CHAPTER 3: CONNECTIVE AND SUPPORTIVE TISSUE (textus connectivus)

Connective and supportive tissues are integral in forming the framework of the body and the structure
of organs.

Functions of Connective Tissue:

1. Encloses and Separates

2. Connect Tissues
3. Support and Movement
4. Storage for energy
5. Cushion and Insulation
6. Transport
7. Protect
8. Forms Structure

 STRUCTURE OF CONNECTIVE AND SUPPORTIVE TISSUES

Morphologically, connective and supportive tissues consist of:

· cells and · intercellular matrix.

Connective Tissue Cells – are named according to their function.

blast – produce matrix

cyte – maintain matrix; mature cells

clast – destroy matrix

Osteoblast, Osteocyte, Osteoclast = bones

Fibroblast, Fibrocyte, Fibroclast = protein fibers

Chondroblast, Chondrocyte, Chondroclast = cartilages

 CELLS - The cells of the connective and supportive tissues are derived from embryonic mesenchymal
cells. Oval nucleus contains little heterochromatin.
- Embryonic mesenchymal cells are pluripotent, capable of differentiating into either:
Resident cells - remain fixed within connective and supportive tissue
Transient or wandering cells - enter the tissue in response to particular stimuli

Resident Cells - resident cells of connective tissue include fibroblasts and adipocytes. Fibroblasts,
chondroblasts and osteoblasts produce fibres, cartilage and bone, respectively, before differentiating
further into mature, less active fibrocytes, chondrocytes and osteocytes.
o Fibroblasts have irregularly developed cell processes and nuclei rich in euchromatin. Primary CT
cell; synthesize ECM (collagen, elastin, ground substance)
o Fibrocytes are small, spindle-shaped cells that usually lie between bundles of fibers.
o Histiocytes, or connective tissue macrophages, are derived from circulating monocytes that
enter the tissue and differentiate into macrophages. Relatively numerous in loose connective
tissue. Engulfs foreign substances, part of immune system and phagocytize and destroy
microorganisms and damaged tissue
o Mast cells are large cells (20–30 μm) found in loose connective tissue, particularly around blood
vessels. The cytoplasm encloses numerous basophilic metachromatic granules containing
substances including histamine, heparin and chemotactic factors. Mast cells synthesize
prostaglandins, leukotrienes and platelet stimulating factor. Inflammatory response -
inflammation; secretes histamine, which promotes vascular leakiness
Transient or wandering cells - are found primarily in loose connective tissue, in which the fiber content
is relatively low. These cells continuously undergo active migration from the blood and lymphatic
vascular systems.

o Lymphocytes - are small spherical cells, strongly basophilic nucleus is surrounded by a thin band
of cytoplasm that appears pale under light microscopy. Are found in epithelia, the blood and
lymphatic vascular systems, in subepithelial tissue and in lymphatic organs.
- cell-mediated and humoral immunity.
- cell-mediated immunity:
immunocompetence (T lymphocytes)
- humoral immune response:
lymphocytic stem cells differentiate in the bone marrow, Peyer’s patches and tonsils (in
mammals) or the bursa of Fabricius (birds) into immunocompetent B lymphocytes
o Plasma Cells - are ovoid basophilic cells (20 μm) derived from B lymphocytes. The
heterochromatin is concentrated in peripheral clumps, giving the nucleus a ‘cartwheel’
appearance. Plasma cells synthesise antibodies (immunoglobulins). Routinely found in
subepithelial connective tissue of the gastric and intestinal mucosa, in germinal centres within
lymphatic organs and in excretory glands.
o Monocytes - are predominantly ovoid cells (20 μm) with an indented, kidney-shaped
heterochromatin-rich nucleus. The abundant cytoplasm contains large numbers of
metabolically active organelles as well as azurophilic granules. Monocytes migrate from the
blood vessels into the tissue, where they differentiate into macrophages
o Granulocytes - Immune system and lymphatic organs

 Intercellular Matrix (substantia interceullaris) - is composed of fibres and amorphous ground

substance. Both are produced by connective tissue cells, particularly fibroblasts.
- Fibroblasts synthesise:

· fibres: · amorphous ground substance:

− collagen fibres − proteoglycans
− reticular fibres − structural glycoproteins.
− elastic fibres

Connective Tissue Fibers

o Collagen Fibers (fibra collagenosa) - make up the interstitial connective tissue surrounding
nerves and vessels, and form the stroma that binds together the functional tissue (parenchyma)
of various organs.

Scleroprotein collagen is the most commonly occurring type of connective tissue fibre. It
performs specific protective and supportive functions in several tissues. Collagen fibres have a
high tensile strength with a maximum stretching capacity of only 5%. In the intracellular phase,
the polypeptide collagen precursor pro-collagen is formed. The proline and lysine residues are
hydroxylated and the pro-α-chains are joined to form triple (super) helices. The shortened triple
helices, termed collagen molecules (formerly tropocollagen), are approximately 280 nm in
 length. Collagen molecules aggregate by polymerisation to form collagen fibrils.It is thought
that the formation of microfibrils is initiated by electrostatic attraction between neighbouring
collagen molecules, which results in a staggered arrangement of the microfibrils. Collagen fibrils
exhibit a distinctive transverse banding pattern when viewed using electron microscopy.
Microfibrils (diameter 20–300 nm) combine to form collagen fibrils (diameter 0.2–0.5 μm).
Aggregation and cross-linking of fibrils give rise to collagen fibres. Collagen fibres stain with
eosin (red), aniline blue (blue) and with the dye light green. Identified using polarised light
microscopy.

-white fibers in bundles; resists tensile forces

- tough, structural protein, provides tensile strength, most abundant body protein
Type I collagen is the most abundant form of body collagen (90%), occurring in
tendons, fascia, bones, vessels, internal organs and dentin.
Type II collagen forms the structural collagen of hyaline cartilage.
Type III collagen occurs in the walls of vessels, in internal organs (e.g. liver,
kidney, spleen), in skin and in embryonic connective tissue
Type IV is found in basal laminae.
Type V collagen is also associated with the basal lamina, and is distributed
throughout connective tissue stroma

o Reticular Fibers (fibra reticularis) - derive their name from their finely branched, mesh-like
arrangement. Anchors structure within CT. They form flexible three-dimensional networks
within various organs and tissues (liver, kidney, glands, vessels), are associated with basal
laminae and form a meshwork around tendons, ligaments and muscle fibres. Important
supportive role in lympho- and haemoreticular tissues (spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow) by
providing a flexible scaffold. Immunohistochemical techniques reveal that reticular fibres are
composed of type III collagen. Under light microscopy, reticular fibres can be identified using the
PAS reaction, or by superficial impregnation with silver salts (argyrophilic staining).

o Elastic Fibers (fibra elastica) - are primarily distinguished from collagen fibres by their
pronounced elasticity (can be stretched to 150% of their original length) and their marked
refractivity. Composed of a central amorphous mass (pars amorpha) surrounded by a network
of microfibrils (pars filamentosa). The amorphous substance consists of elastin, a substance rich
in glycine, alanine and proline. They form the foundation for elastic tissues (e.g. elastic cartilage,
wall of the aorta, internal and external elastic membranes of arteries) and elastic ligaments (e.g.
nuchal ligament, ligamentum flavum). Stained using resorcin (red), aldehyde fuchsin (dark blue),
van Gieson stain (red) and orcein (black).

-yellow fibers; allows stretch and recoil

Ground Substance - The cells and fibres of connective and supportive tissues are embedded in a viscous,
amorphous ground substance. The nature of the ground substance contributes to the characteristics of
the tissue. The “stuff” between the cells and fibers. Usually clear, colorless, viscous fluid. Can be
minerals – bone. Can be fluid- plasma in blood. It holds fluid; interstitial fluid. Functions as a sieve
through which H2O/ solutes diffuse between capillaries and cells.

Composed of polyanionic proteoglycans and structural glycoprotein.

· Proteoglycans contain a considerably greater proportion of carbohydrate than

protein.Based on their high content of uronate and sulfate esters, these molecules are
referred to as acid mucopolysaccharides, or glycosaminoglycans
· Glycosaminoglycans vary considerably in both their sulfate content and degree of
acetylation. Connective tissue therefore also serves as a water reservoir (turgor).
· Structural glycoproteins are composed of conjugated proteins bound covalently with
carbohydrates

Fluid – cells and fibers are suspended in fluid

  TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Common to most types of connective tissue is their derivation from the mesoderm.

connective tissue is conventionally categorised as:

· embryonic connective tissue: · specialised connective tissue: · connective tissue proper:

− mesenchymal connective
tissue
− mucous (or gelatinous)
connective tissue
− lymphoreticular connective
tissue (lymphatic tissue)
− haemoreticular connective
tissue (haemopoietic tissue)
− adipose tissue
− loose connective tissue (low
fibre content)
− dense connective tissue (high
fibre content)

 Embryonic Connective Tissue (textus connectivus embryonalis) - In the embryo, the mesoderm
gives rise to mesenchymal and mucous connective tissue. Embryonic connective tissue consists of
relatively poorly differentiated, widely spaced cells and gel-like ground substance.
o Mesenchymal connective tissue (mesenchymal cells) - are predominantly stellate to
polymorphous (7–10 μm) with long processes that form a three-dimensional network.
Mesenchymal cells give rise to the various connective and supportive tissues and their
derivatives, most of the muscle cells, the vessels and the endo- and mesothelia.
o Mucous connective tissue - is derived from mesenchymal tissue. It is found around the umbilical
vessels (Wharton’s jelly) and in dental pulp.It consists of a network of fibroblasts and
mesenchymal cells that fill the large intercellular spaces with scant quantities of collagen fibrils
and larger amounts of amorphous, hyaluronan rich ground substance

 Reticular Connective Tissue (textus connectivus reticularis) - Reticular connective tissue largely
retains the characteristics of undifferentiated mesenchyme. It is composed of an open meshwork of
reticular cells and delicate reticular fibres, as well as undifferentiated ground substance. Reticular
cells usually have a large euchromatic nucleus that can increase in density based on the functional
status of the cell (nuclear pleomorphism). Reticular connective tissue forms the structural
 framework of numerous organs (e.g. lymphatic organs, liver, genital organs, subepithelial layers of
the gastrointestinal tract).

 Lymphoreticular Connective Tissue (textus connectivus lymphoreticularis) - Lymphoreticular

connective tissue (also referred to as lymphatic tissue) is reticular tissue in which the wide
intercellular spaces have become populated with free cells. Forms the stroma of lymphatic organs
(lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, thymus). Significant component of the adaptive and innate immune
system

 Haemoreticular Connective Tissue (textus connectivus haemopoeticus) - Reticular connective

tissue containing free blood cells, or their stem or progenitor cells, is referred to as haemoreticular
connective tissue.

 Adipose Tissue (textus adiposus) - Adipose tissue consists of a homogeneous population of fat cells
(tes) that develop from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells through the intracellular accumulation
of lipid droplets. The functions of adipose tissue are manifold. In the context of energy metabolism.
Adipose tissue undergoes constant proliferation (triglyceride synthesis, lipogenesis) and regression
(triglyceride hydrolysis, lipolysis). Fat metabolism is regulated by neurotransmitters produced by
sympathetic nerve fibres, and by hormones. Insulin and prostaglandin E1 inhibit the release of fatty
acids from fat cells by blocking adenylate cyclase cAMPreceptors on the plasmalemma (lipogenesis).
Deposition of mucopolysaccharides can give rise to large vesicular, honeycomb-like fat cells (serous
fat). During embryonic development, adipose tissue serves as a placeholder for subsequently
developing tissues.
adipose tissue can be divided into:
o Pluri- or multilocular adipose tissue (brown fat) – (textus adiposus fuscus) the cytoplasm of
adipocytes contains numerous fat droplets of varying size. This type of adipose tissue develops
from strands of cells containing large numbers of mitochondria with abundant cytochrome
(hence ‘brown’ fat). The individual adipocytes are smaller (15–25 μm) than in white adipose
tissue. Found in birds, hibernating animals and rodents (e.g. in the pectoral girdle). It also
constitutes 5% of the body mass of newborn mammals. The primary functions of brown fat are
to generate heat and provide a source of energy.
o Unilocular adipose tissue (white fat) – (textus adiposus albus) lipid droplets deposited in the
cytoplasm of lipoblasts (developing fat cells) coalesce to form a single, large lipid droplet.
Individual adipocytes are almost completely filled by the lipid droplet (which is stabilised by a
coating of microfilaments), with only a rim of cytoplasm remaining. The colour of unilocular fat,
which ranges from white (hence ‘white fat’) to yellow, is determined by the quantity of
exogenous fats oluble pigments (e.g. carotenoids) in the tissue
 Connective Tissue Proper (textus connectivus collagenous) - connective tissue undergoes structural
and functional adaptations, based on the mechanical forces to which it is subjected.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

Loose CT / Areolar CT– deep to all epithelial basement membrane

-composed of: mostly collagen, few elastic fibers

-cells: fibroblast

-located between glands, nerves, muscle skin

-function separates, connects, support

Adipose CT (special loose CT) – stores energy, padding, insulation, hypodermis

-composed of: cells filled with lipids

- location: below skin, around kidney, mammary glands

-function: cushion, insulation, stores energy

Dense Irregular Collagenous CT – strong in all directions, dermis, submucosa of organs

-composed of: collagen and elastic fibers

-cells: fibroblast

-located: skin

-function: separates, connects

Dense Regular Collagenous CT – strong in one direction, tendons

-composed of: collagen and elastic fibers

-cells: fibroblast

-located: tendons, ligaments

-function: connects, movement

- Connective tissue is categorised as:

o Loose connective tissue (low fibre content) – (textus connectivus collagenosus laxus) is widely
distributed throughout the body in the form of interstitial connective tissue. Forming a flexible
framework (stroma) for the organs, it connects and separates individual organ segments and
provides channels for nerves and vessels. Underlies epithelial tissue, from which it is separated
only by the basal lamina.Plays an important part in regulating the water content of the
body.Cells of loose connective tissue consist primarily of flattened fibroblasts and fibrocytes.
Contains histiocytes, mast cells and transient cells (e.g. lymphocytes, plasma cells). These are
responsible for local immune responses.
 o Dense connective tissue (high fibre content) – (textus connectivus collagenosus compactus) is
composed predominantly of collagen and elastic fibres, with relatively little ground substance
and smaller cell populations (fibrocytes).More common in parts of the body subjected to
relatively large mechanical forces.
-According to the arrangement of the collagen fibres, it is divided into:
· Dense irregular connective tissue - primarily forms the framework of organ capsules,
fascia and aponeuroses, and the pericardium.The perichondrium, parts of the
periosteum (stratum fibrosum) and joint capsules are composed of sheets in which
collagen fibre bundles are configured in a lattice (crossing each other at various angles).
· Dense regular connective tissue - is characterised by the arrangement of fibre bundles
in one predominant direction. Tendons and ligaments are the principal example.
Composed primarily of parallel arrays of collagen fibres enmeshed in a sparse network
of reticular fibres. Between fibre bundles contain elongated fibroblasts (tendinocytes)
recognisable with the light microscope by their basophilic nuclei. The innermost sheath,
termed the endotendineum, is formed by tendinocytes. Groups of collagen fascicles are
surrounded by the peritendineum. The outer layer, or epitendineum, encloses the
entire tendon. The basic structure of elastic ligaments (fibrae elasticae) is similar to that
of tendons, though the fibres are mainly elastic.

 TYPES OF SUPPORTIVE TISSUE

The main components of supportive tissue are cartilage and bone, both of which are derived from
mesenchyme.

Hyaline Cartilage – ribs, articular cartilage (synovial joints)

-composed of: large collagen fibers

-cells: chondrocytes

-located: ends of bones, trachea, larynx

-function: support, cushion, protection, growth of long bones

Elastic Cartilage – ear

-composed of: elastic fibers

-cells chondrocytes

-located: ear, epiglottis, auditory tubes

Fibrocartilage – IV discs, pubic symphysis, meniscus

-composed of: fine collagen fibers

-cells: chondrocytes
 -funcion: connects, cushion

Bone - cell: osteocytes, osteoblast

-composed of: osteocytes, osteoclast

-location: skeleton

-function: support, protect, encloses, movement

Blood – composed of: cells and plasma

-cells: RBC, WBC. Platelets

-function: transport and connects

CHONDROBLAST – maintain cartilage

 Cartilage (textus cartilaginous) - Cartilage is distinguished by a high degree of compressive elasticity.

Cartilage is the primary supportive tissue in the developing embryo and forms the framework from
which most of the skeleton develops. Cartilage is avascular and contains no nerves
Cartilage formation (chondrogenesis) begins in the mesenchymal connective tissue, which
condenses to form a layer that surrounds the cartilage throughout the life of the organism
(perichondrium). Mesenchymal cells (perichondral fibroblasts) differentiate into chondroblasts.
Chondrocytes have an ovoid to spherical nucleus, surrounded by cytoplasm rich in organelle.
Metabolism within chondrocytes is anaerobic. Chondrocytes occupy cavities, or lacunae, within
the cartilage matrix. The wall of the lacuna is referred to as the capsule. Chondrocytes are
responsible for synthesis and maintenance of the extracellular matrix. Chondrocytes are
enclosed by a dense fibrillar collagen network, giving rise to a thin region (1–2 μm) termed the
capsular (pericellular) matrix. Chondrocytes also synthesise amorphous ground substance.
Chondrocytes and their associated capsular matrix are the key structural elements of cartilage.
Together, they are referred to as chondrons or territories. These are separated by
interterritorial regions (interterritorial matrix)
Cartilage grows in one of two ways:
Appositional Growth - perichondral chondroblasts multiply and differentiate, with cartilage
formed at the surface of the tissue. This is the more common form of cartilage growth.
Interstitial growth - involves the replication of differentiated chondrocytes, primarily within
incompletely formed matrix.
- cartilage is categorised as: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage

o Hyaline Cartilage (cartilage hyalina) - most widespread type of cartilage. It forms the basis of
the embryonic cartilage template and constitutes the articular cartilage, costal and nasal
cartilage, and the cartilage of the airway. Immature hyaline cartilage appears bluish-white,
becoming yellowish with increasing age.
-It consists of:
· chondrocytes
· type II collagen fibres
 · homogeneous, largely amorphous matrix
-Peripherally located chondrocytes tend to occur in groups as flattened, spindle-shaped
cells.Several cells may be present within the same lacuna (isogenous cell group).Collagen fibres
in hyaline cartilage are arranged along lines of mechanical pressure and tension. At the surface,
the fibres are curved to form arcades, from which they transition into a more oblique
orientation. Type II collagen fibres cannot be identified under standard light microscopy, as
these are masked by the homogeneous glassy (hyaline) matrix in which they are embedded.

o Elastic Cartilage (cartilage elastica) - The ground substance of elastic cartilage incorporates a
strongly branching network of elastic fibres, allowing this tissue to adapt to varying types of
bending forces. Impart pale yellow color. Elastic cartilage is stabilised by collagen fibres. Age-
related ossification does not occur in elastic cartilage. Found in the pinna, parts of the external
acoustic canal and in the epiglottis

o Fibrocartilage (cartilage fibrosa) - develops from dense connective tissue that is subjected to
pressure as well as a certain degree of tension. It can be regarded simply as dense connective
tissue that has undergone chondrification. Highly resilient tissue occurring in intervertebral discs
(disci intervertebrales), the cartilage of the hoof, articular discs and menisci, and as
cartilaginous inclusions in the m. biceps brachii of the horse.

 Bone (textus osseus) - It forms the skeleton of the body, provides attachment sites for the muscles
and constitutes the structural framework of the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Houses
haemopoietic tissue (bone marrow) and serves as a reservoir for various minerals. Functions can be
divided into two categories: support and metabolism. The framework of the whole body. Both the
outer compact bone (substantia compacta) and inner spongy or trabecular bone (substantia
spongiosa) undergo continuous remodeling. The function of bone is also influenced by its
connective tissue sheath, the periosteum. This is composed of an outer fibrous layer (stratum
fibrosum) and a more cellular, inner osteogenic layer (stratum cambium). Periosteum surrounds
the bone, except at articular surfaces and at many sites of muscle attachment The specific metabolic
functions of bone include the storage of calcium and phosphate. The hormone calcitonin, secreted
by the C-cells of the thyroid gland, stimulates bone production by osteoblasts, reduces the activity of
osteoclasts and promotes the incorporation of calcium into the bone matrix.
- Somatotropin (growth hormone), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) and male and female reproductive hormones also have a stimulatory effect on
bone growth.
- Vitamin C promotes the synthesis of collagen fibres by osteoblasts. Vitamin A acts as a regulator
in maintaining an equilibrium between bone production and resorption
- Bone is derived from mesenchymal connective tissue.
- It consists of: bone cells and bone matrix.

o Bone Cells - are comprised of:

OSTEOBLASTS – secrete bone matrix, and build new bone (BUILD)

OSTEOCYTES – mature osteoblasts that reside in lacunae and monitor and maintain the
extracellular matrix (MAINTAIN)

OSTEOCLASTS – secret enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of bone matrix (calcium and
phosphate) (BREAKDOWN)

· Osteoprogenitor Cells - develop from mesenchymal stem cells. Present in the endosteum and
periosteum. These mitotically active cells eventually differentiate into osteoblasts. Found
predominantly in the osteogenic layer of the periosteum and along vessels of the bone marrow

· Osteoblast - do not undergo mitosis.

-These cells participate in bone formation in the following ways:

synthesis of type I collagen fibres and non-collagenous proteins
production of glycosaminoglycans/proteoglycans
participation in mineralisation of bone matrix
modulation of osteoclast function.

-Non-collagenous proteins such as osteocalcin, osteonectin and osteopontin regulate

the process of mineralisation. Osteoblast-like cells have been found to regulate the
proliferation of periosteal fibroblasts and the stimulatory effect of parathyroid hormone
on osteoclast formation.Osteoblasts regulate the formation of hydroxyapatite crystals
(from calcium and phosphate) between the collagen fibrils in the bone matrix
(mineralisation).Active osteoblasts (20–30 μm) form an epithelium-like sheet on the
surface of bone spicules.

-Formation of new bone can occur:

at the periosteum (periosteal bone formation)
at the endosteum (endosteal bone
formation) around blood vessels
(perivascular) by direct
differentiation of bone cells from connective tissue

· Bone -lining Cells - found on the surface of bone, are frequently referred to as inactive or
resting osteoblasts. Neighbouring bone-lining cells are connected by gap junction. Serve as a
barrier between fluid in the periosteocytic compartment and serve as a barrier between fluid in
the periosteocytic compartment and the extracellular fluid outside the bone. Important role in
regulating mineralisation and bone metabolism.

·Osteocytes - are mature bone cells that develop from osteoblasts This transformation process,
which occurs in only around 10–20% of the osteoblast population, takes approximately 3
days.Surrounded by calcified bone matrix. The long, finger-like processes of osteocytes extend
into canaliculi (canaliculi ossei) within the bone matrix. During the development of
osteoblasts into osteocytes, the size of the cell decreases by up to 70% and the number of
organelles, particularly the rER and Golgi cisternae, diminishes. Osteocytes have a large, typically
ovoid nucleus and relatively few metabolically active organelles. Osteocytes function as
 mechanosensory cells capable of repairing microscopic bone defects and revitalising dead
tissue.

·Osteoclast - are multinuclear giant cells (10–20, maximum 100, nuclei per cell) derived from
pluripotent haemopoietic stem cells of the granulocytemonocyte line. At the apical surface of
the cell, infolding of the plasmalemma gives rise to numerous finger-like structures that increase
the area of the cell surface (ruffled border). Adjacent to the ruffled border is the ‘clear zone’
(sealing zone), a region in which the cell adheres to the bone matrix via specific binding
structures (podosomes).The cell membrane of osteoclasts incorporates several classes and
subclasses of receptors that aid in maintaining the seal between the cell and the bone matrix
(integrin, vitronectin receptors), as well as myeloid antigens.

-Bone resorption occurs in two ways:

formation of lacunae (Howship’s lacunae, resorption bays) by osteoclasts lying on the

bone surface, or resorption of bone along vessels by one or more osteoclasts.

-The bone resorption process consists of two phases:

Extracellular phase - the bone is degraded by acids and lytic enzymes released into the
space between the osteoclast and the bone

Intracellular phase - these degradation products are taken up at the ruffled border by
endocytosis and further broken down in cytoplasmic vesicles (primarily lysosomes)

-Osteoclasts are highly mobile cells.

-Vitamin D3 deficiency leads to accumulation of unmineralised bone matrix, resulting in

the disease known as rickets.

o Bone Matrix - is composed of:

· Organic component (collagen fibres and ground substance rich in glucosamine) - Type I
collagen fibres are the main component (approximately 90%) of the organic substance
of bone.
-Glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans (chondroitin-4-sulfate, chondroitin-6-
sulfate, keratin sulfate) make up 1–2% of the bone matrix.
-Together with lipids (5–10%), the structural proteins of the collagen fibres
comprise around one third of the dry weight of bone tissue
· Inorganic component (minerals) - The inorganic component of bone matrix, which
accounts for approximately two-thirds of the dry weight of bone, is composed
predominantly of calcium phosphate (85–90%), calcium carbonate (8–10%), magnesium
phosphate (1.5%) and calcium fluoride (0.3%).
-These minerals form a crystal lattice

o Types of Bone - Histologically, bone tissue can be divided into two types:
 -The principal differences between them are the organisation of the collagen fibres within the
matrix and the proportion of cells and ground substance

·Woven bone (os membranaceum reticulofibrosum) - is the simpler of the two forms.
Can be considered as ossified connective tissue that is found in locations subjected over
extended periods to forces of pressure and tension. This type of bone is thus found
wherever new bone is formed. Laid down during embryonic development. After birth, it
is rapidly replaced with more highly differentiated lamellar bone.

· Lamellar bone (os membranaceum lamellosum) - is distinguished by the arrangement

of collagen fibres in accordance with the mechanical forces experienced by the bone.
Distinguished by the arrangement of collagen fibres in accordance with the mechanical
forces experienced by the bone. Composed of collagen fibres arranged in parallel and a
mineralised bone. Osteocytes within lacunae are regularly arranged between the
concentric lamellae around the central canal. Their long cytoplasmic processes radiate
into interconnecting canaliculi (canaliculi ossei) extending from the lacunae.
Arrangement permits the transport of substances between the blood vessel in the
Haversian canal and the bone matrix (both to and from the vessel). Channels running
transversely through the bone (perforating canals, Volkmann’s canals) connect central
canals with each other, and with the endosteum and periosteum. Non-functional
osteons are broken down, leaving remnants referred to as interstitial lamellae. At the
internal and external surfaces of the bone, the lamellae are arranged in circular sheets,
forming the internal circumferential lamellae (adjacent to the endosteum) and external
circumferential lamellae (lying against the internal surface of the periosteum). Collagen
fibres that bind the periosteum to the bone (fibrae perforantes, Sharpey’s fibres) are
incorporated into the external circumferential lamellae. Trabecular (spongy) bone also
contains lamellae, but these are not organised into osteonal systems.

o New Bone Formation (osteogenesis) - The formation of new bone occurs in two ways:

·Intramembranous ossification (primary or direct ossification) - development of bone directly

from mesenchymal connective tissue without a cartilaginous precursor phase. This type of bone
formation gives rise to certain flat bones of the skull and the bony collar of developing long
bones. It is also observed in repairing bone fractures. Osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into
osteoblasts that produce collagen fibres and osteoid. The bone tissue establishes itself as a
metabolically active mineral depot.

·Endochondral ossification (secondary or indirect ossification) - formation of bone based on a

cartilaginous template. This results first in (immature) woven bone that is gradually replaced by
(mature) lamellar bone (sometimes referred to as replacement bone). Involves the formation of
bone from a template of hyaline cartilage. The cartilage also serves as the foundation for
lengthwise growth of the bone. This function continues until the epiphyseal plate
closes.Incorporates both perichondral ossification and endochondral ossification. The processes
involved in endochondral ossification of the cartilage template, the eventual degradation of the
cartilage and the formation of new bone from mesenchymal connective tissue can be
particularly clearly observed at the physeal–metaphyseal region between the diaphysis and
epiphyses.
- The following zones can be distinguished :
· Reserve zone - the morphology and arrangement of the chondrocytes is typical
of hyaline cartilage.
· Zone of proliferation- zone towards the medullary cavity is the relatively wide.
Here the chondrocytes, arranged in columns, undergo division. Intercellular
matrix is less plentiful in this zone and the cells are packed together more
closely
· Zone of hypertrophy - the chondrocytes increase in size. The intercellular
matrix becomes reduced to narrow spicules and begins to undergo calcification.
Calcification of the cartilage matrix is completed and the chondrocytes
degenerate.
· Zone of ossification - blood vessels and perivascular connective tissue invading
from within the medullary cavity permit chondroclasts
· Zone of resorption - they engage in enzymatic digestion of calcified cartilage
remnants