Republic of the Philippines

City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
College of Education Arts and Sciences
Olongapo City Sports Complex, East Tapinac, Olongapo City
Tel. No. (047) 224-2089 loc. 314

Structure of English
EDU ENG 02
Written Report
Issues in Language Learning
Prepared and Submitted by:

Alejandro, Atasha Kei L.

Bohol, Sherie O.
Delos Reyes, Bea O.
Gipal, Sheila Mae L.
Gonzales, Angelo G.
Mareposque, Paula Victoria C.
Mizuhira, Marcio Sadaichi M.
Paclarin, Ma. Angela C.
Pena, Patricia Anne G.
Robea, Ashley C.
Sultan, Sittin M.
Tolentino, Cleo Merlinda G.

Submitted to:

Mr. Guiller T. Marila

Instructor I
 Issues in Language Learning

"I have so many questions... I'm reluctant to start until it's addressed."
These questions pertain to issues that exist within language learning, and this
statement is common among people who have an interest in language learning,
which is good because they might want to know what they're getting themselves
into before actually starting. But sometimes, this inkling curiosity smothers the
desire to actually begin learning a language. Language anxiety or intimidation is
normal until it interferes with a person's commitment to language learning.

The common issues in language learning that will be addressed in this

module include the optimal age to begin learning a language, the length of time
required to achieve fluency, skill development challenges, a lack of non-English
assessment scales, and more. These issues must be addressed in order to reduce
the difficulty and anxiety experienced by language learners. Talking about these
issues allows language educators and experts to shed light on the issue.

1) Language Learners gives more emphasis on meaning rather than form

A study conducted by Krashen (1981) proposed that there are two

processes related towards language learning that happens on natural setting,
namely; formal classroom instruction and acquisition.

1) Formal Classroom Instruction (Language Learning)

• more likely to take place with respect to reading and writing

• corresponds to symbol process learning
• a conscious process
• focuses on theory (language analysis)
• Activities about the language

2) Language Acquisition

• more likely to occur with reference to listening and speaking

• competence is developed through it, is responsible for generating
language and thus accounts for language fluency
• corresponds to situated actions
• a subconscious process
• focuses on practice (language in use)
• activities in the language
Problem or Issue:

On a study conducted by Keeves (2007), the distinction between the two

(formal classroom instruction and acquisition) may look like it is useful but is in
fact stating that symbol processing dominates formal classroom instruction
while on the other hand situated action is closely related to acquisition. This
causes the learners to lack the ability to make use of their formal knowledge of
rules in situations where the emphasis is on meaning rather than form.

Besides the point, the two processes also seem alike on some cases, to
which is said that if we use the idea of neural networks- these two theories may
be combines to create a meaningful variation.

2) The pertinence of Carroll’s Model of school learning to both formal

classroom instruction and informal language acquisition

• Developed this model in order to investigate prediction of success in

complex learning tasks.
• According to Carroll (1963) there are variables namely: aptitude,
perseverance, and opportunity to learn
• Other variables: ability to understand instruction and quality of
instruction
• The variables stated seemed to be involved in both informal acquisition
of language through (L2) learning as well as Formal (LN) and (LF)
learning situation and informal learning of (L1)
• It can be applied and deliver efficacy in second language learning in
different learning condition and non- school learning situation using
the four of Carroll’s factor

Problem/Issue:

The issue is the applicability of Carroll’s Model in formal classroom

instruction and informal acquisition in a natural setting, which Carroll pinpoints
that the application of the model in different classroom situations and language
acquisition would be effective in taking warrant consideration of the factors in
Carroll’s model namely: aptitude, perseverance, opportunity to learn, ability to
understand instruction, and quality of instruction. Four of Carroll’s factors must
be observed in non-school learning situation while all Five factor warrants
consideration First language (L1), Formal National Language (LN) and Foreign
Language (LF) learning.
 Carroll’s model seeks for emphasizing equality of opportunity means not
only providing appropriate opportunities to learn, but also pushing all student’s
potentialities as far as possible towards their upper limits. Furthermore,
language learning can be acquired through the actual time needed to for learning
and the time actually spent in learning which has the efficacy in language
acquisition and classroom instruction.

3) 6 years is inadequate to achieve competence in foreign and second

language learning

What is the time required to achieve competence in foreign language learning?

There are myriads of factors to diverse language learners to achieve

competence in a language: the foreign language itself, expectations (Desired
Proficiency), background, motivation, attitude, mindset, time spent on individual
study, type of course (individual or group? Large or small group? Face-to-face or
remote?) among others. Moreover, all language is ranked based on its difficulty
category and is dependent on a learner's mother tongue whether it would be easy
or difficult to learn.

Foreign Service Institute (FSI) ranks languages into six categories of difficulty.
* Usually more difficult than other languages in the same category.
Source: https://effectivelanguagelearning.com/language-guide/language-
difficulty/
 If English is your native language, above are the level of difficulties in
learning a foreign language or a second language. Filipinos who can also speak
the English language, as a second language, is subjected to this chart. These are
only in learning the languages itself, below are the measurement of a learner’s
proficiency in a language. After all, the need to communicate brings the studying
of other languages; moreover, these guidelines for proficiencies dictate the level
of learner’s capabilities to utilized the studied language in all five macro skills as
well as the approximate time for each level.

Use any of these three scales to help you decide where your desired proficiency
falls:

• The ILR (Interagency Language Roundtable) scale consists of five levels

from elementary proficiency at level 1, all the way up to native or
bilingual proficiency at level 5.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/nteragency-language-
roundtable-ilr-scale-Oral-Proficiency-Interview-OPI-descriptor_tbl1_295539760

• The CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference) for Languages

consists of three levels: A (basic user), B (independent user), and C
(proficient user).

Source: https://support.cambridgeenglish.org/hc/en-gb/articles/202838506-
Guided-learning-hours#

• The ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages)

guidelines are broken up into 5 main levels: novice, intermediate,
advanced, superior, and distinguished.

* Note that these are the formal hours spent in class with a trainer
Source: https://www.languagetesting.com/how-long-does-it-take

Keep in mind that knowing what proficiency a learner wants to attain

reduce or add the time he/she needs to spend on that language. If a learner only
wants to attain conversational level of Spanish, then it will not take thousands
of hours to learn. If a learner is a polyglot whose goal is to nail the basics of a
language, then he/she doesn't need thousands of hours to attain that level of
fluency. If a learner wants to learn Spanish for travel, then travel vocabularies
and grammar is sufficient to make a decent small talk when asking for direction.
Moreover, learner’s ability to understand the language he/she learning due to
high relation to his/her mother tongue; in linguistics, it's called mutual
intelligibility. In this case, due to the learner’s native language closely related to
the other language he/she is learning, there's no way they need to study that
language for thousands of hours to gain fluency.

The question is, "What is the time required to achieve competence in

foreign language learning?" The word competence here is broad but if it means
competence in demonstrating the learned language through the five macro skills,
the time it requires for learners varies due to the myriads of factors. In addition,
this is not only about the foreign language itself but applies on the second
language learning. The language issue here is why the learners struggle but excel
in other macro skills despite learning the language for more than 6 years, in the
case of second language, when it is even used as the medium of instruction.
 For example, in the Philippines, a student might excel in 4 of the macro
skills except speaking. Is this because the time spent is not enough from
elementary to college? or is this because the time trying to practice and involve
oneself to the language is little? In the case of learning a foreign language, among
the 5 micro skills speaking would be in a slow progress unless the learner is
expose and speak that language on a daily basis. Both takes time regardless of
the language complexity to a learner’s mother tongue regardless if a learner’s
goal is a novice or basic level of the language. Studying foreign language, aside
from the second language, main purpose is to orally communicate that one might
prioritize speaking over the other macro skills. It becomes a language issue due
to the learner his/herself, curriculum time, literacy, second language that can
take longer to achieve competence based on the dedicated quality time

4) Age plays a huge role on language learning

What is the most effective age to begin learning a foreign language (LF)?

Dilaimy (2018) said there's no specific agreement about the most

convenient age to learn a foreign language. Some recommend the early years of
primary school, while others prefer the fourth or fifth grade. One cannot say the
best age to learn a language because it depends on various factors such as
cognitive ability, environment, physical capability, etc.

But few studies could suggest the best age to learn a foreign language.

• Burstall et al. (1986) stated that students in England begin learning a

foreign language as early as 8-years old.
• Nambiar (2019) said that some experts believe children should begin
learning a foreign language in primary rather than secondary school.
Also, learning an additional language at a young age enhances their IQ.
• Stein Smith (2019) indicated that brain scientist says that to speak a
language as a native speaker, children must begin to study by the age
of 10. A 2018 study found out that this ability to more easily learn a
language lasts until about age 17 or 18- which is longer than previously
thought- but begins to decline.

There was little support for introducing foreign languages during the early
and middle primary school years. It would appear from the limited evidence
available that a level of competence in learning a native language (and mother
tongue) is necessary before learning a foreign language.
 How to develop a curriculum for learning a foreign language is one of the
issues addressed in curriculum planning. It aims to ensure that students will
have the opportunity to attain a required level of competence expected that
involves at least six years, under optimal conditions.

Advantage of learning a foreign language at an early age according to

Pragya (2021):

- The learning power is at its best in the early years

A Stanford research concluded that second-language proficiency declines with

increasing age of initial exposure. It’s because the brain is very malleable in the
younger years.

- It improves their command over the first language

Learning a foreign language is known to better the command over the first
language. For example, if your child’s first language is English, their verbal skills
in it will improve if they learn a foreign language early on.

- It increases cognitive abilities

Learning a foreign language is known to sharpen the mind and boost memory.

- A foreign language is a great addition to their skillset

Kids who are proficient in a foreign language usually have better chances and
opportunities at college admissions and jobs. It is a skill set valued hugely by
the corporates today, for the world is a melting pot!

- It expands their range of experiences in life

Knowing a foreign language is great for expanding the range of experiences in

life. Your kids will be able to consume entertainment content in that language.
They will also be able to absorb culture and folklore better when they travel to
the countries where that language would be spoken natively.

5) Low rate of enrolments in foreign language courses

Back when you were preparing to go to high school, your counselor

probably mentioned taking a world language class in high school as a good way
to earn an elective credit. There are countries that is known as a melting pot,
where people from all different countries, ethnicities and backgrounds can come
together to create a large, successful and peaceful union. With the numerous
different backgrounds come numerous different languages. English is obviously
the most common language, but many people come speaking languages such as
Spanish or French. There are schools that offer courses for both of these
languages, allowing students to study the language for all four years of high
school.

In the future, the ability to understand and speak languages other than
English will become increasingly important to every citizen. In a research titled
"Issues in Language Learning" (Keeves, 2007), it stated that the enrolment in
foreign language courses at Years 11 and 12 are so low in schools, partly as a
consequence of the schools attempting to teach a range of language subjects, the
teaching of such subjects is neither efficient nor effective.

➢ The provision of only five years of secondary schooling in some schools is

inadequate for the teaching of foreign languages only at the secondary
school level for students to achieve the generally expected levels of
competence.

➢ Nevertheless, to impose the teaching of foreign languages in the primary

schools as preparation for secondary school study is neither desirable nor
possible except in all-age schools. What appears to be required is the
establishment of basic foreign language courses over four years, namely
Grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 in secondary schools in order to provide for effective
teaching in secondary schools.

➢ However, there is a further major problem in the teaching of foreign

languages in other schools that involves steep declines in the participation
rates across the years of secondary schooling until very small numbers
choose to study these foreign language subjects beyond Year 10, with
relatively small numbers of students at the Year 10 level.

➢ It seems to be essential to provide language maintenance courses that

focus on speaking and reading in a foreign language (LF) for three periods
a week throughout Years 11 and 12, or five periods a week for a semester
to sustain and develop a greater facility in the reading, listening, and
speaking of foreign languages.

➢ Consequently, assessment at the Year 12 level needs to be based on

reading and translation exercises as well as an oral examination to assess
 the level of facility that the students have developed in the spoken
language. It is possible that the high standing of students in the PISA 2000
study is related to the fact that few students study a language other than
English, and the time given to learning foreign languages in other
countries reverts to the teaching of English.

In order to achieve an adequate level of competence in all four skills of

listening, speaking, reading and writing, it appears to be desirable for
students to study the learning of a foreign language (LF) as a major subject
throughout Years 11 and 12 for at least five periods a week. However, there are
few students enrolled in schools – just 20 percent – study a foreign language
at the K-12 level. At the college level, the number drops even lower, with
only 7.5 percent of students enrolled in a foreign language course. And that
percentage has been steadily declining in recent years. It could be due to the fact
that more colleges have dropped foreign language requirements. Or students
simply may not see the potential career benefits of studying a foreign language.
The need to support the development of reading and speaking skills in foreign
languages (LF) probably outweighs the gains achieved in literacy in English.
Another issue is there aren’t enough qualified teachers available to teach
foreign languages and immersion programs. “One of the biggest obstacles to
improved language learning is a national shortage of qualified teachers,”

6) Difficulty in developing writing skills together with listening skills in

learning foreign language

The significance of foreign language learning may be summarized into few

key points, listed as the following;

(1) the use of foreign language for the fundamental part of teaching in the
classroom, and
(2) reducing but not abolishing the use of the national language.

The use of electronic aids such as computers, laptops, DVDs helps the
students in acquiring a learning development with regards to listening and
speaking, but somewhat lessen the development with regards to writing and
reading skills. In addition, the time that students spend to understand their
homework instructions depends on the development of their reading skills that
is indirectly influences the listening skills of the students unlike in the
classroom-based activities wherein listening is very much important.
 For instances, a teacher told their students an instruction, they (the
students) need to understand and listen carefully to be able to recognize and
understand the instructions. Moreover, an eagerness to learn the foreign
language contributes more to achieving listening than to reading achievement.
Urging someone to learn about reading a foreign language contributes more to
their reading performance than listening performance.

According to Carroll (2017) It came out that there is an evidence which

suggests that computers can be employed both for improving writing skills using
a less formal communication with other students using interpersonal, written or
informal chatting in a synchronous computer learning environment.

7) Literacy programs commonly differs depending on the theoretical

foundations/perspectives of the people involved

There is a developing body of data proposing about the existence of a

substantial primary factor linked with reading comprehension.

It is evident in all reading exams, ranging from Grade 3 testing procedures

through adult literacy programs and the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA) literacy testing programs in over 60 nations.

Three components according to IEA reading literacy study (Elley, 1994) that
were discovered as nested beneath a single higher order factor of reading ability.

a) Narrative
b) Expository
c) Documentary

Additionally, the specific skills of (a) following the ordering of ideas in a

paragraph, (b) finding answers that are explicitly stated in the text, (c)
recognizing implied meaning, and (d) recognizing a writer's purpose were
reported to be nested under a general reading ability factor in the IEA Reading
Comprehension Study (Thorndike, 1973).

The advantages of the components listed above:

- It allows for the tracking of reading performance across age and grade
levels, across nations with various languages, and over time, when
different curricula and ways of teaching reading may be used within a
country under different theoretical viewpoints.
8) There are no language specific scales for countries that doesn’t use
the Roman Alphabet.

Can scales of performance associated with the learning of foreign languages (LF)
be developed in order to assess student learning across grades of schooling?

• Yes, the scales of performance associated with learning of foreign language

(LF) can be developed in order to measure reading achievement within
counties where languages other than English are spoken.

Studies conducted in the learning of foreign languages:

•
Chinese as a foreign language in one large school operating on three
campuses from Grade 4 through to Grade 12 (Yuan, 2002)
• Japanese as a foreign language in a large school from Grade 8 to Grade 11
and at the university level in Years 1 and 2 (Taguchi, 2005).
Result of the studies:

The growth across grades in learning the foreign language was successfully
measured in a meaningful way, to detect mean change in performance across
school terms. However, while both studies were restricted to reading and the use
of written language, these studies indicated the potential of using scales for the
assessment of learning a foreign language (LF) that did not use the Roman
alphabet in classes where English was spoken as the national language (LN).

Example of Scale of Performance in English Speaking Countries

The IMPACT Language Rating Scale asks parents, teachers, and clinicians
to rate the various components of language functioning on a 4-point scale
(“never,” “sometimes,” “often,” and “typically”) and yields a percentile and
standard score. By utilizing this rating scale, we they are able to develop a better
understanding of how a student’s communication difficulties/differences may
impact language development, as well as academic performance, and peer
relationships.

Problem/ Issue:

There are no language specific scales for countries that doesn’t use the
Roman Alphabet. The development for scales of performance associated with
learning of foreign language (LF) is significant to counties where languages other
than English are spoken in order to measure reading achievement of their foreign
language learners.
9) Measurement and the equating of scales could be used to assess
performance in the learning of foreign languages over time and across
grades of schooling in reading and language usage.

Carroll (1975) investigated the factors associated with the learning of

French as a foreign language in eight countries, four of which were English-
speaking countries and four were not English-speaking countries. Two types of
writing tests were employed:

1. One that could be reliably scored being of an objective or quasi-

objective nature.
2. Another involving direct composition.

The said research was led by Carrol’s Model of School Learning. The study
assessed the performance of both 14-year-old students and students at the
terminal secondary school level.

A study of English as a foreign language (Lewis and Massad, 1975) was also
carried out in ten countries at the 14-year-old and terminal secondary school
levels that mirrored the study by Carroll. The study of English as a foreign
language, however, made less use of analytical and statistical procedures and
focused on:

● an examination of the place of English in the education systems involved.

● an examination of the relationships between variables describing.
● an analysis or errors made by students in responding to the tests in order
to obtain a greater understanding of how students learned English as a
foreign language.

The Problem:

Stated in Keeves and Darmawan (2007) Issues in Language Learning: Even if

the two aforementioned studies seem to have a possibility of the development of
tests in the four domains of listening, speaking, reading and writing in the
learning of foreign languages, the tests were conducted before Rasch Scaling —
a complex analytical database for reading assessments, etc — was publicly
available. Same work has been done by McNamara (1996) together with the two
studies reported in the previous section by Yuan (2002) and Taguchi (2005).
Three studies indicate that:
 • measurement and the equating of scales could be used to assess
performance in the learning of foreign languages over time;
• and across grades of schooling in reading and language usage

Consequently, it seems likely that Rasch measurement procedures can be

more widely employed to measure performance in listening, speaking and
creative writing and directed composition as well as reading, where the use of
Rasch scaling is well established (McNamara, 2000).

10) Learning a national and foreign language is both confusing and

confounding

(Shayer & Ginsburg,2009).

• The failure to consider Piaget's phases of cognitive development

confuses and confounds the teaching and learning of both national and
foreign languages.
• Recent research shows that the cognitive level of students is, in general,
lower now than a generation ago.

Cognitive Acceleration

The term "cognitive acceleration" refers to a pedagogical approach and a

research tradition in science education that is based on two broad principles: (1)
that children have a general intellectual function that develops with age,
and (2) that the development of this general intellectual function is
influenced by both the environment and maturation (Shayer and Adey 2002).
Through the use of carefully prepared thinking lessons, cognitive acceleration
pedagogy aimed to stimulate and enhance students' general intellectual
functioning beyond what would happen as a result of maturation. The goal of
these classes is to develop students' intellectual capacity, which will improve
their ability to engage in the school curriculum and their academic performance.

While it is desirable to pursue cognitive acceleration of reasoning abilities

at suitable levels in school learning since both reading and listening need
reasoning, it is also necessary to appreciate the value of Vygotsky's concept of a
zone of proximal growth (1978, 1986).
11) Learning in language schools gives heavy demands on the time
available in the school curriculum at all levels

Can policies be developed for the learning of languages in developing countries?

• Yes, policies can be developed for the language learning since in today’s
global world, a large number of people need to reach some level of
proficiency in more than one language to be able to communicate and
interact with others.

In many developing countries of the world it is necessary for young people to

learn at least three languages, namely their mother tongue (L1), that is spoken
in the home, the national language (LN) that is spoken throughout the country
in which the students live, and a foreign language (LF), that is rapidly becoming
English in non-English speaking countries in order to obtain the benefits of
globalization and engagement in trade.

Studies related to the Development of Diverse Language Learning

- PISA 2025/ Foreign Language Assessment
Aims of the Assessment:
1. Strengths and weaknesses in the mastery of foreign languages
2. Achievement gaps and variation within the school system
3. Analysis of trends

The Foreign Language Assessment (FLA) is relying on the feedback, inputs and
advice from a group of recognized experts in the fields of foreign language
assessment and foreign language teaching and learning.

About the study:

The assessment will include key language competencies that are needed
to study and work in a globalized world. The first cycle will start with the
assessment of English, which is the most commonly taught foreign language in
schools around the world, and will focus on three skills; reading, listening &
speaking. So far PISA has focused on reading and writing skills in different
domains. Speaking and listening skills have never been included in PISA, so
assessing them presents an opportunity to expand PISA’s assessment
methodology. These competences are central for the construct being assessed
and the Expert Group has advised that their assessment is viable within the
PISA constraints if adequate room arrangements are implemented.
Source: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/foreign-language/

The assessment of language proficiency and of achievement in academic

content is usually closely related to language education policies. Decisions
around language policy and planning are made around the globe every day, both
formally by governments and informally by scholars and community leaders.
These decisions influence the right to use and maintain languages, affect
language status, and determine which languages are nurtured.

12) Insufficient Language Policies

At the end of the Second World War the determination to lay down strong
foundations for a lasting peace between people. In this spirit, mutual
understanding between countries was to be encouraged, and learning their
respective languages and cultures was thought to be one of the most effective
measures.

We all know that acquiring a second language or a foreign language starts

in a classroom. In the middle of this small community of learners, there is always
a common rule that must be followed. For an instance, in an English class,
students are instructed to follow English-speaking policy. This is not a
punishment to students but to help them practice their skills in listening,
speaking and applying it to situations. And these skills are said to be valuable
especially if they are on the process of acquiring a second language.

Can more effective policies be developed for the effective learning of languages?

• Every self-respecting institution of higher education will need to

formulate and implement its own language policy. This must be done
against a background of increasing and more varied demand, stricter
 financial controls and rapidly advancing technology. Learning a second
language or a foreign language is a skill that a must have in today’s
modern world.

Policies about Language Diversity

In a written report agreed upon the Humanistic, Cultural and

International Education Section of UNESCO and FIPLV (World Federation of
Modem Language Associations). The authors of this report are committed to
promoting the humanist values, as proclaimed in UNESCO’s constitution of
peace, international understanding and educational, cultural and scientific
development.

The diversity of languages provides us an opportunity to widen our

horizons, and to learn more things from other cultures. Linguistic diversity
describes the differences between different languages and the ways that people
communicate with each other, most of all, language is like an identity of a state.
Understanding what linguistic diversity is, how it applies on a worldwide scale,
and how it applies in education can help create a more thorough and lasting
understanding of the study of culture and language in general, because language
carries culture just as it carries knowledge.

According to the European Cultural Convention, the Council of Europe

has been promoting linguistic diversity and language learning in the field of
education since 1954.

Article 2 of the Convention calls on the signatory states to promote reciprocal

teaching and learning of their languages:

Each Contracting Party shall, insofar as may be possible:

a) encourage the study by its own nationals of the languages, history and
civilization of the other Contracting Parties and grant facilities to those
Parties to promote such studies in its territory; and
b) endeavor to promote the study of its language or languages, history and
civilization in the territory of the other Contracting Parties and grant
facilities to the nationals of those Parties to pursue such studies in its
territory.
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