Cell

Modifica
tions

Angelo Reambonanza
12-Dalton

 Checking for Understanding

1. What is cell modification?
Cell specialisation (or modification or differentiation)
is a process that occurs after cell division in which
newly formed cells are structurally modified to perform
their function more efficiently and effectively.

2. What are the three types of cell

modifications? Give some samples of each.
There are three types of cell modification: apical, basal, and lateral.
An example of apical modification of epithelium cells is Stereocilia.
Stereocilia are long microvilli that function in increasing absorption
but they are non-motile. Most of these are found in the sensory cells
in-ear and male reproductive tract. Desmosomes are an example of
basal modification. Desmosomes are membrane domains that
mediate cell-cell contact and strong adhesion. Desmosomes
mechanically integrate cells within tissues and function to resist
mechanical stress by mediating both cell-cell adhesion and
cytoskeletal linkages. An example of a lateral modification is the
tight Junctions (zonula occludentes) which is a band near the apical
surface which forms as a seal, appearing to be fused.

3. Why is cell modification essential to

organisms?

It is significant because modifications are chemistries

that allow cells to respond to signals without additional
transcription and are then lost when the RNA is
degraded only to re-emerge!
 The phases of the
cell cycle and
their control points
 Gaining Mastery
1. Rb and other proteins that halt the cell cycle are
sometimes called tumor suppressors. Why do you
think they are called tumor suppressors?
Retinoblastoma (RB) is a type of negative regulatory molecule that
halts the cell cycle. Retinoblastoma proteins are a group of tumor-
suppressor proteins common in many cells. They are called tumor-
suppressor proteins because it limits cell proliferation by preventing
entry into the S phase of the cell cycle. RB achieves its inhibitory
effect by blocking the activity of E2F.

2. Describe the general conditions that must be met

at each of the three main cell cycle checkpoints.
The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints. The integrity of the
DNA is assessed at the G1 checkpoint. Proper chromosome
duplication is assessed at the G2 checkpoint. The attachment of
each kinetochore to a spindle fiber is assessed at the M checkpoint.

The G1 Checkpoint

The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions for cell

division are favorable. External factors, such as growth factors, play
a significant role in moving the cell past the G1 checkpoint. The cell
will only pass the checkpoint if it is of sufficient size and has
sufficient energy reserves. The cell also checks for DNA damage at
this point. A cell that fails to meet all of the requirements will not
advance to the S phase. The cell can either stop the cycle and try to
fix the problem, or it can enter the G0 (inactive) phase and wait for
further signals when conditions improve.
 The G2 Checkpoint

The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic phase if certain

conditions are not met. As at the G1 checkpoint, cell size and
protein reserves are assessed. However, the most important role of
the G2 checkpoint is to ensure that all of the chromosomes have
been replicated and that the replicated DNA is not damaged. If the
checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the cell
cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to either complete DNA
replication or repair the damaged DNA.

The M Checkpoint

The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of

mitosis. The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint
because it determines whether all the sister chromatids are
correctly attached to the spindle microtubules. Because the
separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of
each pair of sister chromatids are firmly anchored to at least two
spindle fibers arising from opposite poles of the cell.

3. Differentiate the roles of the positive cell cycle

regulators to the negative cell regulators.

These core cell cycle regulators can cause key events, such as DNA
replication or chromosome separation, to take place. They also
make sure that cell cycle events take place in the right order and
that one phase. Their difference is that positive regulator molecules
allow the cell cycle to advance to the next stage. Negative regulator
molecules monitor cellular conditions and can halt the cycle until
specific requirements are met.