Theories of Failure

Design of Machine Members
Theories of failure
Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies,

Basar
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar
Factor of safety
• While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient
reserve strength in case of an accident.
• If the induced stress is less than or equal to the limiting material
strength then the designed component may be considered to be safe
• This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety (fs).
• The factor of safety is defined as
• The ratio must always be greater than unity

Allowable stress:
• The allowable stress is the stress value, which is used in design
to determine the dimensions of the component.
• For ductile materials, the allowable stress σ
• For brittle materials, the allowable stress σ
• where Syt : yield strength of the material

Sut : ultimate tensile strength of the material
• Magnitude of factor of safety depends upon following factors:
1. Consequences of Failure- human safety and economics
• Consequences of failure are catastrophic- Higher FS
• If failure is caused by ductile yielding, the consequences are likely to
be less severe than if caused by brittle fracture.
• Hence safety factors recommended are invariably larger for brittle
materials.
2. Type of Load
lower value of FS for static load
higher value of FS for impact or fatigue load
3. Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis

more accurate force analysis - lower factor of safety
4. Material of Component
• When the component is made of a homogeneous ductile
material (e.g. steel)- lower FS
• When the component is made of a non homogeneous material
(e. g cast iron)- higher FS
5. Reliability of component
• High required reliability (e.g. power stations or defense
equipment)- higher FS
• Low required reliability- lower FS
6. Testing of machine member

• When it is not possible to test the machine member or where
there is deviation between test conditions and actual service
conditions- Higher FS
7. Cost of Component
• As the factor of safety increases, dimensions of the component,
material requirement and cost increase.
• The factor of safety is low for cheap machine parts.
8. Service Conditions
• When the machine member is likely to operate in corrosive
atmosphere or high temperature environment- higher FS
9. Quality of Manufacture
• Poor manufacturing quality- higher FS
• When the quality of manufacture is high, variations in dimensions
of the machine component are less- Lower FS
• Recommended Values for a Factor of Safety [Joseph Vidosic, (1957)]
Information Factor of
safety
Exceptionally reliable materials 1.25 to 1.5

used under controllable conditions and
subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined with
certainty—used almost invariably where low weight is a particularly
important consideration
well-known materials, under reasonably constant environmental 1.5 to 2

conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined
readily.
average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected 2 to 2.5

to loads and stresses that can be determined.
less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions 2.5 to 3
of environment, load, and stress.
• Recommended Values for a Factor of Safety [Joseph Vidosic, (1957)]
Information Factor of
safety
for untried materials used under average conditions of environment, 3 to 4

load, and stress.
better known materials that are to be used 3 to 4
in uncertain environments or subjected to uncertain stresses.
Theories of failure
• Failure refers to any action leading to an inability of a machine
member to function in the manner intended.
• Machine members are subjected to complex loading
– Power screw- torsional moment and axial force
– Transmission shaft- torsional moment and bending moment
• It is difficult to conduct tests for different possible combination of

loads and obtain mechanical properties
• In practice, the mechanical properties are obtained from a simple
tension test.
• Theories of elastic failure provide a relationship between the strength

of machine component subjected to complex state of stresses with
the mechanical properties obtained in tension test
• What causes failure?

– State of stress?
– State of strain?
– Shear stress?
– Quantity associated with stress and strain?
• Different answers from Researcher

– Principal stress by Rankine
– Principal strain by St. Venant
– Maximum shear stress by Coulomb, Tresca and Guest
– Maximum Strain energy by Haigh and Beltrami
– Distortion energy by Huber von Mises and Hencky
(a) (b)
Tension Test Specimens Before and After Failure
(a) Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure

(a) Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
Tension test- Uniaxial loading

• Maximum principal stress
=
• Maximum principal strain

= =
• Maximum shear stress

= =
• Maximum total strain energy
= =
Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

• Failure occurs at a point in a body subjected to biaxial or tri-axial
loading when the maximum principal stress at that point
exceeds the value of maximum principal stress in a uniaxial test
of material at yield point or ultimate point.
• Tri axial loading
• Principal stresses are σ1, σ2 and σ3 such that
• Therefore according to this theory, failure occurs when

Region of safety for biaxial stresses
• σ1 and σ2 are plotted on x and y axes
• Tensile stresses are positive and Compressive stresses are negative
• Strength in tension and compression is equal
Case 1: σ1 > σ2 and σ1 is tensile

Line AB
Case 2: σ1 > σ2 and σ1 is compressive
Line DC
Line CB
(σ1 , σ2 ) point
Line DA inside the square: safe
outside the square: failure
Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
• Failure occurs at a point in a body subjected to biaxial or tri-

axial loading when the maximum principal strain at that point
exceeds the value of maximum principal strain in a uniaxial test
of material at yield point or ultimate point.
• Principal strains are ε1, ε 2 and ε 3 such that
ε1> ε 2 >ε 3
• Therefore according to this theory, failure occurs when
1
= − ( + ) =
− ( + ) =
Region of safety for biaxial loading
• σ1 and σ2 are plotted on x and y axes
• Tensile stresses are positive and Compressive stresses are negative

− ) = Line AB
− ) = Line DC
− ) = Line CB
(σ1 , σ2 ) point
− ) = Line DA inside the region: safe
outside the region: failure
• Problem 1
• A wall bracket with a rectangular cross-section is shown. The
depth of the cross-section is twice of the width. The force P
acting on the bracket at 600 to the vertical is 5 kN. The material
of the bracket is grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is
3.5. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the
bracket. Assume maximum normal stress theory of failure.
• Allowable stress
• Components of force P
• The stress is maximum at the point A in the section XX. The point is
subjected to combined bending and direct tensile stresses.
• The bending moment at the section XX
• The direct tensile stress due to component Ph
• The resultant tensile stress σmax at the point A
• Equating two equations
The dimensions of the cross-section

are 35 x 70 mm
Maximum shear stress theory
(Tresca and Guest’s theory)
• The failure of mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or
tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any
point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear
stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when
yielding starts.
• Maximum shear stress in uniaxial loading

= =
• Hence according to this theory,

yield strength in shear is half of the
yield strength in tension
• Triaxial loading
• Principal stresses are
σ1, σ2 and σ3
• Shear stresses
• According to this theory, failure occurs when largest shear

stress
Region of Safety for bi-axial stresses,
• Tensile stresses are considered as positive, while compressive

stresses as negative.
• Shear Diagonal
• Shear diagonal or line of pure shear is the locus of all points,
corresponding to pure shear stress.
• For pure shear stress,

• Problem 2
• The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is
shown. The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 and the
tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 2.
Determine the diameter of the shaft using the maximum shear
stress theory.
• According to maximum shear stress theory,

Ssy = 0.5 Syt = 0.5 (380) = 190 N/mm2
• The permissible shear stress

• The stresses are critical at the point A, subjected to
combined bending and torsional moments.
• Bending moment at the point A,
Mb = P x (250) = (1000) (250)
= 250 x103 N-mm
• Torsional moment at the point A,

Mt = P x (500) = (1000) (500)
= 500 x 103 N-mm
• From Mohr’s circle
• Using permissible shear stress

Maximum total strain energy theory
(Beltrami’s theory)
• The failure of mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses occurs when the strain energy per unit volume
absorbed at the point in the component becomes equal to the
strain energy per unit volume absorbed in the standard specimen
of the tension test, when yielding starts.
• A unit cube subjected to the three principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3.
• The total strain energy U of the cube
(1)
• where ε1, ε 2 and ε3 are strains in

respective directions.
Substituting in equation (1)
Uniaxial loading
The energy stored per unit volume at yield point
1 As σ1= Syt at yield point
=
2 σ2 = σ3 =0
According to this theory failure occurs when U ≥ Uy

U ≥ Uy
+ + − ( + + ≥
+ + − ( + + )≥
• For biaxial state of stress, (σ3=0)
+ − =
• This is an equation of ellipse.

• (Region of safety)
Distortion Energy theory (von Mises Theory)
• The failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any
point in the component, becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion
per unit volume in the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding
starts.
• The total strain energy in a loaded part consist of two components—
one due to hydrostatic loading which changes its volume, and
second due to distortion, which changes its shape.
Total strain energy = (Energy of volumetric change) + (Distortion energy)

Distortion energy = (Total strain energy) - (Energy of volumetric change)
According to this theory, it is not the total strain energy responsible for
failure, in fact energy absorbed during distortion of an element is
responsible for failure.
p
p p
No
failure
p
p
p
p
Failure
0 0 0 0 − 0 0
0 0 = 0 0 + 0 − 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 −
Hydrostatic State of pure shear
state of stress + +
=
3
0 0 0 0 − 0 0
0 0 = 0 0 + 0 − 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 −
Isotropic state Deviatoric state of strain
of strain + +
=
3
Energy absorbed during volumetric change

1 1 1 3
′= + + =
2 2 2 2
Energy absorbed during volumetric change

1 1 1 3
′= + + =
2 2 2 2
Bulk modulus K = =
(1 − 2 )
= = × 3(1 − 2 ) = K = )
3 3 (
3 (1 − 2 ) 3(1 − 2 )
′= . =
2 2
3(1 − 2 ) + + + +
′= . =
2 9 3
1
′= (1 − 2 ) + +
6
Distortion energy = (Total strain energy) - (Energy of volumetric change)

∗
= − ′
1
′= (1 − 2 ) + +
6
∗
1 1
= + + −2 ( + + ) − (1 − 2 ) + +
2 6
After simplification
∗
1+
= − + − + −
6
∗
2(1 + )
= + + −( + + )
6
Shear modulus =
2(1 + )
• Distortion energy
∗
1
= + + −( + + )
6
∗
1
= − + − + −
12
• For uniaxial loading
1 σ1= Syt at yield point σ2 = σ3 =0
∗
=
6
• According to the statement, for failure
∗ ∗
≥
1 1
− + − + − ≥
12 6
− + − + − ≥2
• For biaxial state of stress (σ3= 0)
+ − =
(1)
• For state of pure shear
σ1= -σ2 =  (2)
By (1) and (2)
= 3
Replacing  by Ssy,
• Therefore, according to the distortion-energy theory, the yield

strength in shear is 0.577 times the yield strength in tension.
Region of Safety
• For biaxial state of stress (σ3= 0)
+ − =
• Equation indicates an ellipse
semi-major axis: 2.
semi-minor axis: 2
.
3
• If a point with coordinates (σ1, σ2 ) falls
outside this ellipse : failure condition
Inside the ellipse : safe condition
• Shear Diagonal or line of pure shear
• For pure shear stress,
• A line AB is constructed in such a way that it passes through the

origin O and makes an angle of – 45° with the Y-axis.
• The coordinates of the point A(point of intersection of the ellipse
and the line AB) obtained by solving
• Solving two equations simultaneously,
• Since the point A is on the borderline, this is the limiting value

for shear stress.
• From theory − + − + − ≥2
− + − + −
≥
2
• If a simple case of tension σ’ is considered , then yield would
occur when σ’ ≥ Syt .
• Thus, the left of the equation can be thought of as a single,
equivalent, or effective stress for the entire general state of stress
given by σ1, σ2, and σ3.
• This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ’
• The von Mises effective stress σ‘ is defined as the uniaxial tensile

stress that would create the same distortion energy as is created
by the actual combination of applied stresses.
Von Mises stress

0 0
• For Tri-axial loading- principal state of stress = 0 0
0 0
• For Tri- axial loading- general state of stress =
• For plane stress, 0

= 0
0 0 0
Comparison of Experimental Data with Failure Theories
• Experimental data for two ductile steels, two ductile aluminum

alloys, and a brittle cast iron
• ductile-yield data cluster on or near the distortion-energy ellipse

(labeled oct shear) with a few data points falling between the
maximum-shear-theory hexagon and the ellipse.
• brittle cast-iron fracture (not yield) data are seen to cluster more
closely about the (square) maximum normal-stress envelope.
Conclusions
• Distortion energy theory predicts yielding with precise accuracy in
all four quadrants.
The design calculations involved are slightly complicated
• The hexagonal diagram of maximum shear stress theory is inside the
ellipse of distortion energy theory.
Hence, theory gives results on the conservative side for yielding
• The compressive strength of brittle materials is much higher than

their tensile strength (Uneven material). Also, brittle materials do not
yield and they fail by fracture.
On this account, maximum principal stress theory is used for brittle
materials.
• Problem 3
• A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material has a yield
point of 350 MPa. Find the required diameter using
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
(b) Maximum distortion energy theory
• Take a factor of safety of 2.5.
• Torsional shear stress induced in the shaft due to torque is
16 where d is the shaft diameter.

=
= State of
pure
shear
=−
a) Maximum shear stress theory,

For design
−
= =
2 2( )
d = 71.3 mm
b) Maximum distortion energy theory
+ − =
d = 68 mm
• Problem 4
• A cantilever rod is loaded as shown. If the tensile yield strength
of the material is 300 MPa determine the rod diameter using
(a) Maximum principal stress theory
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Maximum distortion energy theory.
• Critical element
σx = axial stress + bending stress

σy = 0
xy = torsional shear stress
• Principal stresses
(a) Maximum principal stress theory: d = 26.67 mm.

(b) Maximum shear stress theory: d = 30.63 mm.
(c) Maximum distortion energy theory: d = 29.36 mm.

Theories of Failure

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Theories of Failure

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Design of Machine Members

Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies,

• The factor of safety is defined as

• The ratio must always be greater than unity

• For ductile materials, the allowable stress σ

• For brittle materials, the allowable stress σ

• where Syt : yield strength of the material

3. Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis

6. Testing of machine member

Exceptionally reliable materials 1.25 to 1.5

well-known materials, under reasonably constant environmental 1.5 to 2

average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected 2 to 2.5

for untried materials used under average conditions of environment, 3 to 4

• It is difficult to conduct tests for different possible combination of

• Theories of elastic failure provide a relationship between the strength

• What causes failure?

• Different answers from Researcher

Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure

Tension test- Uniaxial loading

• Maximum principal strain

• Maximum shear stress

• Maximum total strain energy

Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

• Therefore according to this theory, failure occurs when

Case 1: σ1 > σ2 and σ1 is tensile

Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)

• Failure occurs at a point in a body subjected to biaxial or tri-

Case 1: σ1 > σ2 and σ1 is tensile

• The resultant tensile stress σmax at the point A

• Equating two equations

The dimensions of the cross-section

• Maximum shear stress in uniaxial loading

• Hence according to this theory,

• According to this theory, failure occurs when largest shear

Region of Safety for bi-axial stresses,

• Tensile stresses are considered as positive, while compressive

• For pure shear stress,

• According to maximum shear stress theory,

• The permissible shear stress

• Torsional moment at the point A,

• From Mohr’s circle

• Using permissible shear stress

• where ε1, ε 2 and ε3 are strains in

Substituting in equation (1)

According to this theory failure occurs when U ≥ Uy

• For biaxial state of stress, (σ3=0)

• This is an equation of ellipse.

Total strain energy = (Energy of volumetric change) + (Distortion energy)

Energy absorbed during volumetric change

Energy absorbed during volumetric change

Distortion energy = (Total strain energy) - (Energy of volumetric change)

By (1) and (2)

• Therefore, according to the distortion-energy theory, the yield

• A line AB is constructed in such a way that it passes through the

• Solving two equations simultaneously,

• Since the point A is on the borderline, this is the limiting value

• The von Mises effective stress σ‘ is defined as the uniaxial tensile

Von Mises stress

• For Tri- axial loading- general state of stress =

• For plane stress, 0

• Experimental data for two ductile steels, two ductile aluminum

• ductile-yield data cluster on or near the distortion-energy ellipse