Materials Science and Engineering A 400–401 (2005) 231–233

Work hardening model based on multiple dislocation densities

G.V.S.S. Prasad∗ , M. Goerdeler, G. Gottstein
Institute of Physical Metallurgy and Metal Physics, RWTH Aachen Kopernikusstr. 14, D-52074 Aachen, Germany

Received 13 September 2004; received in revised form 3 January 2005; accepted 28 March 2005

Abstract
A variant of the 3IVM (three internal variables model) [F. Roters, D. Raabe, G. Gottstein, Acta Mater. 48 (2000) 4181–4189] is presented.
It utilizes the microstructural state variables to describe the plastic flow behavior of cell forming metals and alloys. The internal variables are
the six categories of dislocation densities: the mobile edge and screw dislocation densities (ρem , ρsm ), the immobile edge and screw dislocation
densities in the cell walls (ρew , ρsw ) and the immobile dislocation densities in the cell interiors (ρei , ρsi ). The inclusion of screw dislocations
and their ability to cross slip contributes to enhanced dynamic recovery, particularly at low temperatures and high strain rates. Results will
be presented on how the model can be used to calculate the stress–strain curves for various temperatures and strain rates. For the same set
of optimising parameters, the predicted flow curves for a variety of strain rates and temperatures are in good agreement with experiments. A
particular advantage of this model is that its output can directly be used as input for subsequent recovery and recrystallisation models.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
PACS: 81.40.Lm; 81.40.Ef; 62.20.Fe

Keywords: Flow curve; Cross slip; Modelling; Work hardening

1. Introduction copper and nickel alloys as well as austenitic steels. With

Modelling of forming processes and predicting stress–
strain behaviour for a wide range of temperatures, strain rates
and material chemistry has been a challenge for years. There
have been numerous attempts in the past to model work hard-
ening based on dislocation concepts. A comprehensive re-
view on the various models was presented recently [2,4]. The
present model is a variant of the three internal variables model
(3IVM), which is described elsewhere [1]. It introduces screw
dislocations and cross slip for an improved modelling of dy-
namic recovery and is capable of predicting work hardening
behaviour over a wide range of temperatures and strain rates.
2. The work hardening model
2.1. Concept
Our model can be applied to cell forming face centered cu-
bic metals and alloys, such as commercial aluminium alloys,
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gurla@imm.rwth-aachen.de (G.V.S.S. Prasad).
progressing strain, a cell structure develops consisting of cell
walls of high dislocation density and cell interiors of low dis-
location density [3]. Dislocation sources inside the material
generate mobile dislocations, which move in the crystal to ac-
commodate the imposed strain rate, and also react with other
dislocations on their way through the crystal. This interaction
between the mobile dislocations or between the mobile and
immobile dislocations leads to reactions like annihilation,
lock formation, dipole formation, etc. The interaction with
precipitates and solute atoms is also considered. The variable
strength of obstacles or the local dislocation arrangement is
not taken into account, but is rather averaged in both the cell
interiors and cell walls separately.
The six variables in our model are the mobile edge and
screw dislocation densities (ρem , ρsm ), immobile edge and
screw dislocation densities in the cell interiors (ρei , ρsi ) and
those in the cell walls (ρew , ρsw ). We assume that the interior
dislocation sources generate square loops and hence, equal
numbers of screw and edge dislocations. We also assume the
same average velocity for edge and screw dislocations. The
inclusion of screw dislocations and their ability to cross slip
contributes to recovery even at low temperatures. The other

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2005.03.061
232 G.V.S.S. Prasad et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 400–401 (2005) 231–233

recovery mechanism considered in the model is the climb of location processes. The basic evolution law is of the form:
edge dislocations. Polycrystal behaviour is introduced by the
average Taylor factor (M). ρ̇xy = ρ̇xy+ − ρ̇xy−

2.2. The model where the superscript y indicates the dislocations in the cell
interiors or cell walls, and the subscript x distinguishes edge
2.2.1. Kinetic equation of state and screw dislocations.
The model consists of a kinetic equation of state to calcu- The mobile dislocations, which move through the crys-
late the external stress needed to accommodate the imposed tal to accommodate the imposed strain rate, travel a mean
strain rate (˙) and a set of structure evolution equations to free path (effective slip length), Leff , before getting immo-
calculate the evolution of the dislocation densities [5–8]. We bilised. The production rate of mobile dislocations reads
use the Orowan equation as the kinetic equation of state: as:
γ̇ = ˙ M = ρm bv̄ (1) 1 ˙ M
ρ̇m+ =
where γ̇ is the shear rate, b the Burgers vector and v̄ the Leff b
average velocity of a dislocation. The average velocity of
In the above equation, ˙ is the imposed strain rate and we
a dislocation depends on the effective stress, τeff = τ − τ̂,
define the effective slip length as:
where τ is the acting shear stress and τ̂ the athermal flow
stress. The average velocity of a dislocation is defined as:
1 βi βw 1
ν0 = + +
v̄ = ; (2) Leff Li Lw Lg
X
where, where βi and βw are constants, which relate the spacing of the
respective dislocations to their slip length, if only this type
exp((Qdis − τeff V )/kT ) exp((Qsol − τeff V )/kT )
X= + of dislocation would determine the slip length (Leff ) and Lg
λdis λsol is the mean grain size.
exp((Qprec − τeff V )/kT ) The gain or loss rate of an individual dislocation den-
+
λprec sity depends on the underlying process that is considered.
As an example, we consider the spontaneous annihilation
where ν0 is the attack frequency, Qdis , Qsol and Qprec the acti- of two mobile edge dislocations. Suppose that two mobile
vation energies for overcoming a dislocation, solute and pre- edge dislocations of opposite sign and on the same glide
cipitate, respectively, V the activation volume, λ s the jump plane annihilate when they come closer than a critical dis-
widths, i.e., the mean spacing of the obstacles, k the Boltz- tance, dann
e . During a small time increment dt the mobile
mann constant and T the temperature. dislocation moves a distance vdt and the probability that
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), Eq. (1) can be solved for it will find another dislocation of a proper configuration
τeff . As the obstacle spacing is different in the cell interiors is:
and cell walls, we obtain different values for the effective
stress, τeff
i and τ w . The passing stress of dislocations must
eff 1
be added to obtain the resolved shear stress in the cell interiors ṗ = 2dann
e
vdtρem
2n
(τi ) and cell walls (τw ).

where n is the number of slip systems. Using the Orowan
y y y equation, we obtain the rate of loss of mobile edge disloca-
τy = τeff + αGb ρe + ρs y = i, w
tions due to annihilation as:
where α is a constant and G the shear modulus. Since the ˙ M m
microstructure is heterogeneous, the total external stress is ρ̇em− = 2ṗρem = 2dann
e
ρ
bn e
calculated by weighting with their respective volume frac-
tions, Similar rate equations for the formation of locks, dipoles
and other reactions have been set up. The processes con-
σext = M(fi τi + fw τw ) sidered and the corresponding changes in the variables are
listed in Table 1. For each of the processes, a probability
where fi and fw are the volume fractions of the cell interiors and hence the loss or gain rate of the dislocation density
and cell walls, respectively. of that particular class can be derived [1]. As our model
contains screw dislocations, we discuss the relevant parts
2.2.2. Structure evolution equations here.
Each of the dislocation densities considered in the model The annihilation of screw dislocations is treated in a simi-
has an evolution law based on the underlying elementary dis- lar way as edge dislocations [1] and the loss rate of the mobile
 G.V.S.S. Prasad et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 400–401 (2005) 231–233 233

Table 1
Various dislocation reactions and their effect on the variables
Process ρm ρei ρew ρsi ρsw
Annihilation ↓
Lock formation ↓ ↑ ↑
Dipole formation ↓ ↑
Interaction of mobile with immobile ↓
edge dislocations
Cross slip ↑ ↓ ↓
Climb ↓ ↓
↑⇒ increases; ↓⇒ decreases.

screw dislocations due to annihilation is:

˙ M m
ρ̇sm− = 2dann
s
ρ
bn s
When mobile screw dislocations encounter immobile edge Fig. 1. Comparison of experimental and simulated flow curves.
dislocations, they are rendered immobile. When these immo-
bile dislocations cross slip, they again become mobile. The curves are shown in Fig. 1. The model predictions com-
frequency of cross slip events [9–11] is: pare well with the experimental results. The present model
has immense scope for further improvements. To name a
 y A/KT few:
τeff
Ṗcs = νcs
τM (1) Variable volume fraction of cell walls during deformation
can be introduced.
where y = i or w, νcs is the vibrational frequency of the dis- (2) Instead of averaging slip over the available slip systems,
location [12], τM the mechanical threshold for cross slip and variable slip on different slip systems can be considered.
A the cross slip constant. The loss rate of the immobile screw
Due to the low computational effort needed, our model
dislocations is:
can be incorporated into FEM codes to perform deformation
 x A/KT simulations and can serve as input for further recovery and
τeff
ρ̇sx = νcs ρsx where, x = i or w. recrystallisation models, hence contributing to the through
τM process modelling.

3. Results and discussion

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