A Model of Close Business Relationships in China (Guanxi) : European Journal of Marketing February 2001

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A Model of Close Business Relationships in China (Guanxi)
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European Journal of Marketing
A model of close business relationships in China (guanxi)
Dong‐Jin Lee, Jae H. Pae, Y.H. Wong,
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A model of close business Close business

relationships in
relationships in China (guanxi) China (guanxi)
Dong-Jin Lee
School of Management, State University of New York, 51
Binghamton, USA, and
Jae H. Pae and Y.H. Wong Received August 1998
Revised January 1999
Department of Business Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, May 1999
Hong Kong October 1999
Keywords Relationship marketing, China, Company performance, Marketing strategy

Abstract Examines the antecedents and consequences of close business relationships (guanxi)
in China. We hypothesize that decision-making uncertainty and perceived similarity positively

affect guanxi, whereas opportunism negatively affects guanxi. We also hypothesize that guanxi
positively affects business performance, mediated by relationship quality and interdependence. An
empirical study of Hong Kong and mainland China business relationships generally supports the
model. The managerial implications are discussed.
Introduction
China has recently experienced a rapidly growing economy with huge market
potential and is already the second largest foreign direct investment recipient
in the world (Luo, 1997). However, China's economy is characterized by lack of
coherent business laws and strong governmental control over limited resources
(Nee, 1992; Xin and Pearce, 1996). These characteristics of China's economy
demonstrate the difficulties of entering this huge market. Many studies have
argued that developing close relationships is a necessary step to succeed in
China (Ambler, 1994; Hall and Hall, 1987; Johansson, 1995; Luo, 1997; Xin and
Pearce, 1996). By developing personal relationships, firms can enhance their
marketing effectiveness and efficiency (Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995). In China, a
personalized and close business relationship is called guanxi, and it is often
considered as a necessary condition to start a new business in China (Xin and
Pearce, 1996).
Guanxi implies preferential treatment to exchange partners in the forms of
easy access to limited resources, increased accessibility to controlled
information, preferential terms including the granting of credit and protection
from external competitors, etc. (Luo, 1997; Luo and Chen, 1997; Wong, 1997;
Xin and Pearce, 1996). Despite repeated emphasis on the benefits of guanxi, the
literature lacks a comprehensive model of guanxi. Therefore, the main purpose
of this paper is to develop and test a model of guanxi in the Chinese business
context. By developing and testing a model of guanxi, this study will add to our
understanding of guanxi and will provide international marketers with
European Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 35 No. 1/2, 2001, pp. 51-69.
This research was partially supported by The Hong Kong Polytechnic Research Fund. # MCB University Press, 0309-0566
European practical guidelines on ways to develop relational exchanges in China and
Journal of appropriate marketing strategies (Bruner and Koh, 1988).
Marketing This paper starts with a conceptual review on guanxi, followed by a
discussion of its antecedents and consequences. Then, the method, empirical
35,1/2 results and managerial implications are discussed.
52 Conceptual development
Figure 1 describes the conceptual model of this paper. It portrays decision-
making uncertainty, opportunism, and perceived similarity as antecedents to
guanxi, which has a positive impact on business performance mediated by
relationship quality and interdependence.
Guanxi
Guanxi generally refers to relationships or social connections based on mutual
interests and benefits (Yang, 1994). Specifically, it refers to a special type of

relationship that bonds the exchange partners through reciprocal exchange of
favors and mutual obligations (Alston, 1989; Luo, 1997). In this study, guanxi is
defined as a particularized and personalized relationship based on the
reciprocal exchange of favors. Examples of favors include preferential
treatment in dealings, preferential access to limited resources, and increased
accessibility to controlled information. Although these are often criticized as
favoritism in Western society (Anderson, 1995), the reciprocal exchange of due
favors is widely accepted and used in Chinese business (Luo, 1997; Xin and
Pearce, 1996). Generally, the guanxi relationship is informal and based on
personal affiliations (Alston, 1989; Hwang, 1987).
Types of guanxi. There are three different types of guanxi relationships Ð
expressive tie, mixed tie, and instrumental tie. These types, however, are not
mutually exclusive as they represent a concentric circle of contacts (Hwang,
1987). Table I summarizes the characteristics of these three types of
relationships.
Expressive ties are permanent and stable relationships based on egalitarian
norms (i.e. need based). Yet, these very personalized and affective ties are fixed
and limited in scope (e.g. family and relatives). Instrumental ties are unstable
and temporary (e.g. transactional relationships between the seller and the
Figure 1.
The conceptual model
Expressive ties Mixed ties Instrumental ties
Stability Very permanent and stable; Moderately permanent and stable; Unstable and temporary;
long-term long-term short-term
Emphasis on relationship itself Relationship itself is very In-between Relationship is a means to an end
important
Affective component in the Particularistic and personal, Particularistic and personal, Universal and impersonal,
relationship emotional emotional utilitarian
Benefits sought in the relationship Egalitarian benefits Mutual benefits Arm's length dealings
Formality Informal Informal Formal
Norms in resource allocation Egalitarian Favor and face saving Utilitarian
Example Family, relatives Close friends Transactional relationship with
outsiders
Source: Adapted from Hwang (1987) and Luo (1997)
and characteristics
Guanxi ± classification
Table I.
Close business
53
relationships in
China (guanxi)
European buyer). These relationships are based on the norm of equity (resource allocation
Journal of based on contribution) (Hwang, 1987), and are impersonal and utilitarian.
Marketing Instrumental ties have a meaning attributed to transactional marketing such as
simple buying and selling and self-profit maximization (Dwyer et al., 1987;
35,1/2 Macneil, 1980). Mixed ties are in between, and are somewhat permanent and
stable (e.g. friends, same home town, same area, same school). They are personal
54 and affective relationships between exchange partners. Mixed ties are of special
interest for this study as they refer to close business relationships amongst
otherwise strangers. The major norms in mixed ties are the reciprocity of favors
(renqing) and face saving (mianzi). It should be noted that the boundaries
between mixed ties and instrumental ties are rather permutable (Hwang, 1987).
That is, mixed ties can turn into instrumental ties, and vice versa. This study
focuses on the business relationship among otherwise strangers, thus the
family-based expressive tie is beyond the scope of this study.
Characteristics of guanxi. People who share a guanxi relationship in

business are committed to each other by social norms of reciprocity and social
obligations (Hwang, 1987; Luo, 1997). That is, if an exchange partner receives a
favor based on humanized obligation (renqing), the other partner is obliged to
pay back the favor in the future. Violating this norm will damage one's
reputation and will lead to the loss of face (mianzi).
There are both positive and negative aspects of guanxi. Viewed positively,
guanxi offers good means of facilitating transactions by allowing access to
limited resources/information, preferential treatment in business dealings, and
protection from external threats. Guanxi is especially important in the early
stages of business development in China. Negative aspects of guanxi include
the associated corrupt behaviors (e.g. favoritism, nepotism). Yet, it is expected
that these negative side effects of guanxi in China can be mitigated with further
development of the open economy, improvement of legal/anti-corruption
measures, improvement of government control and technological development
of information systems (Arias, 1998; Davies, 1995; Wong, 1998).
Guanxi versus relational exchange in the West. Guanxi and relational
exchange in the West have several similarities ± exchange partners have long-
term perspectives, focus on the relationship itself rather than on a single
transaction, make efforts to preserve the relationship, try to resolve conflicts in
harmonious ways, and engage in multi-dimensional roles rather than simple
buying and selling (Alston, 1989; Arias, 1998; Dwyer et al., 1987; Morgan and
Hunt, 1994; Xin and Pearce, 1996).
However, guanxi has its own unique characteristics distinguishable from
relational exchange in the West. Table II summarizes these differences.
Guanxi is based on reciprocal exchange of personalized care and favors.
Exchange partners in guanxi have affective and personal involvement in the
relationship, resulting in affective commitment (cf. Geyskens et al., 1996). In
contrast, relational exchange partners in the West tend to have economic and
impersonal involvement, which leads to calculative commitment (e.g.
commitment based on cost and benefits) (Wee, 1994).
Characteristics Guanxi Relational exchange in the West Close business
relationships in
Type of involvement in the Affective Economic China (guanxi)
relationship
Type of commitment Affective commitment Calculative commitment
Role expectation in the Implicit Explicit
relationship 55
Role boundaries Beyond the existing role Within the pre-determined role
expectations expectations
Relational behaviors Care and favor Cooperating
Motives for reciprocal Face saving Mutuality
behaviors Table II.
Guanxi versus
Guiding principle Morality and social norms Legality and rules
relational exchange in
Source: Adapted from Arias, (1998), Tsang (1998) and Wong (1998a) the West
Partners in guanxi tend to have implicit role expectations, which often go

beyond the existing role expectations (Wee, 1994). That is, expectations in a
guanxi relationship often go beyond the existing roles to include reciprocal
exchange of personal favors, mutual protection, and enhancement of social
status. Guiding principles of relational behaviors in guanxi are morality and
social norms (Arias, 1998), and the underlying motive for reciprocal behaviors
in guanxi is face saving.
Exchange partners in a Western-style close relationship will have more
explicit role expectations. Guiding principles of a relational exchange in the
West are legality and rules. One of the main motives for reciprocal behaviors is
mutuality in the relationship.
Antecedents to guanxi
Decision-making uncertainty. International marketers often face high levels of
decision-making uncertainty with regard to target markets. They often lack
adequate information, have difficulties in predicting consequences of decisions,
and therefore lack confidence in making strategic decisions. Differences in
language and culture in international markets work as obstacles in mutual
understanding of each other. The initial difference between the two may be
reduced through an interaction and learning process.
Decision-making uncertainty refers to the degree of uncertainty faced by
decision makers: whether there is an adequate amount of information, whether
the outcomes of a certain decision are predictable, and how confident the
decision makers are with the decision outcomes (Achrol and Stern, 1988).
Where there is a high degree of decision-making uncertainty, exchange
partners are likely to seek a closer relationship (Berry, 1983). International
marketers might think that the uncertainties facing them would be reduced
once they develop more personal and particularistic relationships with their
exchange partners. That is, the lack of information will motivate firms to
European develop a guanxi that helps them to reduce decision-making uncertainty. Based
Journal of on the above discussion, we advance the following hypothesis.
Marketing H1: A firm's decision-making uncertainty will be positively related to its
35,1/2 guanxi with the partner.
Opportunism. Opportunism is defined as self-interest seeking with guile
56 (Williamson, 1975). Examples of opportunistic behaviors include
misrepresentation, manipulation, cheating, and deception (Anderson, 1988;
John, 1984). The essence of opportunism is the element of deceit (Williamson,
1985), and thus self-interest seeking without guile (e.g. hard bargaining or
intense disagreement) is not considered opportunism (Provan and Skinner,
1989). A firm is more likely to behave opportunistically when its exchange
partner is dependent on it (Klein et al., 1978; Provan and Skinner, 1989;
Williamson, 1985); when the firm has made a smaller commitment to the
relationship than its partner (Gundlach et al., 1995); when a high degree of
environmental uncertainty exists, and when monitoring efforts by the
exchange partner are insignificant (Stump and Heide, 1996).
Ideally, trust and good intentions should characterize the relationship between
exchange partners. However, exchange partners do not always behave in that
manner and sometimes attempt to exploit their exchange partners
opportunistically (Williamson, 1985). Opportunistic behavior increases
transaction costs (Williamson, 1985) and negatively affects trusting
relationships (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Opportunistic behavior directly
violates the norms of reciprocal relationship and will make the opportunistic
partners ``lose face''. Thus, this study posits that opportunistic behavior will affect
guanxi negatively. Based on the above discussion, it can be hypothesized that:
H2: A firm's perception of its exchange partner's opportunism will be
negatively related to its guanxi with the partner.
Perceived similarity. At the early stage of a relationship, Chinese business
people generally look for some common links (friends, same region, same
school, etc.) as a basis for guanxi. The idea is that when there are similarities
between the exchange partners, they tend to understand, have empathy for,
and be more attracted to each other (Churchill et al., 1985). Perceived similarity
also increases communication between exchange partners (Zenger and
Lawrence, 1989) and facilitates social integration (O'Reilly et al., 1989).
Perceived similarity becomes more important in collectivistic cultures
(Hofstede, 1991). People from the collectivist culture tend to use perceived
similarity as a basis for classifying in-group members against others. Once
people are regarded as being within the boundaries of ``we'', they develop
closeness, assume social interdependence, and consequently grant more favors
to each other in the group. Therefore, it can be argued that when exchange
partners perceive sharing of common characteristics (e.g. common interests,
shared experience, similar life style, and/or similar values), the chances of the
relationship evolving into a guanxi are greater, all other things being equal. Close business
Based on the above discussion, it can be hypothesized that: relationships in
H3: A firm's perceived similarity with its exchange partner will be China (guanxi)
positively related to its guanxi with the partner.
Consequences of guanxi 57
Relationship quality. Crosby et al. (1990) found that trust and satisfaction are
important aspects of relationship quality, and that high relationship quality
leads to future purchase intentions. Ganesan (1994) also found that relationship
quality (e.g. satisfaction with the relationship) and long-term orientation are
positively related.
This study posits a positive relationship between guanxi and relationship
quality. This is because:
. the reciprocal exchange of favors based on mutual obligations will

provide exchange partners with a high degree of satisfaction with the
relationship;
. the personalized and particularistic nature of exchange (renqing) will
provide a high degree of satisfaction to the exchange partners; and
. face-saving norms (mianzi) will preclude any opportunistic behavior,
leading exchange partners to trust each other.
This leads to increased satisfaction with relationship and develops trust,
reflecting a high level of relationship quality. Therefore, we hypothesize that:
H4: A firm's guanxi will be positively related to its perception of relationship
quality.
Interdependence. When dealing with international marketers, exchange
partners are often dependent on each other for limited resources, specialized
knowledge, information, and marketing assistance. Interdependence here refers
to a symmetrically high level of dependence in the exporting-importing
relationship (Heide, 1994).
Previous research in channel literature has used a number of approaches to
define and measure dependence. These include the importance of resources
obtained from the relationship, the number of alternative resources from which
the desired resources could be obtained, the difficulty of replacing the
relationship partner (e.g. Keith et al., 1990), the level of investment in the
relationship (e.g. Heide and John, 1992), and the extent to which one channel
member relies on another channel member in achieving goals or obtaining
resources (Keith et al., 1990). This study straightforwardly defines dependence
in terms of the difficulty of replacing the relationship partner.
This study posits that exchange partners in a guanxi relationship are likely
to develop an interdependent relationship. The reciprocal nature of norms
based on humanitarian considerations (renqing) and the emphasis of face
saving (mianzi) will provide the exchange partners with safeguard mechanisms
European from opportunistic behaviors (Heide and John, 1990; Ganesan, 1994) and allow
Journal of them to mutually depend on each other. That is, guanxi will allow exchange
Marketing partners to invest more into the relationship, and commitment of one party is
likely to be reciprocated (Anderson and Weitz, 1992; Heide, 1994). Thus, this
35,1/2
particularistic relationship between two exchange partners will increase
mutual dependence. Based on the discussion, it can be hypothesized that:
58
H5: A firm's guanxi with an exchange partner will be positively related to
its interdependence with its exchange partner.
Relationship quality and business performance. Business performance can be
evaluated in terms of outcomes and inputs, and can also be measured on an
absolute or relative scale (Capon et al., 1988). Financial measures such as return
on investments, profits and profit margins, sales, sales growth, and asset
turnover are frequently used (Raven et al., 1994). Another approach involves
measuring a firm's absolute or relative performance on pre-specified tasks,
such as the increase of market share (Noordewier et al., 1990).
Generally, the impact of relationship quality on business performance is
long-term (Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995). To ascertain its long-term effects on
business performance, this study will use performance measures such as the
sales trend over the last three years from the relationship, the stability of past
sales, and the expectation of future sales for the next three years.
This study posits that a high relationship quality positively affects business
performance. This is because high relationship quality increases intentions of
future transactions (Crosby et al., 1990; Ganesan, 1994). In addition, the trusting
nature of relationship quality will increase transaction efficiency (Sheth and
Parvatiyar, 1995). Based on the discussion, it can be hypothesized that:
H6: A firm's perception of relationship quality will be positively related to
its business performance in the relationship.
Interdependence and business performance. Heide (1994) found that symmetric
and high dependence (interdependence) between exchange partners led
exchange partners into flexible governance mechanisms in the relationship.
High interdependence between exchange partners allows mutual adjustments
in the on-going relationship in order to cope with the changing environment
more effectively (Heide, 1994; Kaufmann and Stern, 1988). Also, high
interdependence will motivate exchange partners to cooperate with each other,
proactively share information, commit to the relationship, and align individual
interests to the on-going relationship. Mutual investments in more efficient
transaction specific assets will also reduce transaction costs and increase
efficiencies.
Based on the discussion, it can be hypothesized that:
H7: Interdependence between exchange partners will be positively related
to business performance in the relationship.
Method Close business
In order to investigate the relationships illustrated in Figure 1 and test the relationships in
hypotheses, a survey using key informants was used. The focus of our study is China (guanxi)
the business relationships between Hong Kong and Chinese business people.
Data collection was conducted before the hand-over of Hong Kong to China in
1997.
59
Measure development and pre-test
A series of pre-tests and interviews was conducted to finalize the conceptual
model and the measures in the model. In order to develop the conceptual model,
we combined the literature perspective with 15 field interviews with senior
executives responsible for business in China.
Several steps were taken in order to develop and pre-test the measures. As
noted, items were initially generated based on a thorough review of the
literature. Two exercises were conducted to evaluate the content validity of the
guanxi-related measures.
First, seven academic experts with extensive experience and knowledge
about Chinese business acted as judges to assess the initially developed items.
Each judge was asked to:
. evaluate the adequacy of the items along the definitions provided;
. eliminate items that poorly capture each variable; and
. add items that might represent each latent variable but were not
included in the initial list.
Second, the revised questionnaire was pre-tested using a sample of 35 firms
randomly drawn from the Hong Kong Chambers of Commerce Directory
(HKCC, 1996). The senior managers were asked to complete the questionnaire
and to provide any concerns related to the questionnaire. A careful examination
of 19 returned questionnaires revealed that virtually all items are well
understood by the informants, and also that most items had a diverse range of
responses. After the refinement from the pre-test, the main survey was
conducted.
The main survey procedure

For the main survey, Hong Kong firms involved in Chinese business were
randomly selected from the Hong Kong Chambers of Commerce Directory and
were contacted by mail. In order to increase response rate, the participants were
assured that all responses would be confidential and that only aggregate
results would be presented. Also an executive summary of this study was
offered as an incentive to participate. Out of 1,500 questionnaires distributed,
306 usable questionnaires were received, generating a response rate of 20.4
percent. The firms in the sample were involved in businesses in consumer
products (36 percent), industrial products (31 percent), service (25 percent), and
others (8 percent). In terms of firm size, 57 percent of the firms had fewer than
European 100 employees and 38 percent of the firms had fewer than 100 employees (5
Journal of percent not defined).
Marketing The timing of response was analyzed as a test of non-response bias
(Armstrong and Overton, 1977). No significant differences were found in
35,1/2 organizational demographic variables between the early respondent group and
the late respondent group.
60
Measurement
Decision making uncertainty. Decision-making uncertainty refers to the degree
of uncertainty faced by decision makers. Specifically, it means lack of adequate
amount of information, lack of predictability, and lack of confidence on the
outcome of a decision (Achrol and Stern, 1988). This study used a two-item
measure with a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly
agree), tapping rapid rate of change and lack of adequate amount of
information.
Opportunism. Opportunism is defined as self-interest seeking with guile
(Williamson, 1985). Based on interviews and the review of literature (e.g. John,
1984; Provan and Skinner, 1989), this study used a four-item measure (seven-
point Likert scale; 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).
Perceived similarity. Perceived similarity refers to a marketer's perception of
sharing of common characteristics with its exchange partner (e.g. common
interests, shared experience, similar life style, and/or similar values). This
study measured overall level of perceived similarity in a single item measure
(seven-point Likert scale; 1 = extremely dissimilar, 7 = extremely similar).
Guanxi. As noted before, guanxi in this study refers to a particularized and
personalized business relationship based on the reciprocal exchange of favors
and mutual obligation to pay back the favors (Alston, 1989; Luo, 1997). Based
on interviews with experts and the review of the literature, this study
developed a four-item measure for this construct (seven-point Likert scale, 1 =
strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).
Relationship quality. Relationship quality is a higher order construct
composed of trust and satisfaction with the exchange partner (Crosby et al.,
1990). This study measured relationship quality as an exchange partner's
overall perception of the quality of relationship with a single seven-point Likert
scale (1 = extremely low quality, 7 = extremely high quality).
Interdependence. Interdependence refers to a mutually high level of
dependence between exchange partners (Heide, 1994). The dependence items
were measured with a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 =
strongly agree). Following Heide (1994), interdependence was measured by
multiplying dependence between the exchange partners. That is,
interdependence is calculated by multiplying a Hong Kong firm's dependence
on its Chinese partner and a Chinese firm's dependence on its Hong Kong
partner.
Business performance. We measured business performance using subjective
measures, commonly used in this type of research. This study used a three-item
measure reflecting sales trends over the last three years (1 = significantly Close business
decreased, 7 = significantly increased), stability of past sales pattern (1 = relationships in
extremely unstable, 7 = extremely stable), and perception of sales for the next China (guanxi)
three years (1 = expected to decline significantly, 7 = expected to increase
significantly).
Measure purification. Several steps were taken to purify the measures used
in this study. First, exploratory factor analyses and reliability analyses were 61
conducted. Items were deleted based on item-total correlation and cross loading
(e.g. > 0.40). The measures were then further purified with the confirmatory
factor analysis by putting all measures into a model. After deleting one item
measuring opportunism due to its high residual (> j2.58j), the model fits the
data satisfactorily (2, 48 = 90.11, p = 0.00, GFI = 0.95, AGFI = 0.92; CFI = 0.91;
NFI = 0.83; RMSEA = 0.05). All factor loadings were significant at the 0.01
level. Overall, the results confirmed the convergent and discriminant validity of
the measures used in this study. For example, the Cronbach alpha coefficients
were: guanxi (0.74), opportunism (0.82), decision-making uncertainty (0.71), and
business performance (0.74).
Results of hypotheses testing

Structural relationships in the conceptual model were tested with LISREL 8
(Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993). The maximum likelihood fitting function was
used to estimate parameters and test hypotheses. Table III shows the
covariance and correlation matrix for the constructs used in this study. The
results are summarized in Table IV. Overall the model fits the data reasonably
well (2, 7 = 75.05, p = .00, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.82; CFI = 0.71; NFI = 0.83;
RMSEA = 0.14).
Antecedents to guanxi. The first three hypotheses (H1-H3) dealt with
antecedents to guanxi. Specifically, it was hypothesized that a firm's decision-
making uncertainty is positively related to guanxi (H1), a firm's perception of
the level of opportunism in the relationship is negatively related to guanxi (H2),
DMUa OPPb SIMc GXId RQe DEPf PERFg
DMUa 5.68 ±2.19 0.57 0.74 0.43 1.07 0.87

OPPb ±0.21 16.37 ±0.54 ±0.95 0.12 0.43 0.85
SIMc 0.19 ±0.11 1.48 0.33 0.43 0.44 0.47
GXId 0.273 ±0.20 0.24 1.26 0.14 0.25 0.008
RQe 0.16 0.03 0.35 0.12 1.04 0.45 1.17
DEPf 0.21 0.05 0.18 0.11 0.22 3.79 0.88
PERFg 0.14 0.08 0.16 0.03 0.47 0.18 5.87
Notes: aDecision-making uncertainty; bOpportunism; cPerceived similarity; dGuanxi; Table III.
e
Relationship quality; fInterdependence; gOverall business performance; below diagonal = Correlation and
correlation matrix; diagonal = variance; above diagonal = covariance matrix covariance matrix
European Dependent variable Predictors Beta SE T R2
Journal of
Marketing GXIa DMUb
c
0.098 0.027 3.62** 0.13
35,1/2 OPP ±0.040 0.016 ±2.54**
d
SIM 0.17 0.052 3.29**
RQe GXIa 0.11 0.053 2.09** 0.02
62 DEP f
GXI a
0.20 0.10 1.95* 0.01
g e
PERF RQ 1.08 0.12 8.78** 0.22
DEPf 0.10 0.064 1.61*
Table IV. Notes: bDecision-making uncertainty; cOpportunism; dPerceived similarity; a
guanxi;
e
LISREL results Relationship quality; fInterdependence; gOverall business performance; **, P < 0.05; *
< 0.10
and a firm's perceived similarity toward its exchange partner is positively

related to guanxi (H3). The results indeed provide strong support for all three
hypotheses. The results indicate that guanxi is positively affected by decision-
making uncertainty ( = 0.098, p < 0.05) and perceived similarity ( = 0.17,
p < 0.05), while being negatively affected by opportunism ( = ±0.04, p < 0.05).
Consequences of guanxi. H4-H7 dealt with the hypotheses on consequences
of guanxi. Specifically, the hypotheses posit that guanxi positively affects
business performance, mediated by relationship quality and interdependence.
It was also hypothesized that a firm's perception of guanxi is positively related
to its perception of overall relationship quality (H4) and its level of
interdependence (H5). The results indicate that guanxi increases the perception
of overall relationship quality ( = 0.11, p < 0.05) and mutual interdependence
( = 0.20, p < 0.10).
It was hypothesized that business performance would be positively affected
by relationship quality (H6) and by interdependence (H7). The results of the
LISREL analysis show that relationship quality has a strong positive
impact on business performance ( = 1.08, p < 0.01), supporting H6.
This finding suggests that marketers in guanxi develop trust and satisfaction
with the overall relationship, which are key factors for business success.
However, it was found that interdependence has a marginal effect on business
performance ( = 0.10, p < 0.10). This will be discussed further in the
discussion section.
Rival model. One can argue that relationship quality and interdependence
can also be antecedents to guanxi. In order to test this possibility, a rival model
was developed with decision-making uncertainty, opportunism, similarity,
relationship quality, and interdependence as antecedents to guanxi. Business
performance was the sole consequence of guanxi in the rival model. The rival
model, however, does not provide a better fit to the data than the original model
(2 , 5 = 81.52, p = 0.00, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.63; CFI = 0.63; NFI = 0.64;
RMSEA = 0.23). A Chi-square difference test also indicates that the original
model is significantly better than the rival model (Chi-square difference = 6.47,
df = 2, p < 0.05).
Discussion Close business
Summary of the findings relationships in
The main purpose of this study was to develop and test a model of antecedents China (guanxi)
and consequences of guanxi in the Chinese market. The findings of this study
suggest that guanxi is positively affected by a firm's decision-making
uncertainty and perceived similarity, while negatively affected by
opportunism. Guanxi, once established, has a positive impact on the perception 63
of relationship quality and interdependence, which in turn positively affect
business performance. In the following section, we will discuss the managerial
and theoretical implications of these findings.
Managerial and theoretical implications

The managerial implications of this study are as follows. This study strongly
suggests that international marketers need to make concerted efforts to develop
guanxi with Chinese partners when they have a high degree of decision-making
uncertainty. This implies that when a firm is not familiar with its Chinese
partners' business culture (working methods, norms, and values), there is a
greater need for the firm to develop close interpersonal contacts and multi-
dimensional relationships. By developing guanxi, international marketers can
exchange information proactively and reduce their level of risk and uncertainty
(Davies et al., 1995; Pan and Tse, 1996).
How can Western marketers develop guanxi with Chinese exchange
partners? This study suggests several ways. First, Western marketers should
attempt to communicate more closely to better understand their partners'
expectations. This is because role expectations of Chinese partners are implicit
and those expectations often go beyond traditional role expectations. Hence,
Western marketers need to extend their roles beyond the existing role
boundaries and enhance their flexibility to the changing needs of their partners,
especially under high uncertainty.
Second, international marketers need to develop and communicate their
affective commitment to the relationship. This means that Western marketers
need to embrace the relationship with a more caring attitude and affective
commitment. Quite often, Western marketers limit close relationships to a
utilitarian perspective. As a result, they tend to have calculative commitment to
the relationship (e.g. commitment based on constant evaluation of cost and
benefit from the relationship). This study suggests that it is important for
Western marketers to approach the relationship with a caring attitude and
benevolence. Western marketers' behaviors for the well-being of their Chinese
marketers are likely to be reciprocated, and this can be a good starting point for
developing guanxi.
Third, Western marketers should make conscientious efforts to limit
their opportunistic behaviors. Sometimes, marketers behave
opportunistically at the expense of the exchange partner's long-term
interests. These opportunistic behaviors, once detected, will have
detrimental effects on the relationship, and will make the relationship
European transactional in nature (Provan and Skinner, 1989; Stump and Heide, 1996).
Journal of Opportunistic behaviors represent a violation of social norms in guanxi, and
Marketing thus will damage one's reputation. In addition, opportunistic behaviors can
influence and jeopardize the entire network of interactions between the two
35,1/2 exchange partners (Ford et al., 1985). The findings of this study suggest that
it is important for Western marketers to better understand the social norms
64 and attempt to meet the normative expectations.
Fourth, this study's findings indicate that international marketers need to
develop similarities (e.g. common interests, shared values and experiences,
mutual understanding) in order to develop a guanxi relationship. As guanxi is
based on more personalized, affective commitment to the relationship (e.g.
friendship), it is important to have shared similarities as a basis for guanxi.
Hall and Hall (1987) have argued that in high context cultures (e.g. Japan,
China), developing interpersonal relationships and mutual understanding at
the personal level is a pre-requisite for business success. This study's findings
confirm that view and further emphasize the importance of interpersonal
relationship. International marketers can increase perceived similarities by
developing close and personal relationships and by enhancing mutual
understanding of each other's business culture. Furthermore, firms from
different cultural backgrounds can also develop a certain level of similarity by
making efforts to enhance their cultural affinity (Ford, 1980; Hallen and
Johanson, 1985) and to reduce alienation in the relationship (e.g. increasing
cultural understanding, increasing language capabilities, and familiarizing
themselves with the ways Chinese companies are operating).
Once guanxi is established, what are its outcomes? The findings of this
study provide evidence for the positive effect of guanxi on overall business
performance. Guanxi enhances perception of relationship quality, which will
increase future business potential, marketing efficiencies, and marketing
effectiveness (Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995).
The findings in this study also indicate that mutual dependence has a
marginal impact on business performance, while relationship quality has a
stronger impact on business performance. This implies that marketers should
put a priority on developing a trusting and satisfying relationship. It is notable
that an interdependent relationship or governance structure is not sufficient for
business success in the Chinese market. In this market, high priorities should
go to social relationships and thus marketers should make conscious efforts to
enhance trust and satisfaction in their relationship building. They should
demonstrate their interests in each other's well-being and social
interdependencies.
Apart from the above managerial implications, this research aims to make a
theoretical contribution to the guanxi literature. This research is intended to fill
the gap by developing and empirically testing a model of guanxi in terms of its
antecedents and consequences. This conceptual framework will help
companies to restructure their portfolios of relationship development
strategies. That is, depending on the level of guanxi, they can choose either
transactional strategies (e.g. short-term price discount, sales promotions) or Close business
relational strategies (e.g. development of long-term commitment and mutual relationships in
investment). In short, a better understanding of guanxi will help international China (guanxi)
marketers to develop appropriate strategies adapting to the Chinese market
(Bruner et al., 1989; Leung et al., 1995).
Study limitations and future research 65

This study has several limitations. First, it focused only on the relationships
between Hong Kong and Chinese business people. Given this study's limited
scope, caution must be exercised when generalizing its findings to the contexts
of different countries. Future studies could test the model in various cultural
and economic contexts (e.g. between China and Western countries). Efforts to
identify the importance of guanxi under different economic conditions (e.g.
during or after the current Asian economic crisis) will be worthwhile. Second,
this study used single item measures for some of constructs (e.g. relationship
quality and perceived similarity). Although a single item measure can tap the
overall perception, it may be a problem, as it assumes no measurement error for
that construct. Future study to incorporate the construct as a multi-item,
higher-order construct will be worth future effort.
In addition, this study considered the business relationship only from the
point of view of Hong Kong business people. The development of guanxi
requires the willingness of both parties and thus future efforts should address
the views of their Chinese partners. While this study covered a broad range of
business forms, future research can also focus on the effect of specific business
forms (e.g. exporting-importing, joint venture and direct investment) on the
development of guanxi. It would also be interesting to see the effect of guanxi
on the choice of specific business forms. Further studies to incorporate other
firm and business characteristics (e.g. product-market diversity of the firm,
business experience in China, duration of the relationship and corporate
culture) and industry characteristics (e.g. competition intensity, entry barrier
and product life cycle stage) will be worth future effort.
Next, this study focuses only on the business relationship between otherwise
strangers. There are many family-related businesses in China. It would be
worthwhile to conduct further studies with an emphasis on family-related
guanxi. Finally, this study was conducted at one point in time. Longitudinal
studies would allow us to understand the development of guanxi more
thoroughly and provide more conclusive findings on the direction of causality
between guanxi and business performance.
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Appendix
Decision-making uncertainty (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)
Chinese company is rapidly changing and I do not know which person to contact)
Organization of Chinese company is not clear and I do not know where to start
Opportunism (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)

To achieve its objective, my Chinese partner often agrees to perform initially, fail to do so later.
My Chinese partner attempts to exploit the advantage of our cooperation for his individual
own benefits.
The statement `àttack when near, befriend when distant'' is very useful.
To be successful in negotiation, it is often necessary to compromise individual ethics.
Perceived similarity (1 = extremely dissimilar; 7 = extremely similar)

How would you rate the overall level of similarity between you and your exchange partner?
Guanxi (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) Close business
I target the moral principle of brotherhood type of relationship.
I try to make of the principles of harmony. relationships in
To pay back favor is more urgent than debt to save face. China (guanxi)
I encourage other to owe a favor.
Interdependence. Chinese partner's dependence on us (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)

The Chinese party is heavily dependent on us for their business success. 69
Our dependence on our exchange partner (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)
It is difficult to enter the Chinese market, unless we work together.
If I lose the partner, the impact on our business will be disastrous.
Relationship quality (1 = extremely low quality; 7 = extremely high quality)

Describe overall quality of the relationship.
Business performance
The sales trend over the last three years forms the relationship.
(1 = significantly decreased; 7 = significantly increased)
The stability of past sales pattern.
(1 = extremely unstable; 7 = extremely stable)
Perception of future sales for the next three years.
(1 = expected to decrease significantly; 7 = expected to increase significantly).
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A model of close business Close business

Keywords Relationship marketing, China, Company performance, Marketing strategy

in China. We hypothesize that decision-making uncertainty and perceived similarity positively

interests and benefits (Yang, 1994). Specifically, it refers to a special type of

Expressive ties Mixed ties Instrumental ties

Characteristics of guanxi. People who share a guanxi relationship in

Partners in guanxi tend to have implicit role expectations, which often go

. the reciprocal exchange of favors based on mutual obligations will

The main survey procedure

Results of hypotheses testing

DMUa OPPb SIMc GXId RQe DEPf PERFg

DMUa 5.68 ±2.19 0.57 0.74 0.43 1.07 0.87

and a firm's perceived similarity toward its exchange partner is positively

Managerial and theoretical implications

Study limitations and future research 65

Vol. 92 No. 4, pp. 944-74.

Opportunism (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)

Perceived similarity (1 = extremely dissimilar; 7 = extremely similar)

Interdependence. Chinese partner's dependence on us (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree)

Relationship quality (1 = extremely low quality; 7 = extremely high quality)

38. Zhang Chi, Hong Seock-Jin. Guanxi Culture 19-40. [Crossref]

case of guanxi. Scientometrics 105:1, 645-663. [Crossref]

exploratory research. Frontiers of Business Research in China 3:1. . [Crossref]

Excellence 18:8, 889-899. [Crossref]

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