Chapter One

1 Machine Design
1.1 Introduction to Machine Design
Machine design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. It is use
of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the description of a machine or a
mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency. A new or
better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and operation.
Machine design is the creation of plans for a machine to perform the desired functions. The machine
may be entirely new in concept, performing a new type of work, or it may more economically perform
the work that can be done by an existing machine. It may be an improvement or enlargement of an
existing machine for better economy and capability. The machine/product must be functional, safe,
reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable.

The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From the study of existing ideas, a new idea
has to be conceived. Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making
process. Decisions sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally with just the
right amount of information, or with an excess of partially contradictory information. Decisions are
sometimes made tentatively, with the right reserved to adjust as more becomes known. The point is
that the engineering designer has to be personally comfortable with a decision-making, problem
solving role.

Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both words and pictures are used, and written
and oral forms are employed. Engineers have to communicate effectively and work with people of
many disciplines. These are important skills, and an engineer’s success depends on them.

In designing a machine component, a designer’s personal resources of creativeness, communicative

ability, and problem-solving skill are intertwined with the knowledge of technology and first principles.

Engineering tools or good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics,
Materials Science, Engineering Materials, Theory/Mechanics of Machines, Workshop Processes and
Engineering Drawing/CAD among others are combined to produce a plan that, when carried out,
produces a product that is functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and
marketable, regardless of who builds it or who uses it.
1.2 Traditional Design Methods
There are two traditional methods of design: design by craft evolution and design by drawing.

Bullock cart, rowing boat, plow and musical instruments are some of the products, which are produced
by the craft-evolution process. The salient features of this age-old technique are as follows:

▪ The craftsmen do not prepare dimensioned drawings of their products.

▪ These products are developed by trial and error over many centuries hence costly
modification.
▪ The essential information of the product such as materials, dimensions of parts, manufacturing
methods and assembly techniques is transmitted from place to place and time to time. There
is no symbolic medium to record the design information of the product.
The essential features of design by drawing method are as follows:

• The dimensions of the product are specified in advance of its manufacture.

• The complete manufacturing of the product can be subdivided into separate pieces, which can
be made by different people.
• When the product is to be developed by trial and error, the process is carried out on a drawing
board instead of shop floor. The drawings of the product are modified and developed prior
to manufacture.

1.3 Design Analysis and Synthesis

In design analysis, the designer assumes a particular mechanism, a particular material and mode of
failure for the component. With the help of this information, he/she determines the dimensions of
the product. They are tools/techniques that allow the designer to critically examine an already existing,
or proposed, design to judge its suitability for the task. Thus, analysis in itself is not a creative science
but one of evaluation and rating things already conceived.

We should bear in mind that, although most of our effort may be spent on analysis, the real goal is
synthesis: the design of a machine or system. Analysis is simply a tool; however, it is a vital tool and
will inevitably be used as one step in the design process.

Design synthesis is defined as the process of creating or selecting configurations, materials, shapes,
dimensions for a product and arrangements of parts so that the resulting machine will perform the
prescribed task. It is a decision-making process with the main objective of optimization. Here, the
designer selects the optimum configuration from a number of alternative solutions. He decides the
material for the component from a number of alternative materials. He determines the optimum shape
and dimensions of the component on the basis of mathematical analysis.

In design synthesis, there are three main steps followed:

a) The first step is for the designer to fix the objective. The objective can be minimum cost,
minimum weight or volume, maximum reliability or maximum life.
b) The second step is mathematical formulation of these objectives and requirements.
c) The final step is mathematical analysis for optimization and interpretation of the results.

1.4 Classifications of Machine Design

The machine design may be classified as follows:

1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing
designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by
designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or
modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the
 work of a new design. The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as
follows:
a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.
b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on
the practice and past experience.
c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.

1.5 General Considerations in Machine Design

When we use the expression design consideration, we are referring to some characteristic that
influences the design of the element or, perhaps, the entire system. Usually quite a number of such
characteristics must be considered and prioritized in a given design situation. Many of the important
ones are as follows (not necessarily in order of importance):

1 Functionality 14 Noise
2 Strength/stress 15 Styling
3 Distortion/deflection/stiffness 16 Shape
4 Wear 17 Size
5 Corrosion 18 Control
6 Safety 19 Thermal properties
7 Reliability 20 Surface
8 Manufacturability 21 Lubrication
9 Utility 22 Marketability
10 Cost 23 Maintenance
11 Friction 24 Volume
12 Weight 25 Liability
13 Life 26 Remanufacturing/resource recovery

The following are some of the general considerations in designing a machine component:

1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component, may
act in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of any
machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the
motion required. The motion of the parts may be rectilinear motion, curvilinear motion
(rotary, oscillatory and simple harmonic), constant velocity and constant or variable
acceleration.
 3. Selection of materials. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of
the properties of the materials and their behavior under working conditions. Some of the
important characteristics of materials are: strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to
heat and corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity,
etc.
4. Form and size of the parts: In order to design any machine part for form and size, it is
necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain. It is also important to anticipate any
suddenly applied or impact load which may cause failure.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication: The part should be resistance to friction. It is essential
that a careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of all surfaces which move
in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings.
6. Convenient and economical features. Easy access to parts to be changed/replaced and the
necessity of removing other parts to accomplish this should be avoided if possible. The
economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production, or for the processing
of material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the maximum capacity consistent
with the production of good work.
7. Use of standard parts. The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the cost
of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order. The
standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible; parts for which patterns are already
in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings.
8. Safety of operation: Some machines are dangerous to operate especially those running in high
speed. Therefore, any moving part of a machine which is within the zone of a worker is
considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of an injury. It is, therefore, necessary
that a designer should always provide safety devices for the safety of the operator such as
machine guard.
9. Workshop facilities: A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other
workshop.
10. The production quantity: The number of machines to be manufactured affects the design
in a number of ways. If only a few articles are to be made, extra expenses are not justified
unless the machine is large or of some special design
11. Cost of construction: The cost of construction of an article is the most important
consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of an
article may immediately bar it from further considerations. The aim of design engineer under
all conditions, should be to reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum.
12. Assembling: Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function.
Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to
their place of service. The final location of any machine is important and the design engineer
must anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for erection.

Some of these characteristics/considerations have to do directly with the dimensions, the material, the
processing, and the joining of the elements of the system. Several characteristics may be interrelated,
which affects the configuration of the total system.
1.6 General Procedure in Machine Design
What is the design process? How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at a desk with a
blank sheet of paper and jot down some ideas? What happens next? What factors influence or control
the decisions that have to be made? Finally, how does the design process end?

In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted in several
ways. The basic procedure of machine design consists of a step-by-step approach. However, the
general procedure to solve a design problem is as shown in Figure 1-1. These steps are interrelated
and interdependent, each reflecting and affecting all other steps.

The following steps are involved in the process of machine design:

1. Recognition of need: Recognition of the need and phrasing the need often constitute a highly
creative act, because the need may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, or a
sensing that something is not right. The need is often not evident at all; recognition can be
triggered by a particular adverse circumstance or a set of random circumstances that arises
almost simultaneously. At this step, the designer makes a complete statement of the problem,
indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.

2. Definition of the problem (Product Specifications): The definition of problem is specific

and must include all the specifications for the object that is to be designed. Prepares a complete
list of the requirements and specifications of the product that is to be designed. The
requirements include the output capacity of the machine, and its service life, cost and
reliability. In some cases, the overall dimensions and weight of the product and all the
limitations on these quantities are specified. In consumer products, external appearance,
noiseless performance and simplicity in operation of controls are important requirements. The
specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the
operating temperature, and the reliability. Specified characteristics can include the speeds,
feeds, temperature limitations, maximum range, expected variations in the variables,
dimensional and weight limitations, etc. Depending upon the type of product, various
requirements are given weightages and a priority list of specifications is prepared.

3. Synthesis, Analysis and Optimization: The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible

system elements is sometimes called the invention of the concept or concept design. This
is the first and most important step in the synthesis task. Various schemes must be proposed,
investigated, and quantified in terms of established metrics. It can involve selecting the
possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will give the desired motion after careful
study of the requirements. For example, while designing a blanking or piercing press, the
following mechanisms are possible:
(i) a mechanism involving the crank and connecting rod, converting the rotary motion of
the electric motor into the reciprocating motion of the punch;
(ii) a mechanism involving nut and screw, which is a simple and cheap configuration but
having poor efficiency; and
(iii) a mechanism consisting of a hydraulic cylinder, piston and valves which is a costly
configuration but highly efficient.
 Recognition of the need

Definition of the problem (Product Specifications)

Synthesis, Analysis and Optimization

Layout of configuration

Design of machine elements (Forces, Materials, Size and stresses)

Modification

Detailed drawings

Evaluation (Testing of a prototype)

Presentation of the design

Production

Figure 1-1: General procedure in machine design

The alternative mechanisms are compared with each other and also with the mechanism of
the products that are available in the market. An approximate estimation of the cost of each
alternative configuration is made and compared with the cost of existing products. This will
reveal the competitiveness of the product.

As the fleshing out of the scheme progresses, analyses must be performed to assess whether
the system performance is satisfactory or better, and, if satisfactory, just how well it will
perform. System schemes that do not survive analysis are revised, improved, or discarded.
 Those with potential are optimized to determine the best performance of which the scheme
is capable. Competing schemes are compared so that the path leading to the most
competitive product can be chosen. It can be noted that synthesis, analysis and optimization
are intimately and iteratively related. Thus, we may synthesize several components of a system,
analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining
parts of the system.

4. Layout of Configuration: The next step in a design procedure is to prepare a block diagram
showing the general layout of the selected configuration. In this step, the designer specifies
the joining methods, such as riveting, bolting or welding to connect the individual
components. Rough sketches of shapes of the individual parts are prepared.

5. Design of individual elements: The design of individual components or machine elements

is an important step in a design process. This stage involves detailed stress and deflection
analysis. It consists of the following stages:
(i) Analysis of forces and stresses. Find the forces acting on each member of the
machine and the energy transmitted by each member. This will determine the stresses
experienced by the member.
(ii) Size of member. Find the size of each member of the machine by considering the
force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material used. It
should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the
permissible limit.
(iii) Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine
depending upon the functional requirements such as strength, rigidity, hardness and
wear resistance.
(iv) Determine the likely mode of failure for the component and depending upon it, select
the criterion of failure, such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, endurance limit
or permissible deflection.
(v) Determine the geometric dimensions of the component using a suitable factor of
safety and modify the dimensions from assembly and manufacturing considerations.

6. Modification: Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and judgment
to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration of
manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawings: Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested. On these
drawings, the material of the component, its dimensions, tolerances, surface finish grades and
machining symbols are specified. The designer prepares two separate lists of components-
standard components to be purchased directly from the market and special components to be
machined in the factory.

8. Evaluation (Testing of a prototype): Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design and
usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. In many cases, a prototype model
is prepared for the product and thoroughly tested before finalizing the assembly drawings.
Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete
successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to use? Is it easily
maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use? The project designer or
design team will need to address a myriad of engineering and non-engineering questions.
 9. Presentation of the design: Communicating the design to others is the final, vital
presentation step in the design process. Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and
creative works have been lost to posterity simply because the originators were unable or
unwilling to properly explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job.
The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory
persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that their solution is a better one. Unless this
can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely
wasted. Selling an idea by a designer can lead to salary increment and promotion.

10. Production: The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop. Quite
often, problems arise on the shop floor during the production stage and design may require
modifications. In such circumstances, the designer has to consult the manufacturing engineer
and find out the suitable modification.

Although there are many phases in the design process that can be approached in a well-ordered,
scientific manner, the overall process is by its very nature as much an art as a science. It calls for
imagination, intuition, creativity, judgment, and experience. The role of science in the design process
is merely to provide tools to be used by designers as they practice their art.