Monitoring of crop physiology using remote sensing methods

ABSTRACT
Energy is mainly obtained from food. For survival and to sustain all other vital life processes,
every living thing on this planet requires food. Both people and animals mostly rely on plants as
their primary food source. Living without food is unthinkable.

The greatest concern in some regions of the globe today is the scarcity of food, which is caused
by the global population expanding. The need for techniques that can aid in the management of
the produced crops has increased as a result of this. Growing and producing crops for use as
food and fibre is an agricultural practice used by farmers all over the world. This method uses
all the feed materials needed to maintain and grow crops.

It is crucial to use the right seeding rates, spacing, and location. Both the cropping system and
the properties of the soil have an effect on this. From manual broadcast seeding to precision
pneumatic seeding, there is a wide range of equipment and technologies that can improve seed
operations in the distinct socioeconomic and environmental context of farmers.
 INTRODUCTION

To ensure that crops can produce their highest yields, the first step is to prepare the land. In order
for plants to grow, the ideal soil conditions must be provided. A suitable seedbed should be
created with the necessary nutrients and environmental factors to enable the seed to sprout
initially, followed by the establishment of the crop for future development. Historically, harsh
techniques like slashing and burning, as well as ploughing, have been used to accomplish this.
These procedures are not just labor-intensive, particularly in low-mechanized environments, and
demanding for small-scale farmers who must physically prepare seed cribs with primitive
instruments. They are also not long-term viable.

AO promotes alternative ways of land preparation in an effort to reduce labor expenses and
drudgery while also seeking to boost the sustainability of the efforts. Less tilling and the use of
the proper tools and equipment will help reach this shared goal. The labor-intensive tasks of
weeding and clearing the land can be simplified with the use of better hoes, row planting,
draught animal driven rippers, harrows, and planters.

Single axle tractor equipment is a specialist option that may be employed if there are enough
farmer capacities, and when economic and social circumstances enable it. The requirement for
hand weeding can be considerably reduced by using weed wipes and adequate spraying
technology for other tasks related to maintaining soil cover and preparing the area, reduced or
minimum tillage techniques should be combined with raised beds and conservation agriculture.

A crop's performance is influenced by a number of activities, including weeding and sowing.

The growth of the plant depends on the seeding rates, spacing, and location being appropriate.
The agricultural system and the state of the soil have an impact on this as well. In the distinct
socioeconomic and environmental setting that farmers face, a variety of instruments and pieces
of equipment, from hand broadcast seeding to exact pneumatic seeding, can improve seed
operations.

Reduced tillage and direct sowing work together to increase seed location and preserve soil
quality when Conservation Agriculture concepts are applied. Low tillage situations allow for the
use of a variety of seeders and planters, such as manual hand planters, animal traction direct
seeders, two wheel tractor seeders and planters, and four wheel tractor pushed and attached direct
seeders. Due to the immediate advantages of less work and speed, direct seeding provides
smallholder farmers with opportunities for greater yields and more effective uses of labour.

One person must manually weed one hectare using traditional hoes for around 140 hours. To
prevent weed establishment and crop harm, weeding is done at key times. To stop weed seeds
from setting, late weeding of prior crops is performed.

The efficiency of the activity can be increased by using the right tools and equipment, which can
help the task be completed more quickly and with less labor, enhancing the farmers' way of life.
Weeds can be eradicated chemically or mechanically, respectively. The objective of the
mechanical alternative is to displace the weeds.

A plant or plant product that can be grown and harvested for income or food is referred to as a
crop. Crops can be divided into six groups based on their intended use: food, feed, fiber, oil,
ornamental, and industrial crops.

Fruits and vegetables are collected from food crops for human use. Widely cultivated food crops
globally are grains including corn, wheat, and rice. The first crops to be gathered through
agriculture were food crops. The diversification of various kinds of crops was a result of the
development of agriculture and the rise of civilizations.

Types of Crop production:

 Feed crops are gathered for cattle consumption, including oats and alfalfa. These crops
provide the nutrients that are necessary for animal growth. They can be found in natural
meadows and pastures in addition to being grown in agricultural fields.
For the rearing of livestock, forage crops are crucial. Animals consume forages like
grasses directly. Green chop refers to forages that are freshly cut and given to animals.
Green chop made from alfalfa is a common crop feed to animals.
As the global demand for meat has expanded, so has the output of feed crops. The
agricultural environment has changed as a result of increased feed crop production.
 Fiber crops, including cotton and hemp, are harvested to make textiles and paper.
Textiles, or cloth, are made from the dried and processed fibres of particular plants. The
majority of fibres used in the manufacture of textiles come from the stems or roots of
plants like flax. Flax is used to produce linen.
For the purpose of making fibre, plants can have other components, cotton, is collected
to make the most common fibre crop in the world. The pulp of bamboo plants is used to
produce textiles made of bamboo.
An intriguing and debatable example of a fibre crop is the hemp plant. Strong and long-
lasting, hemp plant fibres are ideal for making goods including paper, clothing, ropes,
nets, and ship sailcloth. Supporters of hemp view the plant as a useful and sustainable
source of fibre.

 Canola and corn are two examples of oil crops that are harvested for human consumption
or commercial purpose. Technology advancements over the past century have made it
possible to process and separate crops into their constituent parts, including oil. For
instance, soybeans accounted for 61% of global oilseed manufacture.
Such as olive oil and corn oil, oil crops are collected for use in cooking, oil crops are
gathered for usage in industries like paint, soap, and machine lubrication.

 For landscape gardening, crops like dogwood and azalea are collected. Ornamental plants
are typically grown in nurseries before being bought for use in homes or businesses.
Producing ornamental crops has a long history. For instance, the Netherlands' tulip
harvest has come to represent that nation.
In many developing countries, the production of ornamental crops is now an important
economic activity. Roses and carnations are two items that Kenya is a major exporter of.
In Kenya, flower farmers have positioned their greenhouses along the Lake Naivasha and
Lake Victoria beaches.

 Industrial crops are grown for use in industries or machinery, such as rubber and tobacco.
Industrial crops are all plants that are used in the production of industrial goods like fuel
and fibre.
 Although many different plants can naturally generate rubber, the Hevea tree, is the main
source Rubber is extracted for its latex. Hevea trees produce a latex-based fluid in their
inner bark that is highly resilient. With a sharp knife, the bark is tapped to release the
latex, which is then collected in cups. Latex produces curds when combined with
chemicals, which are solid rubber lumps. In order to create sheets and drain extra
moisture. To be used in tyres, conveyor belts, shoe bottoms, and other products, the
sheets are packaged and sent.

 Over thousands of years, techniques for cultivating and gathering crops have evolved.
Around 5500 BCE, Mesopotamia was the place where the first crops were planted. These
crops are native to a fertile region known as the Fertile Crescent, where they were farmed
close to freshwater sources to make irrigation relatively simple. One of the first crops was
wheat, followed by barley and figs.
Crop harvesting techniques have become increasingly advanced as a result of the
evolution of agriculture. The most important invention was crop rotation. With crop
rotation, the same plot of land is planted with one crop one year and a new one the next
year. The soil is conserved, and the risk of disease is reduced, by doing this.

Since the very beginning of agriculture, people have been breeding plants. Not long after the first
cereal grains were domesticated, people began recognizing different levels of plant excellence in
their fields and began storing seed from the greatest plants to develop new crops. Early plant
breeding methods were built on these reluctant selection strategies.

Plant breeding is the application of genetic principles to develop plants that are more useful to
people. This is accomplished by picking plants that are regarded as beautiful, valuable
economically or artistically, controlling the mating of those individuals, and then picking certain
individuals from the offspring. A plant population's hereditary composition and value can be
altered through such procedures repeatedly over many generations, much beyond what would
naturally occur in current populations.

Almost all breeding initiatives involve boosting yield as one of their objectives. Choosing overt
morphological variants is a common way to achieve this. The selection of dwarf, early-maturing
rice varieties is one example. They reach maturity quickly, clearing the land quickly, and
frequently allowing the planting of additional rice or another crop the same year.

Another strategy for increasing production is to develop cultivars that are insect- and disease-
resistant. Often, the only effective pest control method is the development of resistant cultivars.
The stabilizing effect resistant cultivars have on output, and consequently on a steady supply of
food, may be their most important characteristic. Variety that can withstand heat, cold, or
drought offer the same benefit.

Plant breeding can significantly improve nutrient content. For example, it is possible to develop
maize varieties that contain a great deal more lysine than the current crop. For regions of the
world where maize is the primary source of this nutritionally significant amino acid, plant
breeding has given the development of high-lysine maize cultivars major emphasis. The "bio
fortification" of food crops has been proven to enhance nutrition. It is especially useful in
developing countries where there may be gaps in the infrastructure for medical care and recurrent
dietary shortages.

The differences between higher plants and higher animals are more obvious, despite the
similarities between the molecular mechanisms of plants and animals in terms of biosynthesis
and catabolism pathways, as well as numerous cellular functions among the lower levels of
organization. For instance, plants have developed special equipment for using sunlight to create
their food.

Plants have a sophisticated transport system to move water, dissolved minerals, photosynthates,
and hormones to all areas of the body even though they do not have an active pump like a heart.
Although the mechanisms of gaseous exchange in the two groups are distinctly different, the
respiratory process is also identical at the cellular level in both groups. Although plants respond
to external stimuli in a similar way to mammals, their responses take different forms. Many
hormonal and environmental factors influence how plants grow and develop. Moreover, plants
react to these environmental conditions.

Plant metabolism is the name for the extensive set of physical and chemical procedures that
include respiration, synthesis, and the breakdown of organic compounds. Along with the
substrates for respiration, photosynthesis creates the initial chemical molecules that serve as the
building blocks for later biosynthesis of nucleic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates and organic
acids, lipids, and natural crops. Plants can survive without the byproducts of secondary
metabolism, although they aid in the growth and development of plants. Secondary metabolism
supports primary metabolism in plants. The plant's primary metabolism, made up of chemical
reactions, keeps it alive. Since it keeps all of a plant's systems operating properly, secondary
metabolism is crucial for preserving a plant's health.

Secondary metabolites frequently function as defensive systems in plants. Inferior metabolites

are employed in toxicity, anti-feeding behavior, or as building blocks for physical defensive
mechanisms. All metabolic processes essential for a plant to survive are referred to as primary
metabolism in plants, metabolites are substances created in other metabolic paths and, they are
important, are not absolutely necessary for a plant to operate. Primary metabolites are substances
that directly contribute to a plant's growth and development.

Secondary plant metabolites, on the other hand, are beneficial, frequently for defense, and give
plants characters such as color. Additionally involved in signaling and regulating the primary
metabolic pathways are secondary plant metabolites. Secondary metabolites known as plant
hormones are frequently utilized to control cellular metabolism and monitor a plant's general
growth.

Seed Machinery:

The objective is to raise the caliber of the seeds that farmers sow and the food plants that
humans and animals eat. Seeds make up more than 70% of the food that people eat directly.
Seeds, such as the wheat in our bread, the oats in our cereal, the corn, the rice, the beans, and the
peas, are what sustain humanity. The other plant things we consume are likewise grown from
seeds. Everything begins as a seed, from the lettuce leaves to the tomato fruits. Since cattle are
mostly fed on corn, soybeans, and other seeds, we too rely on seeds and their byproducts when
we consume meat, dairy, and eggs. Our clothing is made from fibres that are cultivated from
seeds, like cotton, linen, and hemp.
The development, processing, and maintenance of seeds is made possible by ongoing advances
in the sciences and technology related to seeds. Unplanted fields will come from improper seed
care, which will cause the seeds to lose their ability to sprout. Food security begins with seed
security.

Turf grass scientists work to improve the quality and sustainability of turf grass systems. The
green spaces these city dwellers experience usually have turf for both landscape and recreational
purposes. Turf grasses are vital for improving the quality of life for people living in urban
communities.

Turf grasses offer a wide range of essential services to the urban setting. They offer oases of
greenery for recreation and aesthetic pleasure. They enable people to engage in a variety of
sports and maintain physical fitness. Urban soils are also shielded from erosion by turf grasses.
They aid in the removal of common contaminants from the air and water that are linked to high
population densities, such as hydrocarbons (like car gas and oil). In urban settings, turf grasses
also have a cooling effect; grassy areas are substantially cooler than blacktop.

The form and functionality of these plants have been improved by turf grass experts for many
years. Plant research and plant breeding initiatives have made some of the most significant
contributions. Modern turf grass systems now have significantly better aesthetics, sturdiness, and
sustainability. Less water, fertilizer, and pesticides are required by modern grasses. Due to this,
managing turf grass has less of an influence on the environment.

The usage of water is the biggest issue facing turf grass systems. Urban regions experience
extremely high demands on water supplies from both people and business. It's common to
consider watering grass and landscaping to be of little importance. Researchers must keep
working to create turf grasses that can thrive with little or no additional water. We can control
irrigation systems more effectively, to use resources efficiently, turf grass may even tolerate
water that is unfit for human consumption. The aim is to manage turf grasses with the least
quantity of water and other resources possible.

A variety of technologies and/or their combinations have been used to determine the
physiological state of plants, including the terahertz approach, multispectral imaging, thermal
imaging, and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging. However, expanding these methods for
widespread application is not an easy task. When the procedures indicated above are used in
greenhouses, fields, and other large-area locations, the data volume acquired is insufficient.

Chlorophyll fluorescence is one of the techniques used to examine plant physiology and is a
reliable indicator of photosynthesis. Via a series of chemical processes throughout the process of
photosynthesis, the light energy received by chlorophyll is converted to photochemical energy
that is then stored as ATP and NADPH. A portion of the light energy is lost as heat or is
reemitted, while the majority of the light energy is utilized for photosynthesis. Fluctuations in
photosynthesis and heat dissipation caused the fluorescence of chlorophyll to change. Modulated
and non-modulated modes can be used to measure chlorophyll fluorescence. 

The modulated chlorophyll fluorescence measurement has gained popularity thanks to the
advancement of LEDs and the saturating pulse approach. Manufacturers like Walz, Photon
Systems Instruments, Hanstech Instruments, and others have created instruments for commercial
use that are employed in a variety of situations. Only a few research institutions have created
systems for measuring chlorophyll fluorescence. The key concerns of researchers are the
technical factors, such as uniform illumination, saturating pulse intensity, and detection area.

Remote sensing uses multispectral plant imaging at the microscopic level. The chemical makeup
of leaves, such as the amount of chlorophyll and nutritional components, is related to the
reflectance of various wavelengths. Studies have used analysis based on reflectance images or
reflectance curves. The ability to visualize the distribution and fluctuation of signals across a
sample is an intrinsic benefit of imaging. CCD cameras and various filters are typically utilized
to achieve images at different wavelengths.

To monitor plant physiology, a system combining a multispectral imaging module and a

chlorophyll fluorescence imaging module is used. The lighting component, the CCD imaging
component, and the circuit control component combine to form the chlorophyll fluorescence
imaging module, which produces excitation light pulses that measure fluorescence signals,
saturating light pulses that inhibit photosynthesis and saturating light pulses that activate
photosynthesis. 460 nm is the primary wavelength of the LED. Square light pipes are used to
generate even LED lighting.
LED lighting spots are concentrated in one location to produce a uniform illumination area that
is 0.45 m by 0.34 m in size. The CCD camera, which includes a cut-off high-pass filter to detect
fluorescence beyond 650 nm, is surrounded by the 16 lighting tubes. Fluorescence images are
captured using the signal pulse that the control circuit generates. For multispectral imaging, the
CCD is positioned below the band-pass filters. The band-pass filters are positioned on a
revolving plate. The plate is spinning, which enables the CCD to capture images at various
wavelengths. Incandescent bulbs are used for illumination settings with visible wavelengths.
 CONCLUSION

High visibility and a big volume of data are advantages of imaging-based plant physiology
diagnosis. To prepare for the machine's automatic diagnostic, try to assess the photographs from
a straightforward standpoint. To track the physiology of the crop, we use multispectral
parameters and chlorophyll fluorescence as the indicators.

Here we developed a crop physiological monitoring technique based on multispectral imaging

and chlorophyll fluorescence. This approach makes it easy to discriminate between common
crop conditions including drought, nutrient deficit, and plant disease. In the meantime, we have
researched the relationship between physiological markers and tensions, allowing us to gauge the
level of stress. This technique offers the potential for automatic machine diagnostics in addition
to serving as a foundation for crop management.

There are a few additional scenarios that could impact photosynthesis in plants. A common stress
in the process of agriculture production, aside from the PSII decline brought on by drought
stress, is temperature variability. This will obstruct the ability of plant physiology to make
decisions. In actuality, though, temperature recording allows the temperature factor to be
disregarded.
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