Topic 1.

Types of learning:

• Classical Conditioning
• Observational learning
• Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning
It is the association brought about, between a stimulus that is neutral and additional to a stimulus that
induces a reflex response. It is a learnt behaviour.

Example:
Some people enjoy binge watching mukbang videos in ramdhan during fast, and salivate looking at the
food. The process of salivation is a reflex reaction but the looking at food and associating it with your
involuntarily reaction is an example of classical conditioning.

• Observational Learning
It is a learning process occurring through the observation of social cues and imitation of actions other
humans.

Example:
It is very noticeable that often times you start adopting the behaviours of your friends mimicking their
language style and catchphrases, which is a prime example of observational, behaviour learning.

• Operant Conditioning
It is the learning process where reinforcement or punishment is instrumental in bringing about an
increase or decrease in the likelihood of a response. It is the linking of events.

Example:

Qari sahib/teacher allows some children to leave earlier after completion of their assigned task and
some whose work remains pending either stays late in the class or receives extra homework, as penalty.
This naturally evokes a response in children where this concept of positive reinforcement or punishment
brings about a certain conditioning of children.

Topic 2. Classical Conditioning:

 Classical Conditioning:
“Classical Conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.”

A response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus and is eventually elicited by the first stimulus
alone. It states that behaviors are learned by connecting neutral stimuli with positive ones. Classical
conditioning is learned through association.

Example:
Some people enjoy binge watching mukbang videos in ramdhan during fast, and salivate looking at the
food. The process of salivation is a reflex reaction but the looking at food and associating it with your
involuntarily reaction is an example of classical conditioning.

Key elements of classical conditioning:

• Neutral stimulus:

A stimulus that causes no response at first .

• Conditioned stimulus:

A neutral stimulus (showing no response) but now triggers a response.

• Unconditioned stimulus:

A stimulus that causes a natural response without any association before.

• Conditioned response:

A response that is triggered due to conditioned Stimulus.

• Unconditioned response:

A response that is triggered without any condition or association. It is a natural response.

Terms of classical conditioning:

1. Spontaneous recovery
2. Generalization
3. Discrimination

1.Spontaneous recovery:
“Re-emergence of conditioned(learned) response after a period of extinction of conditioned
Stimuli.”
It is the sudden re-emergence of earlier extinct conditioned responses after the unconditioned stimulus
has been removed for a little time. If conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer associated,
extinction will rapidly return after spontaneous recovery.

Example:
A child is trained to go to sleep when the light is put off. Although, for many months the child no longer
falls asleep when the light is put off. Later, the child begins to fall asleep when the light is put off again.

2.Generalization:
“Conditioned Response to stimuli that are similar to conditioned Stimuli”

It is the response to stimuli that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Generalization in

Classical conditioning happens in daily routine.

Example:
A pet may react to a flute or bell in the same way it has been taught to react to a whistle.

3.Discrimination :
“Ability to differentiate between conditioned stimuli and stimuli that are similar to conditioned
stimuli.”

It is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Example:
If an ice cream truck sound was the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to
differentiate between the similar truck sound and other sounds.

Topic 4.Learned Fears:

• Learned fears:
Learned fears are a type of anxiety disorder that can occur when an individual associates a particular
stimulus or situation with a past negative experience.

It is the fear that is learned through direct experience with a threat or it can be learned by observing
others or by verbal warnings. It refers to the process of developing a fear response to stimulus through
the condition.

Example:
Learned fears are natural fears induced at a young age, developed by our environment, culture, and
society. These fears can be fear of anything such as fear of darkness, spiders, snakes, small spaces etc. A
child is born with 2 two innate fears only, one is fear of loud noises and the other is fear of falling, So a
child is not afraid of darkness, snakes and water bodies etc by birth. These fears are developed at very
young age by influence of life events or environment.
 • Systematic desensitization:
It is a therapeutic technique that helps individuals overcome their fears through gradual exposure to
the stimulus in a controlled environment. It involves replacing an undesired response with a desired
one.

Steps of systematic desensitization:

It occurs in three steps:

• Identify the hierarchy of fears

• Learn relaxation and coping procedure.

• Individual uses the procedure to manage their fears.

Example:
In this, a person is first taught some relaxation techniques just like breathing exercises and muscle
detensioning and then he his exposed to his source of anxiety or fear. That person would now use those
techniques to relax himself and overcome those fears and repeat this until he will have control over his
anxiety. For example: A person has public speaking anxiety, he would be told to box breath, in box
breathing you take deep breath for 4 seconds, hold it for 4 seconds, breath out for 4 seconds and again
hold for 4 seconds and practicing public speaking on regular intervals , this way he will be able to
distress himself and will be able to speak much efficiently. Mirror technique can also prove helpful in the
regard.

Advantage :
It is used to treat extreme abhorrences by a combination of marked exposure and relaxation. It helps
clients to overcome fears and phobias.

Goal :
To reduce the individual’s anxiety response and replace it with a sense of calm and control.

• Vicarious conditioning:
Vicarious conditioning is a process by which we learn by observing others’ experiences. Moreover, it
can also be described as an act of learning things by observing the reactions, attitudes, and emotions of
others rather than direct exposure.

Example:
When a child sees another child get rewarded for sharing the candies, encouraging the child to
engage himself in sharing behaviour.

A student observes his friend getting punished for cheating resulting the student himself staying away
from cheating.

Purpose:
 To help individuals, especially children, acquire new responses by observing others’ behavior.

Advantage :
Learning new skills:
Children and adults can learn new skills through it. A child can learn how to paint her nails by watching
their moms.

Topic 4.Operant Conditioning:

• Operant Conditioning:
In operant conditioning, learning is based on the consequences of making a response. A response may
be followed by a reinforcer (such as food). Or by punishment. Or by nothing. These results determine
whether a response is likely to be made again.

Example:
If you wear a particular hat and get lots of compliments (reinforcement), you are likely to wear it more
often. If people snicker, insult you, call the police, or scream (punishment), you will probably wear it less
often.

Types of operant conditioning:

1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Positive punishment
4. Negative punishment

1. Positive reinforcement:
The process of encouraging or establishing a pattern of behavior by offering reward when the
behavior is exhibited. It means that, the likelihood of a desirable behavior can be increased by offering
reward every time when desired behavior is exhibited.

Example:
I saw a juggler, who was training a goat to maintain its balance on wooden pieces using positive
reinforcement. The goat was constantly attempting to balance on the wooden piece, while the juggler
was observing its behavior and rewarding it with treats every time it successfully maintained its balance.
This positive reinforcement was strengthening the goat’s behavior of maintaining balance, and as the
juggler continued to use positive reinforcement consistently, the goat became more proficient at the
task. Gradually, the juggler increased the level of difficulty by using smaller or narrower wooden pieces,
and the goat was rewarded only when it successfully maintained its balance on the smaller/narrower
wooden piece. The goat was learning to maintain its balance on different types of surfaces, and the
juggler was using positive reinforcement to teach it this trick.
 2. Negative reinforcement:

The process of removing an unpleasant stimulus after the desired behavior is displayed, in order to
increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. It means that, the occurrence or likelihood of a
desirable behavior can be increased by removing the bad or unpleasant stimulus.

Example:
I was having trouble waking up in the morning and kept hitting the snooze button on my alarm clock.
To break this habit, I decided to use negative reinforcement by setting my alarm to a loud and
unpleasant sound that I found aversive. When the alarm went off, the sound caused me discomfort and
annoyance, which motivated me to turn it off quickly to avoid the unpleasant noise. By turning off the
alarm, I removed the aversive stimulus, which served as negative reinforcement. Through consistent use
of negative reinforcement, I was able to form a new habit of waking up immediately when the alarm
went off to avoid the unpleasant sound.

3.Positive punishment:
Positive punishment involves adding an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is
emitted to decrease future responses. It means to remove or decrease the occurrence of an
undesirable response by adding a bad or unpleasant stimulus as a punishment.

Example:
I was riding my bike on Raiwind road without wearing a helmet when I was pulled over by a police
officer and issued a traffic fine. The fine required me to pay a significant amount of money as a
consequence for breaking the law, which served as an aversive stimulus. The experience of receiving the
traffic fine was unpleasant, and the monetary cost of the fine motivated me to always wear a helmet
while riding my bike in the future. The fine served as a positive punishment, decreasing the frequency of
my noncompliant behavior and increasing my likelihood of complying with traffic laws related to
wearing a helmet. While the experience was not enjoyable, it ultimately helped to shape my behavior
and promote safer riding practices.

4.Negative punishment:
Punishment that results because some pleasurable stimulus or circumstance is removed as a
consequence of a response. It means to remove the occurrence of an undesirable response by
removing a good or pleasurable stimulus as a punishment.

Example:
I had a cat who loved to knead on me whenever I sat down to pet her. However, her kneading
behavior became uncomfortable and sometimes painful for me. So, I tried to discourage her kneading
habit by using negative punishment. Whenever she started kneading on me, I withdrew my attention
and stopped petting her. By removing the positive stimulus of attention and petting, I hoped to
discourage her from kneading in the future. Over time, she learned that kneading on me led to the loss
of attention and petting, and her kneading behavior decreased.