an emergency plan to ensure that procedures to alert people or to arrange
equipment do not depend too heavily on one man doing a number of tasks simultaneously.
6.4.1 Emergency Plan
Planning and preparation are essential for dealing successfully with emergencies on board
tankers. The master and other officers should consider what they would do in the event of
various types of emergencies, such as fire in cargo tanks, fire in the engine room, fire in the
accommodation, the collapse of a person in a tank, the ship breaking adrift from her berth,
the emergency release of a tanker from her berth etc.
A plan for dealing with any emergency must be prepared and all crew members briefed on
its operation they will not be able to foresee in detail what might occur in all such
emergencies but good advance planning will result in quicker and better
6.4.2 SOPEP
Emergency Plan SOPEP

EQUIPMENTS
Planning and preparation are essential for dealing
successfully with emergencies on board tankers.
The master and other officers should consider what
they would do in the event of various types of
emergency, such as fire in cargo tanks, fire in the
engine room, fire in the accommodation, the
collapse of a person in a tank, the ship breaking
adrift from her berth, the emergency release of a
tanker from her berth etc.
A plan for dealing with any emergency must be ABSORBENT BADS

prepared and all crew members briefed on its

operation they will not be able to foresee in detail

what might occur in all such emergencies but good
advance planning will result in quicker and better
decisions and a well organized reaction to the
situation.
The following information should be readily

available
➢ Type of cargo, amount and its disposition BROOMS

➢ Location of other hazardous substances.
➢ General arrangement plan of the ship.
➢ Stability information.
➢ Location of fire-fighting equipment and
instructions for its use.
All crew members should know the location of all

safety equipment, such as:
➢ Breathing apparatus.
➢ Protective clothing.
➢ Approved portable electric lights
➢ Instruments for measuring oxygen and other DETERGENT FOR CLEANING
gases. DECK
➢ First aid kits.
➢ Tank evacuation equipment.
➢ Fire-fighting equipment with instructions for
its use.
The towing hawsers should be prepared, hung over

side over the bow and stern ready for use.
Preliminary Action
The person who discovers the emergency must raise

the alarm and pass on information about the DISPERSANT
situation to the officer on duty who, in turn, must
alert the emergency organization. While this is being
done, those on the scene should attempt immediate
measures to control the emergency until the
emergency organization takes effect. Each group in
the emergency organization should have a
designated assembly point, as should those persons
not directly involved as members of any group.
Personnel not directly involved should stand by to
act as required. Fire-Fighting Equipment Plans
Fire-fighting equipment plans must be permanently JET SPRAY DISPERSANT

displayed in prominent positions showing clearly,

for each deck, the location's and particulars of all
fire-fighting equipment, dampers, controls, etc.
These plans should also be displayed, or be readily
available, at the access points to the ship when it is
in port.
Inspection and Maintenance of Equipment

NON SPARK OAR
Fire-fighting equipment should always be ready for
immediate use and should be checked frequently.
The dates and details of such checks should be
recorded and indicated on the appliance as
appropriate.
The inspection of all fire-fighting and other

emergency equipment should be carried out by a
responsible officer, and any necessary maintenance
work completed without delay.
OIL SORBENT ROLL
These emergency equipment must be maintained
in good order and always be ready for use such as
➢ Fire-fighting equipment,
➢ Breathing apparatus,
➢ Protective clothing,
➢ Alarm systems,
➢ Communication systems,
➢ Arrangement plans.
OIL SORBENT SOCKS
As soon as possible after an incident there should
be a thorough check of all the equipment used. All
breathing apparatus used should be checked and
the bottles recharged. Foam systems should be
flushed through etc.
Training and Drills

SORBENT BOOMS
Realistic drills should be undertaken periodically to
ensure that personnel retain their familiarity with
the equipment and preparedness in facing any
emergency.
Ship/shore liaison
Ship/shore checklist
The Ship - Shore Safety Check List is for the safety
of both ship and terminal and of all personnel and
should be completed jointly by the responsible OIL SPILL KIT BOX
officer and the terminal representative. Each item

should be verified before it is ticked. This will entail

a physical check by the two persons concerned and
will be conducted jointly where appropriate. It is of
no value if it is merely regarded as a paper exercise.
It is emphasised that some of the items of the check
list will require several physical checks and even
continuous supervision during the operation. PLASTIC BAG
The safety operations require all questions to be

answered affirmatively. If an affirmative answer is
not possible, the reason should be given and
agreement reached upon appropriate precautions to
be taken between the ship and the terminal. Where
any question is not considered to be applicable, a
note to that effect should be inserted in the remarks PROTECTIVE GOOGLES
column.
OIL SPILL BAG

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OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION

SR.NO CONTENT PAG.NO

1 THE OIL TANKER

2 PETROLEUM PROPERTIES, TOXICITY AND HAZARDS

3 OIL CARGO CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING

4 OIL TANKER OPERATION

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

A REVIEW OF SAFETY IN OIL TANKERS:

➢ Danger can always be present in a tanker.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT STAGES

1.2.1 STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TANKERS

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

1.2.2 EARLY DESIGN OF BULK OIL CARRIER

1.3 OIL TANKER TYPES

1.3.1 TYPICAL OIL TANKER 1940 -1960

1.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SHIPS INTO SUPER TANKERS (all accommodation and

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

1.3.3 DEADWEIGHT RANGE - METRIC TONNES DESCRIPTION

DEAD WEIGHT IN METRIC TONNES DESCRIPTION

1) Coastal, Small, Harbour / Lake Tankers

2) General Purpose Vessels

3) Medium Range Vessels

4) LR1 (Large Range 1)

50,000 - 79,999 DWT

5) LR2 (Large Range 2)

6) VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier)

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

7) ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier)

1.3.4 TYPES OF CARGO

System of classification of petroleum

Any flammable liquid having a Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) of 14

Any combustible liquid having a flash point of 150° F or more, e.g.,

Non-Volatile Flash point of 60° C (140°F) or above as determined by the closed

Volatile Flash point below of 60° C (140°F) as determined by the closed

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

1.4 TANKER TERMINOLOGY

It is possible to have a mixture containing so little or so much petroleum vapour that it

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

Smoking in bed is foolish anywhere. It is dangerous in any ship. It can be disastrous in a

If a cigarette lighter falls it may operate.

Ordinary hand torches (flashlights) spark.

SMOKE ONLY WHERE SMOKING IS ALLOWED

NEVER SMOKE IN BED

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

Acute toxic effect

The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.

Certified Gas Free

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY

Chronic toxic effect

The cumulative effect on man of prolonged exposures to low concentrations or of

Work which can not create source of ignition.

Self -Stowing Mooring Winch

Sour Crude Oil

A crude oil containing appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide or mercaptans.

The ignition of material brought about by a heat-producing (exothermic) chemical reaction

Static Accumulator Oil

An oil with an electrical conductivity less than 100 picoSiemens/metre(pS/m), so that it is

SEASKILLS MARITIME ACADEMY