11. Selection and Evolution & Ate t Genetic variation: differences in DIVA base seq- vences of individuals in speie> -caused due to s independent assortment of chromosome, and alleles, during meiosis standom fusion ot gamete, fertilisation “random mating petween organisms within Om speres * Crossing over between chromatids of homologus chromosomes during meiosis + mutation reshuffle existing alleles produces phenotypic variation Phenotypic variation. differences between observar ple characteristics of individu als with spede+ - caused due to: gene + environment Phenotypic. variation / \ Discontinuss Con no},\elely new! alleles Mtation: Production of @™P Mistake ih DNA replication New base sequence of genre Mutation aay genetic serra mutation Pai on “9 + often no © ed (an produce new pe na allele rgunt : oe + cannot be passed ” tor de. Bee TELS ING offspring bY sexual seproducton frequently does not s howertr, iF it affects control Show up th population a mnionie. cil eles divides ng humo rollasly. form! tion tm ovany [teste d aitele which + or iF muta! C gametes containing mutate! divides to form aygete repeatedly passed on te new cells fonmed., reve organism containing al) mutated alleles in a cell ~genetic variation can be passed on to offsprings < phenotypic varation caused due to genee can be passed on to offsprings + que to envitonmental changer is not assed onto 9 offspringsNE Phenahypic. varration i "i onbinuos Discontinuos Discontinv on*inuos variation: Alf ference? Cee ae div ‘aaa Juals 0 where each one belongs to no. of distinct one small terme categoriew , with no arate Qualitative no intermediates Involve several gents ~ ditferent alleler at single gene lot arge effects on phenohype different alleles of single gene has large effect us heave on. phenotype -two different genes ab produce phenotyple different con interack different loa no. oF ingivi- duals = sa measurementsen indi v- Conti MNNUOS Variation gitferences betwe ee iduals of sp each one Can lie. @ - Quantative ~ Intermediates genes + environment - involve several genes - different alleles at al gene inal effect on pheno hype a Z - artFerent ee Fave game, aadinve effet locus have on phenotype = poly gener ho. of indi vidual Measurements Polygenex : Large number of genes having combined effect on parhcwlar Phenotypic traites 3 Factors affecting phenolypic vor ‘ 2) dominance gene interactions on (reduction) nce of c@onhnus variation EFfeds ot inherita e« of one > small effec of aitferent Hel geni See ikwe effect of diffecent 9 her : Phenotypic character “Envi eee a full genetic potentral *° ve reached aad ener on sameNatural Selection : Process by which individuals with particular cet of alleles Ore more likely to Survive and Yeproduce than other alleles @- Why? zall organisms have reproduchve potential to increase their population ahowever , overtime their population oscillates | @boouk a mean level | [Increases advantageous Frequency of allele, | becoming more frequent fh popwlatren -natural selection occurs os populeitions shave capacity +> produce many offsprings * compels for resourcer * struggle for existence |e individuals thar are best adapted, are more \keby f> survive to reproduc ahd pass on their allele, te next generationr. Selection pressure: Environmental factor, affecting | chance of survival of an | organism |-controls chances & alleler being passed onto | the new generationd Environmental factor: Feature of environment of am organism that affeds ity survival. environmental factor Zz \ abiotic biohe (non-living) (ving) | Abiotic fachor: Environmental factor caused by non: living component’ Eg. soil, nutrient levels, water supply [Biotic factor: Environmental factor caused by | Nving org andi a Eg. predation, food competition, infection by pathogens |Wmpetition: need For resource by two organisms when resource 1s shork ih supply. Fitness: Capacity of organiim to survive amd | transmit its alleles 4» offsprings.Natural Selection — Disruptive Directional Selection stoblisi Dg selection Selection Stabilising selection: Natural selection that tends to keep allele freque- Niew relakvely constant for many generations. |-maintained when organisms are already well-adapted. - acts against extreme, = favors environment - conserved selectton against | vou arge animals nol Conserved Leliminated) | Body mass Directional Selection : Natural selection that Causes gradual change in allele frequencies over Many generations = most common varieties of Gn organisnn are selected against change in Frequencies of population |Selection 4 PY against | lation | smatt | Body | mass |-favours variants of one extreme when new allele factor appears |- causes when new environmental factor or a | new allele arises (Disruptive selection: Ne@tural selection that | maintains relatively high frequencies of two different sets of alleles | |-individuals with Intermediates feature: and | allele sets are rok selected for |- when conditions favour both eatremes of a population i 9 : nued” POLYMor phism maintained aly maorphism : tenkinued, eee oF 2 ormore 7 Changes in environmental factors only affect different phenotypes | the likelihood of an allele surviving in a popu- eco latvon do not affect the likelihood of an allele arising by mutationSelection nos in against animals of popul- middle size ation Body mass 3, Factors affecting allele frequency in population ) genete drift genehe drift: gradual change in allele frequent | ies in a small population, where | some alleles are lost or favoured fey chance , not natural selection most noticeable ih small population. | small no. of individuals separated from large population |- some alleles may not be present |- gene pool smaller than original population 2) the founder effect Founder effect: Loss of genetic variation , that occurs when a new population Soe euaed ey very small no. of individuals lati- lad rom larger populati - alleles in the forming population may be present at different frequencies or missingolution of this popwlation may take different direction from te larger, powent popwtabien 3 ral selection ee ae in allele Frequencier with Fitness increasing olldler wetoming more Common 1 | population - | | Gene pool: fom plete range of DNA base Seq: | wences in all organisms in a Specter oF population | large population sutfers a significant fall m | numbers | 7 founder effedt can happen if originally 9 | |= little phenotypic or genetic variation | |" homozygous vs ak Wigh proportion of their gene loci | |~ hot many different abiele, present in popula- Lion. ~ High risk of extinction » without genebe variak- [0M , Unlikely to adapt to changes in environment, \- Inbreeding “genehe variabon present tn earlier population - los, evolubonany bottleneck . | - population Falls low, gene pool reduced | Evolutionary bottleneck: period, when no. of | Speciér tll ak very low level | due tv 1055 oh alleles amd He gene pool of specie4. Aniibiobes : Chemicate produced by Living organisie that inhibit or Kil wacteria, bul do not harm human tissue- - Development of antibioke tesistarce is directo nal selection Example: ) Antibiotic penincilin taken to treat backerial infection 2) Bacteria sensitive to penincith die “Most cases, entire population of disease caus- ng bacteria die. 3) By chance, there may be one or more individ: ual, of bacteria, with atlele Giving resistan- ce to penindlin “A\ide codes for penincillinase enyyme product fon that inactivates penindin | Allele arises by random mutation 4) Bacteria only has a single loop of DNA hav- ing one copy of euch gene, so mutant allele have an immediate effect on phenotype 5) Bacteria resistance to penindlin survive and — reproduce very rapidly under ideot cwnditiony -By using antblotitr, human change the selection pressures on bacteria.| -atleles for antibiotic resistance often occur Lon plasmids. | - plasmidy frequently transferred from ont Spediés of backuta te ansmer smore humane woe backerian, greater ee pressure exerted on bacteria 1D | evolve resistance 1 hem ray Hardy-Weihlourg Principle >t calculate aUele , genotype er phenoty- Pe frequencies in popwlation when |) population + Narge a |“ not possible for allele frequencie, to be maintained ih smelt poputakons |) no mutation [Ene change to type of ableler in populations no natural selection [Lenvironmentol factors do not favour an allele over the other 4) no selective pressure Against one genotype a |S) ho non-random mating Lall members with different characteristic have equal chante 1 breed. ©) No migration bno change in population size7) organism are diploid 8) allele frequencies ere equal th both sexe, 1) no overlap bet ween generatione Equations ablows fir: l. Caletation of allele trequenuy 2. determination of genotype frequenty witht oa population + allowing for predcctons ty be made about how? Mose’ fequentier will Chonge in Mature generations Ways Inveskgahion involving Hardy-Weinburg fs stand ardised - Same location -same Hme of year - traps were equally spaced Cokeng trom sect) ~transeds were at same placer - Same no. of trapy were wedSiaborr where Hardy-Weingburg prindple does not apply: > mutaton -migrahon ~ nonrandom mating ocuw - population t small “Selective pressure againal alele wr gerotype - T reproduchon ts asexual. [7 organi & naplotd |ptqet where, pz frequency of dominant auele q> frequency of recessive aUlele “1! iy total of whole population |-chance of offspring inheriting : + dominant allele fom both paren’ | tes ® | + recessive allele from both parent | aes oP | * dominant allele - mother recessive allele - father | Px4& = pa | dominant allele - father recessive allele - mother Ps Oe pe Pele Artificial selection : humans purposefully applying selection pressure to populat- fon - selection by humans of organisms with desic- ed traits to survive and reproduce ~ also known on selective breeding Prindples of selective breeding | | | |. individuals with desirable features are cho- | sen to interred 2. population chosen must show some varia- tion a . Breeder seleda another parent with another benefrccal characterish c- 4. some of these desirable alleles are passed on- to offspring offspring gronm to adulthood oma tested. ofFsprings that show desirable characteri- sticy the mosh are chosen to interbreed |7. repeated over generations. |. over generations frequenty of alleles that are desirable increase, decreasing no. of allele, i i are disadvantageous | | w1 Exarnples of selective breeding wIntro duction of dilease resistance to worieties of wheat and Ice “Breeding for resistance L infections cause toss of yicld- - successful atldle giving reaitante tubes MONy atnerakion,s | * Inbreeding ond hybridisation in maize Intreeding Breeding betneen organisms with Similar Qenobypes or Trak ave dass related ~ maize plank intreed, offs cudh genecation become weaker ond cmall- Ca - inbreeding depression occurs due t> repeated inbreeding homozygonty- - outbreeding is done, te Show hybrid Vigour: prings ith | Outbreeding : Breeding between individually thak aren't dosely related. ‘Inbreeding depression: Loss of ability | Survive. grow well dut | 4p inbreeding, increasing | chance, a harmipal rece- ssive allelér coming tog- ether in an individual and boeing expressed.4 | Examples of selechve breeding : VTptroduction of alsease vesistan | wheat and rice: |-Breeding for resistance | L infections cause loss of yield = success) allele giving resiitante taker many generations . + Invreeding and hybridisation in maize ce to varieticr of [Inbreeding : Breeding between organisms with similar genotypes or Tak ave dosy related = maize plant inbreed, offsprings with euch generation bewme weaker omd small- - inoveeding depression occurs due to repeated inbreeding homozygosity | ~ outbreeding is done po Show hybrid | Vigour- | Outbreeding : Breeding between individual that aren't dosely related. a | ltnbveeding depression: Loss oF ability te | survive, grow well due | 4o inoreeding, increasing chances a harmbul rece- ssive alleley coming tog- ether in an individual and __ being expressedHybrid vigowr : increased ability te sumive and grow well , due tp outbreeding. therefore increased hetero- Ay gority |-high yield ) \- same height | - abl ripen at same hme |" Teopreving milk yield of dairy cattle: - Higher milk produdion |- More meat | Risks of artficfal seledion 4 | -contentrates en one or bwo characterisher, shows Mem tr extreme , while other characteris. | Her ae retained | | Lhave diffs cull adapting th ntw environment -more diseases13 \ Evolution: Change of characteriskes of Specter over time, due to changes in allele Frequen- cy 1 leading to formation of new spetits from pre-existing onée o> % result of change, f geme pool of popu- lations over mony generations - Species: a group of organism mith similar morphological, physiological, bi ochem- | ical and behavioural features , that can inter breed producing — fertile aftspring. and are reproductively isolated from other species | Morphological: structural feaburey [Physiological : metabolic amd other process ex in a living organi | 3. Organiswre 44 Same speder may hot be able to interbreed successhully : -indivduale not recognising ene another | ar potential mater cindividuale not responding t mating behaviowr - animals bang phyvi cally tb male~IN@mMpalkbility of pollen and stigma in plans “Inability of male gamete to fuse with Female garneke - Failure of Gt division tn | wy gote - Non-Wable Sspring : ettspring trat mill Soon lin sterile offspring fsolabon Geographic isolation: Separation by a | Geographic barrier —Wable but ~ geegvaphic Genete fsolaton: No longer able to breed together; no exchange of genes Yeproduckve isolation: thability of two groups oF organisms to wreeds two popwlationr | | Same Speier may be | 9e0 graphically separ- Qkesl or two different 4 Species ore unabk to | breed 4s produce | bere offspring, | Spectatron Produchon of new Specie, |-Yeproduchvely jsolated -changes ih auiele frequenty -mutaton - changer In gene ~ protein changer - changer in phenotype Speaabon- a peda en Allopatric sympatric A\lopatric spectahon : development of new Speer dus geograph- it iselation. = CAUSES endemism ~ barrier arises, preventing two poputaton of Same Specter from mixing. Endemism: ewlogical state of specity being restridad ty a debned 9éographre location. -Organiswe thak ove indigenows tr a place are nok endemic to it, 7 F Mey are fond ~ Unewmre- Sympatric speciation; developement’ of new Specity without g¢ogra- Phical separationdue to - ewlogical separation “behavioural yeparabon E@logical separation: Separation of two populationr, due to living in different environment, bul Same cea, Cannor breed togets Behaviowral separation: Separation Sh two populations clu to homing different a behaviour, preventing \ mem from breed- ing te gethy - 1) different environment sifghh Ddifterent seledton pressure 3) difference in morphology oma phyriology 4) better adapted t environment 5) aiFFerene in Wel brequency. 8) change in gente 7) genehcalty folated & 8) different courtdhip behaviow - 2) AO Making between specter 10) different specie,.