2-Day In-House Training Course for LTA

5 – 6 March 2020

Analysis and Design of Steel Strutting

System for Earth Retaining or
Stabilizing Structures (ERSS)
Lecture 6

Structural Design of Steel Strutting System for

ERSS (Part 2)
Dr. Chiew Sing Ping
Professor | Programme Director, Civil Engineering
Singapore Institute of Technology

singping.chiew@singaporetech.edu.sg
Content

 Design of Bracings and Ties

 Design and Detailing of Strut-Waler Connections
 BC1 Material Requirements
 BC1 Traceability and Reusability Requirements for Steel
Strutting Systems

3
Buckling Length of Strut

4
Buckling Length of Strut

5
Horizontal Bracing

UC152x152x37 kg/m 6
Details of an Effective Restraint

7
Local Buckling of I-Section under Pure Compression

t
c fy

t t Stress distribution
c c (compression positive) d t d t d

Class Type Limit

fy

1 c t ≤ 9ε Web subject to
Class
compression
2 Rolled or welded c t ≤ 10ε
1 d t ≤ 33ε
3 c t ≤ 14ε

fy 235 275 355 420 2 d t ≤ 38ε

ε = 235/f y
ε 1.0 0.92 0.81 0.75 3 d t ≤ 42ε

8
Lateral Restraint to Strut to
be designed for 2%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

9
Design of Braced Frame to Support Horizontal Struts

Design braced frame for the horizontal loads 𝐹𝐹1 and 𝐹𝐹2
Equal to 0.5%(1.35 Dead Load + 1.5 Imposed Load)
- Equivalent horizontal force account for frame imperfection
Plus restrained force = 2.0% (sum of strut force at that level) × 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚
P1 P1 P1 P1
F1

P2 P2 P2 P2
F2

10
Plan Bracing Layout

11
Imperfection to be included in analysis of Bracing Systems

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

EC3 Clause 5.3.3
In the analysis of bracing systems which are
required to provide lateral stability within the length
of beams or compression members the effects of
imperfections should be included by means of an
equivalent geometric imperfection of the members
𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑 to be restrained, in the form of an initial bow
L imperfection:
Anchor to a bracing
system that supplies 𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿/500
positional restrain
1
Where, 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 = 0.5(1 + )
𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 is the number of members to be restrained.
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

12
Equivalent Horizontal Forces
Initial bow imperfections
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
4𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿2
The effects of the initial bow imperfections of the members to be
restrained by a bracing system may be replaced by the equivalent
stabilizing force (per unit length).
𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 + 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞
𝐿𝐿 8𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 8
𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 is the axial force on the strut or axial force in the compression
flange of the beam, taken as 𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 /ℎ and ℎ is the overall beam depth.
4𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒0,𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿2
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 δq is the deflection of the bracing system due to 𝑞𝑞 plus any external
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 loads calculated from first order analysis.
𝑒𝑒0 Note: δq may be taken as 0 if second order theory is used.
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑

If the brace is anchored to a fixed support δq = 0

8
𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 = 𝐿𝐿/500 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁 = 1.6%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
500 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐿𝐿 Total forces to be restrained

𝑒𝑒0 Imperfection
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 Equivalent force per unit length 13
L Bracing system
Design of Lateral Restraints

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

F
Restraint force
F=1.6 to 2.0% 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 + 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 8 𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 = 𝐿𝐿/500
𝐿𝐿
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
If 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 𝐿𝐿/2000 (assume nominal
deflection of rigid support)
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 2%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

If 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 0
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 1.6%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐹𝐹
14
Design of Lateral Restraints

𝒆𝒆𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝜹𝜹𝒒𝒒
𝒒𝒒𝒅𝒅 𝑳𝑳 = 𝑵𝑵𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟖𝟖 𝒆𝒆𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝑳𝑳/𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
𝑳𝑳
If 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 𝐿𝐿/2000 (assume nominal deflection of rigid support)
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 2%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
If 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 0
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 = 1.6%𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Case 1: Equally spaced restraints

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
F
F
F F
F 𝑁𝑁 restrains
F
F
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹
3 or more restrains
F=2.0% 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 F=1.0% 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Minimum F=1.0% 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
15
 Case 2: Equally spaced restraints
P1 P2 P3 P4

P1 P2 P3 P4
Bracing system that provides restraint to more than one member shall be designed to resist the
sum of the restraint forces from each member reduced by the factor 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚
1
𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 = 0.5(1 + )
𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 is the number of parallel members to be restrained.
Assume 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 𝐿𝐿/2000 nominal
Example, 𝑚𝑚 = 4 deflection of rigid support
1
𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 = 0.5(1 + 4) = 0.79 𝐹𝐹 = 0.79 × 0.02Σ𝑃𝑃 16
Design Steps

1. Determine the imperfection in the members to be restrained,

1
𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿/500 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 = 0.5(1 + )
𝑚𝑚
2. Calculate the equivalent stabilizing force:
𝑒𝑒 0𝑑𝑑 +𝛿𝛿
𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = ∑ 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 8 2 (Eqn. 1)
𝐿𝐿
3. Assume 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 0 and calculate 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 .
4. Apply 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 together with external load on the bracing system and calculate 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 .
5. Determine 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 from Eqn.1 based on the new 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 value from step 4.
6. Repeat Step 4 till 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 converges.
7. The ties should be designed to resist the equivalent stabilizing forces.
8. The bracing system should be designed to resist 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 together with external
loads.

17
Example
Columns

Strut to be
restrain
Plan bracing to
provide lateral support

10m External force applied to

the bracing = 2kN/m

Ties to the main strut

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 726 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is the design axial force acting on each strut member
1
𝑚𝑚 = 5, 𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 = 0.5(1 + ) = 0.77
𝑚𝑚
𝛼𝛼𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿 10000
𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = = 0.77 × = 15.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
500 500
𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 +𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 0.0157
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = ∑ 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 8 = 726 × 5 × 8 × = 4.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚, assuming 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 0 18
𝐿𝐿2 102
 Use software to calculate
Total force = 4.6 + 2.0 = 6.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 the maximum deflection
=> Maximum deflection 𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 = 0.406 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒0𝑑𝑑 +𝛿𝛿𝑞𝑞 0.0157+0.000406
Calculate 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑 = ∑ 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 8 = 726 × 5 × 8 × = 4.68 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿2 102

⇒ The bracing system should be designed for a total design force of 4.68 + 2.0 = 6.68 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚
4.68×10
⇒ The bracing system provides a restraint force equivalent to = 1.29% ∑ 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
5×726
Columns

Strut to be
restrain
Plan bracing to provide
lateral support

10m External force applied to

the bracing = 2kN/m

Ties to the main strut

Tie force = 4.68 × 10/2 = 23.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 19
Design and Detailing of Strut-Waler Connections
Strut-Waler Connection

strut
Strut-Waler Connection

Diaphragm Wall Diaphragm Wall

Strut Waler Strut

Waler

Plate Stiffener

Lack of lateral restraint to outer flange

22
Resistance to Transverse Force

EC1993-1-5 distinguishes between two types of forces applied through a

flange on to the web:
i) forces resisted by shear in the web [load types (a) and (c)]
ii) forces transferred through the web directly to the other flange [load
type (b)].

23
Load Types & kF

• Buckling coefficients for different types of load application

• If there are no web stiffeners, a=∞, hw/a=0

24
Web Failure

• For load type (a) and (c) the web is likely to fail as a result of:
i. Crushing of the web close to the flange accompanied by yielding of the flange.
ii. Localised buckling and crushing of the web beneath the flange, the combined
effect sometimes referred to as web crippling.

25
Web Failure

• For loading type (b) the web is likely to fail as a result of:
i. Web Crushing;
ii. Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.

26
Resistance to Transverse Force
• For unstiffened or stiffened webs the design resistance to local buckling under
transverse forces should be taken as:

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1

where, tw is the thickness of the web;

fyw is the yield strength of the web;
γM1 is the partial factor for resistance of members
(γM1 = 1.0 in UK National Annex)
Leff is the effective length of web.
27
Effective Length for Resistance

• The effective length of web should be determined from:

Leff = χf ly

where, χf is the reduction factor due to local buckling.

ly is the effective loaded length, appropriate to the
length of the stiff bearing ss.

28
Stiff Bearing Length

EC3 has no equations to calculate stiff bearing length except saying the
length of stiff bearing on the flange should be taken as the distance over
which the applied load is effectively distributed at a slope of 1:1, and 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠
should not be larger than hw. (EC3-1-5, clause 6.3.1)

BS5950-1 EC3-1-5
Effective Loaded Length
• The effective loaded length ly should be calculated as follow:
• For type (a) and (b)

𝑙𝑙𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 (1 + 𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )

but ly ≤ distance between adjacent transverse stiffeners.

• For type (c) ly should be taken as the smallest value of the following equations.

𝑚𝑚1 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2
𝑙𝑙𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 + 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 + ( ) +𝑚𝑚2
2 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓

𝑙𝑙𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 + 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2

2
𝑘𝑘𝐹𝐹 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
Where, 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = ≤ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐
2𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ℎ𝑤𝑤
30
Non-Dimensional Factors m1& m2

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚1 =
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤

where, fyf is the yield strength of the flange.

fyw is the yield strength of the web.

2
ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝑚𝑚2 = 0.02 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜆𝜆̅𝐹𝐹 > 0.5
𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓

𝑚𝑚2 = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜆𝜆̅𝐹𝐹 < 0.5

31
Reduction Factor χF
• The reduction factor χF should be obtained from:

0.5
𝜒𝜒𝐹𝐹 = ≤ 1.0
̅
𝜆𝜆𝐹𝐹

𝑙𝑙𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

where 𝜆𝜆̅𝐹𝐹 =
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
3
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.9𝑘𝑘𝐹𝐹 𝐸𝐸
ℎ𝑤𝑤

Note: Alternatively, can obtain tabulated web bearing and buckling resistance for
standard hot-rolled sections from BLUE BOOK. However, remember to use the BS5950
reduction factor for unrestrained flange in strut-waler connection.
32
BS5950 Reduction Factor for Unrestrained Flange

BS5950 EC3

Web bearing: Pbw = (b1 + nk) tpyw Resistance of web against transverse force in which
their compression flange is adequately restrained in
Web buckling: the lateral direction:
For unstiffened web & αc> 0.7d f yw Leff t w
25εt FRd =
Px = Pbw γ M1
(b1 + nk )d
For unstiffened web & αc< 0.7d where Leff is the effective length for resistance against
α e + 0.7d 25εt transverse force:
Px = Pbw 0.5
1.4d (b1 + nk )d Leff = χ f l y χF = ≤ 1.0
λF

0.7 d
For unrestrained flange Pxr =
t w3 l y t w f yw
Px Fcr = 0.9k F E λF =
hw Fcr
LE
BC1 Material Requirements
Uniquely Singapore!

Guide to bridge
Design Material and Design
BS EN1993

Material
BS ENs & Non-BS ENs Execution
(GB/JIS/ASTM/AS/NZS) BS EN 1090

35
Material Selection & Compliance

BC 1: 2012 - Design Guide on

use of Alternative Structural
Steel to BS5950 and Eurocode 3

(Approved Document under Singapore’s Building

Regulations and enforced by BCA of Singapore)

36
Steel Construction in Singapore
 Sustainability, Productivity & Resiliency in the industry:
• Disruption in sand & granite supply
• Increase productivity / Reduce migrant workers
 BS5950/EC3 design codes
Only covers BS/EN materials by default
 BS5950/EC3 + Chinese GB materials = ???

Alternative Steel Material

 ‘Alternative’ in Singapore’s context…
 not manufactured to BS/EN
 not covered in BS5950/EC3 by default
 easily available (GB, JIS, ASTM, AS/NZS)
 use to BS5950/EC3 ⇒ design guide needed
37
Some Basic Considerations…
• Steel material production standards are substantial documents covering mechanical,
chemical, physical and other delivery conditions.
• One piece of steel is not necessary the same as another although they may look the same.
• We are not the only ones using steel.
• We never buy steel by weight.
• Testing a batch of steel from different ‘parents’ is meaningless.
• Material failure can be sudden and disastrous

Material Performance Requirements

• Strength – ability to carry load
• Ductility – ability to sustain permanent deformation without loss of strength
• Toughness – ability to absorb damage without fracture
• Weldability – ability to transfer load
38
BC1 - Objectives

• Allow a wider choice of steel materials to achieve greater economy and sustainability.
• Ensure product conformity, quality and traceability in materials from various sources.

Deliverables:
• Use only adequate & reliable alternative materials to ensure public safety.
• Optimize usage of alternative materials (eg. use full design strength) for more competitive
design.
• Address long-standing material problems facing the steel construction sector.

39
BC1 – Overall Framework

Two Major Issues BS EN, ASTM, AS/NZS, JIS & GB For e.g. IS, KS, API

Not common
route !!

Adequacy? Reliability?

Material Quality
performance assurance
requirements requirements

40
Concluding Remarks

1. The design guide paves the way and serves as a bridge to allow alternative structural steel
such as Guobiao steel to be used in Singapore.
2. Singapore is a small city state with limited resources and needs to focus on identifying the
‘local gaps’ and bridge them by developing our own design guides where necessary.
3. Singapore has taken a forward-looking step to liberalize and formalize the use of alternative
structural steel and this has served us well since 2009.

41
BC1 Traceability and Reusability Requirements
for Steel Strutting Systems
 BC 1: 2012 - Section 6
• A new section in 2012 version, i.e. “Section 6. Material traceability and reusability”.
• Guidelines on the re-use of sheet piles & steel materials in steel strutting system
used in ERSS.
• Two important aspects:
Traceability
Reusability

Material traceability
• The ability to trace back the source of a specific steel material to its original
identity as delivered from the mill, through proper identification and quality
assurance system.
• Each piece of steel members to be marked with a unique ID for future reference
to the FPC certificate, MTC, inspection record & test report.

43
BC1: 2012 – Section 6

Traceability/Classification of Ex-Stock Material

Ex-stock materials delivered without Key:

FPC certificate for repeated use Yes
- delivered with manufacturer test certificate
- certifiable & listed in Appendix A No

Mill has subsequently

obtained FPC
certificate?
Batch/lot
known?
Material
testing for
each batch/lot Material
(see Appendix B)
Correlated
NDT for each testing for
member each batch/lot
(see Appendix B) (see Appendix B)

Class 1 Class 2
Note: Ex-stock steel materials which do not fit into this flow chart shall be classified as Class 3

44
100% Correlated Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

 Correlation of mechanical properties to chemical composition using verified

equations from database analysis.

a) Surface Polishing b) Test Gun c) Portable Computer

Non-Destructive Testing using Portable Optical Emission Spectrometer (OES)

45
Correlation Equations

Equations for Yield and Tensile Strength:

R = functions of [%C + %Si + %Mn + 3%Cr + 3%Mo +3%V +%Cu +%Ni]
+ constant

Equation for Impact Toughness:

V = functions of [%C + %P + %S + %Mn + %Cr +%V] + constant

46
BC1: 2012 – Section 6
Material reusability
• The ability of the used steel materials to be reused & to perform adequately as
anticipated in the design.
• Good practices:
Apply permanent & systematic marking
Avoid mixing of steel grades
Apply corrosion protection coating
Reusability assessment
1. Surface condition
• ≥ 85% steel surface free of rust not severe than Grade C (per BS EN ISO 8501-1)
• Minor repair if necessary
2. Sectional dimensions
• Measured at 3 locations
• Measured dimension ≥ nominal dimension – allowable tolerance, or relegated to
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next lighter section
BC1: 2012 – Section 6

Reusability assessment
1. Shape & straightness
• To comply with BS 5950-2;
• Straightening treatment if necessary
4. Bolts & welded connections
• Visual inspection on used connections;
• Loosened/retrieved bolts not to be re-used
5. Interlock of sheet piles

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BC1: 2012 – Section 6

Reusability Assessment

Used steel materials with

unique/traceable identity

Quality test regime

(see 6.2.2.1, 6.2.2.2, 6.2.2.3 & 6.2.2.4)
Pass

Fail

Economic
Re-use feasibility of Re-
re- conditioning
conditioning Yes

No

Reject & scrap

49
BC1: 2012 – Section 6 (8)
Quality System
• Supplier/fabricator to implement a quality system:-
o Material marking & identification;
o Documentation of certificates/reports;
o Record of usage & reconditioning history;
o In-house inspection & quality test regimes.
• The quality system shall be audited by an independent inspection body (IB) acceptable
to BCA and accredited by SAC in the first instance, followed with subsequent
surveillance audits at every 6 months.

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