Chapter 1-1:

Pressure
Measurement
 Objectives
Student should be able to:

• Define the term Pressure

• Differentiate the types of Pressure
• Describe the Characteristic of Liquid
Pressure & Factor that affected
• Describe the Characteristic of Gas
Pressure
• Apply the different Unit of Pressure
Measurement
• Describe the Principle, Operation,
Advantages & Disadvantages of Pressure
Measurement Device
 Overview
• Basic concepts of Pressure
• Basic concepts of Hydrostatic
Pressure
• Factors affecting Liquid Pressure
• Gas Pressure Characteristics
• Units Of Measurement
• Pressure Measurement Devices
 Overview
• Pressure Measurement Devices
1.) Manometer
2.) Bourdon Tubes
3.) Bellows
4.) Diaphragm
5.) Strain Gauge
6.) Differential Pressure Transmitter
7.) Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
8.) Capacitance Manometer
• Pressure Measurement Safety And
Maintenance
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a Normal
Force exerted by a Fluid per Unit Area.
(for Gas and Liquid)
• Normal Stress is the counterpart of
pressure in Solid.
• Units of Pressure are N/m2, which is
called a Pascal (Pa).
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2(psi).
F ma
P 
A A
Pressure
 Absolute, Gauge, and
Vacuum Pressures
Several common ways to measure Pressure
• different – Reference Point
• 2 types of Reference Point
~ Zero Absolute Pressure
~ Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Refer Atm Pressure (14.7 psia) – Gauge
Pressure (psig)
Refer Zero Abs Pressure – Absolute Pressure
(psia)
Refer Atm Pressure & measured in negative
direction – Vacuum Pressure
• Most Pressure-Measuring Devices
are calibrated to read zero in the
Atmosphere, and therefore indicate
gage pressure,
Pgage=Pabs - Patm
Pressure below atmospheric
pressure are called Vacuum
Pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, Gauge, and
Vacuum Pressures
 Hydrostatic Pressure
The Pressure that Fluids exerts on an Object
or Container Walls. Hydrostatic Pressure can
be used to determine the LEVEL of Liquid in
Tanks.

P = ρgH
P = Hydrostatic pressure g = gravitational force
H = height of the liquid
ρ = Density
Variation of Pressure with
Depth
Pressure in a Fluid
at a rest does not
change in the
Horizontal
direction.
In the presence of a
Gravitational Field,
Pressure increases
with depth
because more Fluid
rests on deeper
layers.
~ Not depend on the Volume

• The same
Density and
depth of
Liquid, the
Pressure will be
the same in the
large vessel as
in a narrow
Column of
Liquid.
 Factors Affecting Liquid
Pressure
Density P proportional to the Depth

Depth P proportional to ρ

Surface Any Pressure acting on the

Pressure surface (P atm)
 Gas Pressure Characteristic

Gas expand to fill entire area that contains them.

Factors that affect a Gas :

Volume of the Vessel BOYLE‘S LAW - Boyle's law describes the

inversely proportional relationship between the
Absolute PRESSURE and VOLUME of a Gas, if the
Temperature is kept constant.

Temperature of the Gas CHARLES’ LAW - For a fixed Mass of Gas

at constant Volume, the PRESSURE is directly
proportional to the TEMPERATURE.
 BOYLE‘S LAW
The relationship between Pressure and Volume when
Amount and Temperature are held constant.
Unit of Measurement - Pressure
- English Unit - pound per square inch (psi)
(SI) unit - Newton per square meter (Pascal)
- Common units
0 Kilograms per square centimeter
(kg/cm2)
0 Kilopascals (kPa)
0 Bar ( 1 bar = 100,000 Pa = 0.1MPa)
-Referenced to Column of Fluid
0 inches of water (in H2O)
0 millimeter of mercury (mm Hg)
0 torr
Pressure Measurement Devices

Typical Pressure Transmitter

consist of TWO parts :

Primary Element
Secondary Element
Primary Element

- Pressure Sensor /
Pressure Element

- converts to:
Physical motion that is
proportional to
Applied Pressure Secondary Element
(Mechanical/Electrical
value) - Pressure
- read by the Measuring Instrument
Secondary Element. - Electronics
(Transducer)
- convert Output
(Primary Element) to
Signal (4-20mA)
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
 Pressure Measurement Devices

1.) Manometer
2.) Bourdon Tubes
3.) Bellows
4.) Diaphragm
5.) Strain Gauge
6.) Differential Pressure Transmitter
7.) Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
8.) Capacitance Manometer
 TYPES OF
MANOMETER
 Manometer

Principles

• simple, accurate and low cost.

• principle - changes in Pressure will
cause a Liquid to rise or fall in a tube
• Liquid rise or fall according to the
amount of Pressure that changes.
~ type of Liquid affect rises or falls in
response to Pressure
~ liquids: Water, Mercury & Red Oil
• Water & Mercury - Specific Gravities,
Thermal Expansion & Mass
• Red Oil - not Toxic & will not
contaminate the Environment.

~ Mercury Manometers are typically used

to detect and indicate Higher Pressures
~ Water Manometers - sensitive to Low
Pressure and has a Scale mounted near
the Column (in H2O, in Hg or psi)
Inclined manometer
Well manometer
U-tube Manometer
•Tube is bent U-shape & not connected
to a Well
•Tube itself is the Reservoir
•Tube filled until both sides are
approximately half full
•Pressure equals/constant - Liquid each
side at the same height
•provides a psig Unit of Measurement
•Difference in Liquid Level represent
the Pressure being measured
P=ρgh
 •Factors
Affecting Liquid
Pressure
(Using U-tube
Manometer)
(a)

(b)
(c ) (d)
 Bourdon Tubes
• Mechanical Pressure Transducer – Pressure detection results
in Physical movement
• The Bourdon Tube is a device that senses Pressure
and converts Pressure into displacement/movement.
• Since Bourdon-Tube Displacement is a function of the
detected Pressure , it may be mechanically amplified and
indicated by a Pointer. Thus, the Pointer Position indirectly
indicates Pressure detection/measurement.
• All Bourdon accuracy: 0.5 % to 1%
 •The types are varied for specific uses and space
accommodations, for better linearity and larger
sensitivity.

•For thorough repeatability, the Bourdon Tubes

Materials must have good Elastic or Spring
Characteristics.

•The surrounding in which the Process is carried out is also

important as Corrosive Atmosphere or Fluid would require a
Material which is Corrosion Proof.
C-type Spiral Helical Tube
C- type

•PRINCIPLE

• simplest, most common

• oval tube, C-shape
• one Tube is opened, the other end is sealed and free to
move
• Pressure being measured is applied through the open end
• The commonly used Materials are Phosphor-Bronze, Silicon-
Bronze, Beryllium-Copper and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo
Alloys, and so on.
 • OPERATION

•C type Bourdon
Tube Pressure
Gauge works on the
Principle of
Elasticity
• When Pressure is detected, its cross section becomes
more circular, causing the Tube to straighten out, until the
Force of the Fluid Pressure is balanced by the Elastic Resistance of
the Tube Material.
• Since the Open End of the tube is anchored in a fixed position,
changes in Pressure move the Closed End.
• A Pointer is attached to the Closed End of the Tube through a
Linkage Arm and a Gear and Pinion assembly, which rotates
the Pointer around a Graduated Scale.
•Movement Pointer controlled by Spring - reduces
the effect of Hysterisis.
Helical tube
 •Oval Tube, wound a Helix Shape
resembles a Coil.
•Same principles as C-tube.
•Tip moves in response to movement of
Coil
•Advantage: more tip movement than the
C-tube
 Spiral tube
• Oval Tube, wound in a
Spiral Shape.
• Pressure detected, tends
to uncoil – result in long
movement of the Tip End
• Accuracy: ± 0.5 %
• Advantage: Tip produces
more motion than C-tube &
Helical Type.
Bellows
• Cylindrical device; usually ribbed & very
flexible
• Made of Phosphor, Bronze or Brass
•Suitable for Gauge, Absolute, Differential /
Vacuum type of Pressure measurements
•The Bellow Sensing Element will respond to
changes in Pressure by either expanding or
contracting.
•Bellows more sensitive than Bourdon
elements & suitable to be used at Low
Pressure (0 - 30 psig).
• Accuracy: 0.5 % to 1% of calibrated Span
(Calibration Apans can be as narrow as 5 in
H2O)
OPERATION
•One End attached to the Transducer Case & the
other end is free to move
•Pressure detected, it will expand; causing free end
to move
•Movement of the Movable End - measured
Pressure being detected.
Types of Bellows
Bellows Inside Can

•Respond if Pressure is
detected to its Outer Surface.
•Process is connected to the
Can and the Pressure is
transmitted outside the
Bellows.
•Movement can be measured
and the measurement
indicated Pressure.
•Advantages - protect the
bellows from Impact Damage
 Disadvantages of BELLOWS

Very sensitive: easily over ranged & damaged

Protect:
•have Mechanical Over Range / Under Range Stops
that prevent the bellows from excessive expansion /
contraction
•Include Springs that resist the expansion or contraction
of the Bellows where it is attached to the Bellows
Element with a Screw - that allow the Spring Tension to
be adjusted. These springs are used to zero the Bellow
Pressure Element.
 Diaphragm

•Mechanical pressure transducer - detect

slight changes in pressure
•Process pressure exert on large area - more
sensitive small changes
•Advantage: Flexible, limited to low pressure
systems
• Single disk – that is exposed to a process
•When a Force acts
against a thin stretched
Diaphragm, it causes a
deflection of the
Diaphragm with its
centre deflecting the
most.
•Pin, Rod, Bar -
connected to the
Diaphragm – determine
amount Pressure
detected.
Metal Diaphragm -
made from Phosphor,
Bronze, Beryllium,
Copper, Trumpet Brass,
Stainless Steel or Monel
Non-Metal Diaphragms
- made of Neoprene,
Polyethylene, Silk,
Leather, Teflon, Koroseal
& Silicone
 Types Of Diaphragm

1.) Slack Diaphragms

• large, very flexible Diaphragms; - Control Valve
Actuators
2.) Diaphragm Capsule
• most often used in Pressure Transducers
• 2 Metal Diaphragms connected at the edges
• Area between the two Diaphragms filled
Fluid (Low Freezing Point, High Boiling Point, Low
Viscosity & Low Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion)
•Frequently used as Isolation Devices; commonly
used in Control Transmitters, Pressure Gauges
and Differential Pressure Transmitter
ADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM GAUGE

• It is useful for measurement of

Absolute & Differential Pressure
Measurement
• It consist of Linearity.
• It is made from good Corrosion
Resistance Material.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM GAUGE

• It is use for limited Pressure
Measurement.
• Its Vibration & Shock Resistance
are poor.
• Its Maintenance is difficult.
DIAPHRAGM + BOURDON TUBES
Strain Gauge
•Changes a Mechanical Motion to Electrical
Signal  wire stretch or strain; altering Wire
Diameter – results in Resistance Change
•Change in Resistance being measured by a
Wheatstone Bridge – in terms of Pressure
•Metal Wire, very small Diameter - attached to the
surface of a device being monitored
•Accuracy: ± 0.1 to ± 2 %
•Range: few inches of water to 200,000 psig.
•Can also measure Torque and Weight
•Affixed to
object - detect
the Force
applied
 Errors in Strain Gauge
Some of the main causes for Errors and Inaccuracy in the
device reading are given below.

•Temperature Variation

•Humidity

•Thermoelectric Effect.

•Magnetostrictive Effect .
 Errors in Strain Gauge
Some of the main causes for errors and inaccuracy in the
device reading are given below.

•Temperature Variation – This can be one of the major

causes of Error in a Strain Gauge. It can easily change the
Gauge Resistance and cause Differential Expansion
between the Gauge and the Test Piece, causing variation in
the Measurable Strain.

•Humidity – Humidity can affect the Accuracy by the

breakdown of Insulation between the Gauge and the
Ground Point. It also causes Electro-Chemical Corrosion of
Gauge Wire due to Electrolysis.

•Small Errors could be caused due to Thermoelectric

Effect. The Gauge will be erroneous even due to small
factors like Zero Drift, Hysteresis Effect and so on.

•Magnetostrictive Effect can also cause Errors in Strain

Gauges of Ferromagnetic Materials. It produces a small
Voltage fluctuation of almost 2 mill volts (2mV).
STRAIN GAUGE (BRIDGE CIRCUITS)
STRAIN GAUGE + BELLOWS
Differential Pressure Transmitter

~ capable measuring Differential

Pressure
~ mounted inside Housing
~ one end Force Bar - connected to the
Capsule
~ Sealing Mechanism acts as the Pivot
Point for the Force Bar
~ provision – High Pressure Fluid on
one side & Low Pressure Fluid on the
other
~ used to measure the Gas Pressure (in
Gauge Scale) inside a Vessel.
 OPERATION
•Any Pressure
Difference - Capsule
deflect & create
motion
•Top end Force Bar
connected to
Detector - produce a
4 - 20 mA Signal
•Measure Gas
Pressure (Gauge
Scale)
• LP side Transmitter –
Vented to atmosphere &
HP side - is connected to
the Vessel
• Isolating Valve -
removal of the
Transmitter
• The Output of the DP
Transmitter is
proportional to the
Gauge Pressure of the
Gas.
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

•Produces Electrical Voltage when

Pressure is detected
•To amplify the Signal, Amplifier must
have very high Input Impedance - > 100
Mega Ohms
•Better than a Voltage Amplifier - Charge
Amplifier DON’T lose Accuracy.
PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE TRANDUCER

PRESSURE

crystals

PRESSURE
Figure 7
•Pressure being transmitted to the Piezoelectric
Crystal, Y1, by a Diaphragm.
•Signal is amplified by a Charge Amplifier
•Second Piezoelectric Crystal, Y2, - compensate for any
acceleration of the device during use.
– is needed because rapid acceleration of the Transducer creates
additional Pressure on the Piezoelectric Crystal.
•Vibration - source of rapid Acceleration
•Signals compensation - amplified by 2nd
Charge Amplifier
•Differential Amplifier subtracts Amplified
Signal from the Original Signal
•Indicates Pressure ONLY; no effects of
acceleration
•measure Pressure: 0 to 5000 psi
•indicate Pressure as short as 1 micro second;
/1 millionth of a second
•CAN NOT measure Steady Pressure -
respond only to Pressure Change.
 Capacitance Manometer

•Mostly applied to Low Pressures (Abs,

Differential and Gauge)
•Made - 2 Metal Plates with an
Insulator in between.
•Store Electrical Charge when one plate
is given Negative Charge (-ve).
•Connect to AC Circuit- changes Output
as the Plates are moved closer or
further apart
•Movable (back & forth) Metal
Diaphragm being used as 1 Plate in a
Capacitor
CAPACITANCE MANOMETER

Figure 7
•operates by OPERATION
measuring the
CHANGE in
Electrical
Capacitance that
results from the
movement of a
Sensing
Diaphragm
relative towards some
fixed Capacitance
Electrodes
•Motion - changes
the spacing between
the Diaphragm &
fixed Metal Plate
•Space - serves as an
Insulator
•Movement
Diaphragm changes
AC current (I) reading
on the Ammeter
•Current reading
indicates the
measured
Pressure Value.
• The great Advantages of a
Capacitance Gauge is its ability to
detect extremely SMALL
diaphragm movements.

•Accuracy is typically 0.25 to 0.5% of

reading. Thin Diaphragms can measure
down to 10-5 torr, while thicker
Diaphragms can measure from Low
Vacuum to Atmospheric Range.

•Widely used in the Semiconductor

Industry, because its Inconel Body and
Diaphragm are suitable for the
Corrosive Services in this Industry.
They are also favoured because of their
High Accuracy and Immunity
towards Contamination.
Pressure Measurement Safety

Over Pressure

Faulty Sensing Lines

Loss of Loop Electrical Power

Pressure Measurement Safety

Over Pressure

•designed to operate at a suitable

range
•over ranged - NOT return to its
Original condition; indication greater
than original
•Diaphragms and Bellows - fracture
due to over-Pressure
•Small fracture cause reading low
& less responsive
•linkages & internal movements become
distorted & becomes permanent
offset
•Bourdon Tubes: very robust & can handle
extremely high pressures; over-pressure,
become distorted & rupture

Faulty Sensing Lines

•create inaccurate readings

•partially blocked - dynamic response of
sensor is reduced & slow response/delay
to change in Pressure
•cracked / punctured sensing line - low
Loss of Loop Electrical Power

•Instrument relies on AC Power Supply

•Output of the Differential Pressure
Transmitters will drop to zero / become
irrational with a loss of Power Supply
 Pressure Measurement
Maintenance

Visual Inspection

Blowdown and Venting

Cleaning & Lubrication

 Pressure Measurement
Maintenance

Visual Inspection

•Examining & find existing leaks /

damage
•Uncovers impending failures as well
•Be sure to operate the mechanism
through its entire range as Troubleshoot.
Blowdown and Venting

•clogging of Lines – result in Instrument

failure
•prevented by Periodic Blowdown, to
flush Dirt & foreign Materials out of
Instrument
•Venting - avoid Gas build-up
frequently which depends on how fast Dirt &
Gas enter the Instrument Piping

Cleaning & Lubrication

•Dirt may lodge in the linkages, causing the

mechanism to stick.
•Check linkages periodically