UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Unit I Lesson 3: The Anthropological Conceptualization of the Self: The Self as Embedded in Culture

Anthropology
– Anthropology is from the New Latin word anthropologia ("the study of humanity") and shares its
ultimate root in Greek, anthrōpos ("human being").
– holds a holistic view of human nature
– concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape the self

Nature vs Nurture

“Nature” - genetic inheritance which sets the individual’s potentials

“Nurture” – sociocultural environment

*Both biological and cultural factors have significant influence in the development of self.

In the Anthropological perspective, there are two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different
societies:

Egocentric - The egocentric concept of the self suggests that each person is defined as a replica of all
humanity but capable of acting independently from others.

Example:
In egocentric view, the self is viewed as autonomous and distinct individual with inherent
characteristics. The Americans are egocentric. They believe that they should be assertive and
independent.

Sociocentric - Here, the self is viewed as dependent on the situation or social setting.

Example:

For example, the Japanese possess a sociocentric view of the self, wherein the membership of a person
in a particular social group defines the boundaries of the self.

The Chinese prioritize kin ties and cooperation. They put importance to compliance and subordination of
one’s will to the authority figures in the family.

Identity - Identity refers to “who the person is”, or the qualities and traits of an individual that make him
or her different from others.

Identity Toolbox - This refers to the “features of a person’s identity that he or she chooses to emphasize
in constructing a social self.”
Self-identification
- May be characterized by: kinship, family membership, gender, age, language, religion, ethnicity,
personal appearance, and socioeconomic status.
- Some characteristics such as kinship, gender, and age are almost universally used to
differentiate people.
- Other characteristics, such as ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic status are not
always used in every society.

Family Membership - It is the most significant feature to determine a person’s social identity

Language and Religious Affiliation

- Language is another important identity determinant that is often viewed as essential for the
maintenance of a group identity.
- In other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity. In Mindanao,
being a Christian or a Muslim is possibly the most important defining feature of social identity.

What’s in a name?

Personal Naming
- A name is an important device to individualize a person and to have an identity.
- Personal names in all societies are intimate markers of a person which differentiates him or her
from others.
- Many cultures mark the naming of a child with a special ceremony.

Separation Phase
- People detach from their former identity to another.
- For example, in a wedding, the bride walking down the aisle to be “given away” by the parents
to the groom implies the separation from one’s family to become part of a new one.
Liminality Phase
- A person transitions from one identity to another.
- For example, the wedding ceremony itself is the process of transition of the bride and groom
from singlehood to married life.
Incorporation Phase
- The change in one’s status is officially incorporated.
- For example, the wedding reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the
markers that officially recognize the bride and groom’s change towards being husband and wife.
 THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN CULTURE CLIFFORD GEERTZ
Culture
- Culture is, quite simply, the values and behaviors shared by group of individuals.
- It is important to realize that culture refers to more than ethnic or racial heritage; Culture also
includes factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, physical and mental ability
and socioeconomic status.

Clifford Geertz
- An American anthropologist who offered a reformulation of the concept of culture which favors
a symbolic interpretative model of culture.
- He defined culture as a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means
of which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and attitudes
toward life.

Geertz suggests two important ideas:

1. culture should not be perceived only as “complexes of concrete behavior patterns – customs,
usages, traditions, habit clusters – as has, by and large, been the case up to now, but as a set of
control mechanisms – plans, recipes, rules, instructions – for the governing behavior.
2. Man is precisely the animal most desperately dependent upon such extragenetic, outside-the-
skin control mechanisms, such cultural programs, for ordering his behavior.

Clifford Geertz
- Therefore, man is defined by his genetic potentials shaped into actual accomplishments which is
made possible by culture.
- He also emphasized that human nature is interdependent with culture:
- “Without men, no culture, certainly; but equally, and more significantly, without culture, no
men.”

Robbins (2012)
- Likewise, Robbins considered human beings as cultural animals as they create the meanings of
objects, persons, behaviors, emotions and events, and behave in accordance with meanings
they assume to be true.
- Culture differences exist when groups of people assign different meanings to different life
events and things.
- Hence, the self is embedded in culture.
 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
Chapter 4: The Self From The Perspective Of Psychology

Introduction
This chapter outlines the psychological theories that influence the way people
understand the self. An important aspect of understanding the self is self-awareness.

William James’ Concept of Self The Me-Self and the I-Self

WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910)

- Professor of Psychology and Philosophy at Harvard University
- One of the great pragmatists
- “Theory of the Self”
- Wrote a book entitled “The Principles of Psychology”

Be not afraid of life. Believe that life is worth living, and your belief will help create the fact.
- William James –

SELF

ME I
The “ME” Self
A separate object or individual that the person refers to when discussing or describing their
personal experiences. The “ME” Self
Examples:
1. The gifts were sent to ME.
2. The person is smiling at ME.

1. The material self

- The material aspect encompasses every material thing that a person values and
desires. The attainment of these materials can help someone build up their self-image.
- (e.g. One’s body, clothes, money & properties)
2. The social self
- Refers to whom and how a person acts on social situations.
- Changes in behavior usually result from the different social situations the person finds
himself in.
3. The spiritual self
- Refers to the self that is more concrete or permanent when compared to the material
and social selves.
- The most subjective and intimate part of the self.
- Always engaging in the process of introspection (self-observation/self-examination).
The “I” self
• Pure Ego = person’s soul or mind
• Comprises the totality of the person’s identity

Carl Roger’s Self-Theory: Real and Ideal Self

 Proposed a personality theory known as the ‘Person-Centered Theory’

 Self-concept – used to refer to how a person thinks about or perceives himself.

Two types of self-concept:

a. The real-self concept
b. The ideal-self concept

Who am I?
The real self-concept - Refers to all information and perception the person has about himself.
Who do I
Want to be?
The ideal self-concept - Refers to what the person aims for himself to be.

THE
REAL-SELF CONGRUENCE The ideal

Happy and satisfied

“The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change.”
- Carl Rogers –

You cannot save everyone. Some people are going to destroy themselves no matter how
much you try to help them.

I want to help you, but you have to be a willing participant. If you’re not, then I am no
longer helping you up; it is you who is pulling me down. – Dr. Steve Maraboli

“You can’t help someone who doesn’t want to help themselves”

 MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF
David Lester, a British-American psychologist, stated that the mind is composed of
multiple subselves that are autonomous sets of psychological processes such as dreams,
desires, emotions and memories.

The construction of multiple selves varies across different interpersonal and

intrapersonal roles and relationships.

Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among adolescents.

TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

• Donald Woods Winnicott has found that the self is composed of the true self and the false
self.
• The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true self.
• People tend to display a false self to impress others.
• The self can change depending on situations.

The self as proactive and agentic

Albert Bandura (1925 – present)

The Social Cognitive Theory

- Learning through observation
- suggested that human beings are proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective,
and self-organizing
- The human agency is the essence of being human.

FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY

- Intentionality Forethought Self-reactiveness Self-reflectiveness
- Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and
structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather than
residing as a distinct entity.

1. Intentionality
- Actions performed by the person with full awareness of his behavior.
Example: Kenneth went online to apply for a passport because he wants to travel
outside his country.
2. Forethought
- Person’s anticipation of likely outcomes of his behavior.
Example: Kenneth chose an interview date for his passport application where most
likely he will be on-leave.
3. Self-reactiveness
- Process in which the person is motivated and regulates his behavior as he observes his
progress in achieving his goals.
 - Example: Kenneth saves a larger portion of his salary in the bank so he can have enough
cash to travel to Japan.
4. Self-reflectiveness
- The person looking inward and evaluating his motivations, values, life goals, and other
people’s effect on him.
- Example: Kenneth believes that he has to enjoy and experience life a little while still
able and capable.

THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE

Carl Jung (1875 – 1961)
- Central to Carl Jung’s theory of the self is the concept of archetypes.
- The archetype represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche, or total personality.
- Archetypes reside in the collective unconscious.
- For Jung, there are four major archetypes: persona, shadow, animus/anima, and self.
- The persona refers to social roles that individuals present to others.
How well do you know yourself?

 If you’re like most people, you probably have a decent idea about your own desires,
values, beliefs, and opinions.
 You have a personal code that you choose to follow that dictates whether you are being
a “good” person.
 If there is any one thing you can know in this universe, surely it is who you are.

But what if you’re wrong?

What if much of what you have come to believe about yourself, your morality, and what drives
you is not an accurate reflection of who you truly are?

Now, before you launch into a, “Hey, you don’t know me, you don’t know my life, you don’t
know what I’ve been through!”-style defense, ponder this for a second:

Have you ever said or done something really lousy, mostly on an impulse, that you later
regretted?

After the damage was done and the other person involved was hurt, you couldn’t bury your
shame fast enough. “Why did I say that?” you might have asked yourself in frustration.

It’s that “Why?” question that indicates the presence of a blind spot.

And though the reason for your reaction may have been obvious (perhaps even “justified”), the
lack of control you had over yourself betrays the existence of a different person lurking beneath
your carefully constructed idea of who you are.
If this person is coming into focus for you, congratulations you’ve
just met your shadow self.

The shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are

unacceptable. This archetype is often considered as the dark side
of the psyche.

Someone I Don’t Like

"Think of someone you know whom you don't like very
much. Maybe you even hate this person. On a piece of paper,
write down a description of that person. Write down what it is about this individual's
personality that you don't like. Be as specific as you can."

Consider this:
 What you have written down is some hidden part of yourself - some part that you have
suppressed or hidden.
 It is what Jung would call your SHADOW.
 Maybe it's a part of you that you fear, can't accept, or hate for some reason.
 Maybe it's a part of you that needs to be expressed or developed in some way.
 Maybe you even secretly wish you could be something like that person whom you
hate."

“Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves.”

- Carl Jung -

The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche while the animus is the masculine side of the
female psyche.

The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche.

The ego is the individual’s conscious perception of the self.

SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY

 According to Sigmund Freud, there are three structures of personality: id, ego, and
superego.
 The id is the pleasure-seeking side, immature, impulsive, child-like and cannot delay
gratification.
 It has no regard of others and the law.

Ego Strength
 The ego refers to the “I” and works on the reality principle, controls the id, and
can delay pleasure.
 The ego can conform with existing societal consideration.
  The superego refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of conduct. •
Violation of rules leads to guilt feelings.
 It strives for perfection rather than pleasure.

Id Superego
“I want to do that now” “It’s not right to do that”

Ego
“Maybe we can
compromise.”

SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC DEVELOPMENT

⚫PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT – an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality
development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the
genitals.
⚫ Freud consider the first 3 stages to be crucial for personality development. If children receive
too little or too much gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation.
⚫ Fixation – arrest in development that can show up in adult personality.
THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

In Erik Erikson’s theory, adolescence stage is a period of identity development.

Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to distance
themselves from the strong expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other
family members.
Erikson’s theory proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of
development.
Each stage consists of developmental tasks that one needs to accomplish in order to
develop successfully.
During each stage, the person experiences life crisis which could have negative
consequences if not properly resolved.
 UNIT 1, LESSON 5: THE WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF

INTRODUCTION
•Different cultures and varying environment tends to create different perceptions of the
“Self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the
Eastern V. Western dichotomy.
•East – Asia
•West – Europe and Northern America
•It must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically
colored at the time that aforementioned concepts were accepted and used in the social
sciences.
• Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while countries that are closer to each other
geographically may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create
differences.
•In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception
regarding the “self”.
•There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyse the perspective of each
culture and country about the concept of “self”.
•You can see it in their literature like how one culture depicts a hero or a villain in their
stories.
•You can see it in their social organization like how they see their boss or their
subordinate.
•Art works, dances, even clothing may show you clues about the “self”.
•In this lesson, we will look at the religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly
influenced the mindset of each nation or culture.
•Since almost all the theories about the self, which were discussed in the previous
lessons, also came from the Western scientific research, we will highlight the Eastern
thoughts in this lesson.
EASTERN THOUGHTS
• Many movements of Eastern thoughts raise questions about the ultimate meaning of human
life and have developed theories of self insofar as they have investigated what it means to be a
human being.
• Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings, emotions, and one's
relation to other people and the world.
• In the Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individual. The self is considered
not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe.
• They offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a deeper understanding of the self, they do
not utilize the scientific techniques of investigation.
1. CONFUCIANISM
•Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act
according to their relationship with other people, thus, it is also focused on having a
harmonious social life.
•Therefore, the identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity
and status of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its
failures.
•Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics of a chun-tzu,
a man of virtue or noble character, is still embedded in his/her social relationships.
•The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein
personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian society
also hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society.
•The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do
to others what you would not want others to do to you”.
•Moral character is perfected through continuously taking every opportunity to improve
oneself in thought and action.

2. TAOISM

•Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe.

•However, Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only state
clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view
of almost everything.
•Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by Confucianism and would prefer a
simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain that life.
•The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the universe,
one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao.
•The ideal self is selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living a balanced
life with society and nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about
prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about equality as well as complementarity
among humans as well as other beings.
•In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will not be restricted by
some legalistic standards but because you are in harmony with everything.
 3. BUDDHISM
❑ Siddharta Gautama known as Buddha is the founder of Buddhism.
❑ the root word of Buddhism is budh meaning awake.
❑ to be awake may imply that when the eyes are open, it would lead to understanding
more about the self and the world.
❑ According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment,
hence, potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should be nurtured.

•The self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control things, or
human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these sufferings.
•It is, therefore, our quest, to forget about the self, forget the cravings of the self, break our
attachments with the world, and to renounce the self which is the cause of all suffering and
in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana.
•This state of transcendence can be achieved through meditation.
•The self or the individual is not the focus of the aforementioned Asian or Eastern
philosophies or beliefs.
• Even with extended discussions about how the self should work, Confucianism and Taoism
still situate the self within a bigger context.
•In striving to become a better person, one does not create a self above other people or
nature but a self that is beneficial to his community as well as in order and harmony with
everything else.
•As for Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of
the center of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.

WESTERN CULTURE
WESTERN THOUGHTS

•conducted scientific investigations in the effort to understand the self and have
developed theories and concepts to account for the similarities and differences among
them.
• in the Western thought, the emphasis is individualistic rather than relational.
•As previously discussed, Western perspective does not discount the role of
environment and society in the formation of the self but the focus is always looking
toward the self.
•You compare yourself in order to be better; you create associations and bask in the
glory of that group for your self-esteem; you put primacy in developing yourself.
•One can also describe that the Western thought looks at the world in dualities wherein
you are distinct from the other person, the creator is separate from the object He
creates, in which the self is distinguished and acknowledged.
•On the other hand, the Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as
well as the things you may create, a drama in which everyone is
interconnected with their specific roles.
 DIFFERENCES WEST AND EAST
AMERICANS
✔Talk more about their personal
attributes when describing themselves.
✔Would highlight their personal
achievements.
WEST
✔Individualistic culture since focus is on
the person.
✔Seems to have loose associations or
even loyalty to their groups.
✔Competition is the name of the game
and they are more likely straightforward
and forceful in their communication as
well as decision-making.
✔Emphasizes more on the value of
equality even if they see that the
individual can rise above everything else.
✔They promote ideals that create fair
competition and protect the individual.
✔Would most likely call their bosses,
parents or other seniors by their first
name.
✔The boss can also be approached
head-on when conflicts or problems
about him arises.
ASIANS
✔Talk about their social roles or the social
situations that invoked certain traits that
they deem positive for their selves.
✔Would rather keep a low profile as
promoting the self can be seen as
boastfulness that disrupts social
relationships.
EAST
✔Collectivistic culture as the group and
social relations is given more importance
than individual needs and wants.
✔Look after the welfare of their groups
and values cooperation.
✔They would also be more compromising
and they tend to go around the bush in
explaining things, hoping that the other
person would “feel” what they really want
to say.
✔With their collectivist culture, put more
emphasis on hierarchy as the culture wants
to keep things in harmony and order.
✔We have respectful terms for our seniors
and a lot of workers would not dare go
against the high-ranking officials.
 CULTURAL FRAMEWORK
WESTERN AND EASTERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

WEST
❑The self is a distinct and autonomous
entity; it is an independent part of the
universe and the society.
❑Independence and self-reliance are
core values.
❑Prioritize personal goals over group
goals.
❑Characterized by exchange
relationship.
EAST
❑The self is an integrated part of the
universe and the society.
❑Interdependence and connectedness are
core values.
❑No distinctions between personal and
group goals, or if there is a distinction, the
personal goals are subordinate to the
group goals.
❑Characterized by communal relationship.

❑Uniqueness, sense of direction, ❑Conformity and obedience are essential

purpose and volition are the social behaviors.
acknowledged features of self.
❑Duty towards all others is important.
❑Personal success is important.

•It must be emphasized, however, that these are general commonalities among Western cultures as
Compared to Asian or Oriental cultures.
•In the case of the Philippines, we can also consider the colonization experience for differences and
similarities with our Asian neighbors.
•We might also find variation among provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.
•With the social media, migration and intermarriages, variety between the Western
and Asian perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted.
•Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity, peace is also possible through the understanding of where
each of us is coming from.

COMPARATIVE MATRIX
WESTERN AND EASTERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE SELF