SCIENCE
LONG TEST REVIEWER
ATOM
The basic unit of matter and the smallest particle that
make up elements. It is composed of three
subatomic particles.
SUBATOMIC PARTS OF AN ATOM
● Neutrons - has no charge / uncharged
● Protons - positively charged
● Electrons - negatively charged
THE NUCLEUS
It is the center part of the atom, also the densest part
as the mass is concentrated here, it contains the
neutrons and protons which makes it positively
charged.
SCIENTISTS THAT STUDIED THE ATOM
DEMOCRITUS
He is an ancient Greek philosopher who is viewed by
many as being the “Father of Modern Science.” He
was the first person to use the word ‘atom,’ which
means indivisible. He also called the smallest unit
of matter, ‘atomus.’
ARISTOTLE
He believed that matter came from the four
elements, namely, Fire, Air, Earth, and Water.
JOHN DALTON
He adapted Democritus’ theory and discovered the
atom. Dalton believed that the atom is a solid
sphere. (Billiard Ball Model)
JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON (JJ)
He discovered the electrons in the year 1897,
which he called corpuscles, through the Cathode
Ray Experiment. Thomson believed that the
negatively charged electrons are embedded in a
positively charged soup/fluid. (Plum Pudding
Model)
NEILS BOHR
He created the Planetary Model of an Atom. Bohr
believed that the negatively charged electrons
revolve around the positively charged nucleus in
definite circular paths called ‘orbits’ or ‘shells,’ each
of which has their own fixed energy.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
He discovered the nucleus in the year 1911,
through the Gold Foil Experiment.
QUANTUM (QUANTA)
It is the smallest amount of energy that can be
measured. Quantum comes from Latin, meaning
"an amount" or "how much?"
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM
It is the most advanced and accurate model of the
atom used by chemists & physicists — proposed by
Erwin Schrodinger. In this model, electrons
surround the nucleus in a form resembling a cloud
called, “electron cloud.”
THE ELECTRON CLOUD
The region around the nucleus where an electron is
most likely to be found is called the electron cloud. A
high density is where the electrons are most likely to
be and a low density is where the electrons are least
likely to be.
LOUIS DE BROGLIE
He introduced the idea that particles, such as
electrons, could be described not only as particles
but also as waves. (Wave Particle Duality Theory)
WERNER KARL HEISENBERG
He believed that we cannot know both the
position and speed of a particle, such as a photon
or electron, with perfect accuracy. (Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle)
ERWIN SCHRODINGER
He used the wave-particle duality of the electron to
develop and solve a complex mathematical equation
that accurately describes the behavior of the electron
in a hydrogen atom. (Electron Cloud Model)
BOHR’S MODEL VS THE QUANTUM MODEL
Bohr's model postulates the electrons to revolve in
circular orbits while the quantum mechanical model
removes the possibility of a definite electronic
pathway.

** The Quantum Mechanical Model rejects the idea
that the electron travels on fixed orbits.
WHAT DESCRIBES THE PROBABLE LOCATION OF
THE ELECTRONS
PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVELS
It indicates the relative size and energy of atomic
orbitals. N = Integers. “N = 1, N = 2, N = 3, N = 4”
As N increases, the orbital becomes larger, the
electrons spend more time farther away from the
nucleus, and the energy of the atom level increases.
To know an element’s principal energy level, you can
look at the rows of the PTE called the periods.
ENERGY SUBLEVELS
Principal Energy Levels are broken down into
sublevels.
Sublevels define the orbital shape (s, p, d, f):
N = 1, 1 sublevel (s)
N = 2, 2 sublevel (s, p)
N = 3, 3 sublevel (s,p, d)
N = 4, 4 sublevel (s, p, d, f)
ORBITALS
Each sublevel has a different number of orbitals.
s orbital: 1 x 2 e = 2e
p orbital: 3 x 2 e = 6e
d orbital: 5 x 2 e = 10e
f orbital: 7 x 2 e = 2e
ELECTRON SPINS
Each orbital of an atom can have two electrons, they
have to be in opposite spins.
COMPOUNDS
Pure substances made up of 2 or more different
elements. It has a definite proportion and is
chemically combined. The elements lose their
individual properties and produce new substances.
It can be broken down into smaller type of matter.
All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules
are compounds.
** Molecules - 2 or more atoms connected through
chemical bonds.
TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
IONIC COMPOUNDS
It has an ionic bond, the elements involved are
“metal + non-metal.” In this type of compound, the
electrons are transferred.
The valence electrons of the metal elements are
transferred to the non-metal elements as a chemical
reaction — metals lose e, non-metals gain e.
Other properties of Ionic Compounds:
● Soluble in Water
● Conducts Electricity
● High Melting and Boiling Point
● Solid
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
It has a covalent bond, the elements involved are
“non-metal + non-metal,” or, “metalloid +
non-metal.” In this type of compound, the electrons
are shared.
The valence electrons of both elements are shared
as a chemical reaction. It becomes neutral, no
charge.
Other properties of Covalent Compounds:
● Insoluble in Water
● Does Not Conduct Electricity
● Low Melting and Boiling Point
● Solid, Liquid, or Gas
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
Neutral Atom - protons = electrons
Valence Electrons - electrons that are found in the
outermost shell of an atom, electrons that can be
gained or lost as a chemical reaction
Cations - positively charged ions, this can be formed
when an atom loses an electron
Cations - negatively charged ions, this can be
formed when an atom gains an electron
Ion - acquired a charge by gaining or losing and
electron, it forms when atoms of different elements
combine by transferring electrons (the chemical
reaction)