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    NoelSmithJ 1963redux

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    ‘THE PHESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF GHANA 18351960; A YOUNGER CHURCH I A CHANGING SOCTETY. By J, NOEL airTH. Thesis presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Rdinburgh in the Faculty of Divinity. suLY, 1965. Introduction: Chapter 1. Chapter 2. Chapter 5. Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Chapter 6. Chapter 7. Chapter 8. Chaptor 9. Chapter 10. Chapter 11. ‘THE PRESGYTERIAN CHUSCH OF GHANA 1635-1960. A Younger Church in a Changing Society. Contents. The Geographical end Historical Background ‘The beginnings in Zurope and africa. The Second attempt, 1845 - 1850. The Period of Consolidation, 1650 - 1870. ‘Tho Traditional Akan Worlé-view. ‘Tho Inpact of Christianity upon Treditional Aken religion ani Lifo. Tho Period of Advance and Grovth, 1870 - 1918. From Mission to Independent Chureh. Developments in ldueational ond Wedical Worl. A Survey of Develomonts in the life of the Church from 1926 - 1957. Tho Church ond the Community. Problems of Adaptation, Assimilstion and Social Change. Appendices. Maps inside end cover. 196. 234. sol. Geographical and Historical Background he Republic of Chana, the fomer British Colonial Territory of the Gola Coast, Lies on the Vest Coast of Africa between five and eleven degrees north of the equator. Its three hmndzed and fifty miles of coastline on the Gulf of Guinea foms the couthem bomdexy, on the east 4¢ has Togoland as its fimediate neighbour, on tho vost the Ivozy Coast end on the north Upper Voltas a total area about the size of the United Kingdom. (1) ‘The coastline on which tho Atlantie sunt brocks mecasingly 10 low end santy, but hove and thore, perticularly in the exoas of Keta, ada and Assint, the Littoral 1s broken by lagoons separated fron the ea by marron sandy trips.) sme eoactel plain, up to aixty miles in depth, 4e mainly covered vith ‘thicket? bush, cerub or grass, ceconting to the anount of rainfall. Furthor inlen lies tho tropicel forest belt which extends northnanis along tho western bonler and into Ashanti for come one hundred and seventy miles, end ts broken by the hills and ridges of the Akwapin-Togo rengos, ‘the Krebu platoau ond tho Southorm Achontd uplends. The average hoight of those hile and ridges is botweon 1,000 and 2,600 teat.) he forest belt is the souree of the wealth of Ghena. ‘The weinfall, usually between GO end 80 inches a year, ond the moist, shady conditions meko 4% excelent cooon-croving country.(") 4 flourishing tinbor industzy has also developed, the chief species for export being mchogeny, odwm, wave end (1) United Kingdon land area, 94,205 square miles; Ghana, 91,842. (2) E.A. Boateng, 4 Googrephy of Ghana, C.U.P. 1959 psf. (3) In Togoland, isolated peaks attain altitudes of up to 3,000 feet. (4) The average amnuol exey over tho pest 15 years is 200,000 tons, one third of the world's supply, produced by peasant farmers on holdings of 2 to 5 acres. ‘This crop provides well over helf the total revenue of the country. he 5 sapere. | ) Everywhere, food crops such as yem, plantain, cocoyam, cassava, maize, denanas, rice, peppers, gorton ogee, onions and tomatoes, avocado pears, ovenges, and pinoapples axe grown, nainly on a family subsistence basis, the morplus finding its wey to the local maxket. @remp fee 42 also grom in tho forest zone, vhtle the otl-paln and koia are ovexynbere tomt.'*) ho rorest zone 1s oleo the hone of most of Ghana's minorel vealth, cold, mangenoso, Industaiel dienonde and bauxite. The aren of greatest convontration of mining Lies in the Westorn Region ond Ashantd within a ratdue of aixty miles from Dunisie.(7) on the coastal plain south of the AlvrepimTogo hills, Sast of accra the chief? occupations cre cca flehing, oattle rearing, cassava, moize ond vogotebie gzoring.(°) forest zone, there is a day season from November to Moreh and agriculture is In tho northern savanna region, north of the ‘then elmost entirely confined to the rearing of livestock; yams, cassava, maize in the wetter areas, millets, guinea corn, pulses, beans and groundnute being grown in the rainy season. ‘Thor is on export of cattle and yams to the south and a considerable sale of shea butter obtained from the frait of the shea tree found growing wild all over the region. Ghena is thus an agricultural country, less then one sixth of its population of six anf a half millions living in urban areas, the rest being (5) tho av¥rago ennual export over the past 10 years is 15 million cubic foot. (6) Cocoa fame aro fixed and often cultivated by hired labour; the food form is based on a shifting cultivation system and rotates around the cocoa fam. (7) ining contributes about one quarter of the totel value of the country's exports end employs a labour fozec of about 0,000, mostly frm the Worthem legion. Boateng op.cit. p.90. {8) ‘The toctee fly ic tho obstacle to cattle raising in the forest zone although sheep ond gosts thrive. ike 9) scattered throughout the country in «mall tows and villages. There isa concentration of people in the roughly-trianguler area, Axim-Kumasi-Keta; then a region of vory lov density in the basin of tho middle Volta and its tributary the Black Volta, but north of a line \ia-Iemale-Yendi there is en increase in density particularly in the Navrongo and Bawku districts. Ghana has two seasons, a rainy season (April-October) and a dry season (Novomber-liarch) depending upon the dominance of either the south-westerly moist winds from the sea or tho dry north-east winds Inown locally as the harmattan. It is always hot, night and day. From the coast to the northern edge of the forest zone there is very little range of temperature - mostly it is between 20°F. to 5°F. = or humidity, which is invorfebly about 60%. ‘In the north, days axe hotter, nights are cooler ond the relative nmiéity is mich lower. ‘The equable demp heat of the south and the drier scorching heat of the north are alike onervating and make the climate, through its offects on human and comfort, as important a factor in history, as bills and vegetation.2°) Almost all the inhabitants of Ghana are of Sudanese Negro stock with a small admixture of Hamites in the north. Oral treditions give reason to deliove that they came mostly from the Sudan area although the Gas, Adengnes and Eves reached Ghana fron the east. ‘Three iamigretions are éistingulshed, ‘that of the Guans who came down the Black Volta and the Volta, probably as early (9) Population ct the 1960 census: Accra (including Teshie) 355,000, Kommast 190,000, Sekondi~Takoradi 86,000, Caye Coast 40,000, Koforidua 23,000, ‘Temale 40,000, Obuasi 25,000, VWinneba 25,000, Nsamam 20,000, Oda 20,000, Tema, the neviy-constructed harbour, east of Accra, is growing rapidly and already hes a population of 20,000. )10) Seo appendix II; the mortality figures of the Basel Mission. Place — Aumual, Hoan eliax. MeanJiin. Moen Relative Heinfet. Ramgpatue = cr Tham aches) oR. =a Fae ean ogra 29 Bg % aL ‘xin ca 85 % 87 Kumasi 59 86 68 88 Nevrongo 45 94 7) 56 ‘he highost recorded temperature was 1080F. at Navrongo, ani the lonect SO p ot Kumasi. a4. 88 1200 A.D., and whose movements have been traced fron Hole through Salaga, Xrechi, anu, the Alvapin Ridge end as far west as imneba; the second wavo, from which the ¥entie are descended, followed the river Teno and reached the coast between the rivers Offin and Pra about 1500 A.D. spreading eastvands thereafter from Cape Coast; the thin wave, the wi peoples (Ashentis, Akins, Acvapins ond Akvemus), ceme due south in tho sixteenth century and oceeupied elmost the whole of the forest country between the Teno and the Volta. As the costal strip vas alrealy possessed by the Fontis and tho Gume the vis stopped about trenty to thirty miles from the see. The Degonbas, Moshi end other northem tribes entered Chena in medieval times, during ond after the fall of the two great kingdoms of Helle end Songhei im the western Suien and penetrated as far as Salaga. © Theso groups brought the Moslen influence 20 widely @isporsed today tn the south of the county.) The principal people of the southern helf of Ghana is the Akan, a gonorie tem for those groups which spead a variant of Twi, including the Fanti, Ashanti, Acin cnd Alvepim tribes. Twi ie tue qpoken by three-fifths of the people of Chana end is gaining grouA es an auxiliary lenguage east of the Volta and in ) tho north, 2# In the couth-cast comer of the country and in the southem section of ‘the Tegolant Region live is spoken, and on the plains from the Volte te Accra ‘the Ga longuage ic found in two main @ialects, Adangne and Accra, ‘The greater part of the north ic inhabited by peoples spoaking variant foms of the Moshi-Dagomba Language. (11) W.E.P. Wert, A History of Ghana, Allen & Unwin 1958, Che. II end III passin, B.A, Boateng, op.cit. pp.104-109. (22) Host Ga ana Adangne people speck Iwi, while thousends of labourers fron the north learn it during their sojoum in the south. 411 tho Guene speck Twi, Cf. EL. Rapp, Zur Austreitung einer lostefrikanischon Stenmespreche (Das Twi), Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1955. av. he svcicl onginisation of tho Akan people, exept in the lame coumereiel tors, is on a lineage basis, a cluster of Linesges foming the typleal sottlenont, a ttom' of betueon one and five thousand people each of which has its om chief and ‘stocl!. A muber of euch "tomms' axe grouped into a larger unit, the Oman, or state, whose natural ruler is temed the onenkenc. Surrounding the toms are villages (akurea) which are temporary sottlauents for agricultural purposes, but some may become pemanent ond eventually possess their om stool. the unit of society is the extended family, the abusua, onbracing grandparents, brothers, sisters, nephews and their sivee and clidldren often Living in the sone or neighbouring compounds. Land 4s held coummelly by oach sbusua and evoxy menber of the comunity 4s extitloa to share in the stool Lande, not by outright ommorehin, but otmly dy usage. Because stool land ds ancestrel lend, it can not in theoxy be finally elienated or sold in the Western sense. the chief 1s the custodian of stool lands, allotting such portions to the fantlies es they request or oquire. By the tine the Portuguese Janded in 1471 tribe) migrations, (apart from ‘tho oxpension of the Ashanti Kingtom) had largely ceased, and the first contacts ere made with the ontis. So profiteble was the trode in gold dust that in luge Elmina Castle was built on land rented fron the locel people ané a number (28) py a papel order, the Portuguese wore given monopoly rights on the Guinea Coast and were held of othor subsidiary forts were also established. responsible for converting tho inhabitants to the Christian faith. In spite of solitary efforts by Fronch and English voyegers Portuguese domination was not comiously threatened until the arrival of the Dutch at the ond of the (18) Olartage, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, London, 1915, Vol.I, p.100. ‘he Portuguese accounts of Jano de Barros, Ruy de Pins and Duarte Pachoso Pereira are printed in Wolfoon, Pegeant of Ghana, Oxforl, 1958, pp.37-46. Other forts were bullt at Axim, Shama and Avera. 14) sixteonth century. ‘Tho planting of Snglich end French colonies in the Woot Indios, honevos, in tho early years of the seventecnth century and ther concentration on the production of clave-grom suger cnomously inereased the Goneni for lioot african claves. Whe danané was met initially by the operations of the Dutch vost India Company, who, efter 1698, built the forte of Nouri ond Butri to the cast ani vost of Hmina end slovly wrested the trade in gold and sleves from their rivals. the Dutch West Indie Company captured Hinina in 1637 ond by 1642 had driven the Portuguese fron the Coast. (25) Othor Buropomn nations hastened to engage in this profitable "trlanguler* trade vhich consisted in exchanging European goods for gold and slaves on the Gold Coast, shipping then to tho lest Infiee or Bresil, selling the slaves ‘there and retuming to Suroye with a camo of ewer, mm end cpiees. These nations followed the Dutoh pattem of granting monopolies in the trade to chartered companies ani ovor the next half century the Svedes, tho French, the Brandonbungere, the Danes end the English established treding forte.(26) ry 1651 the firct Mglich fort vas bullt at Koranantin, not far fron the Dutch hocdquarters at Nouri, ond from this tins until 16e1, imelich trode with the Gold Coast vas controlled ty a series of companies chartered by the King or (14) the fret vecomled Inglich voyege was made in 165% by Thonas Windhen followed a yoar later by Captain John Lok. (15) The Portuguese made unsuccessful attempts to resettle at Chrictiansborg between 1679 end 1662. (16) ‘Tho Svedes (1640-57) built Fort Wisten at Takorali, a fort et Cape Coast anf occupied the sbendoned Portuguese fort at Christiansborg. The Danes drove then out in 1657 and made Christiansborg their headquarters building forts at Teshie, Ningo, ada ond Kota. The Brendenburgers built forts at Cape Three Points, Alwide ond Takreme after 1662 but left ‘tho Goast in 1708, the fort at Cape Three Points felling into the hends of the Dutoh in 1725. qv) sot up by Acts of Porlianent. Tn 1662, Cape Coast Castle became both the headquarters of English interests on the Coast and after 1750 the oantre of commercial and politicsl administration among such coastal tribes es had treaties with the English. ‘Tho African Company's chief officer vas the Govemer at Cepe Coast who hed under his Comeandants in the other forts at accra (Jemes Fort), Winneba, Anomabu (Woxt Willian), Komonda, Dixeove, Beyin and a house at Gekondi. ‘In these forte were the Socrotarics and \initors, Vectors and military garrisons. The position remained much the camo until 1807 when the agitation for the ebolition of the slave trate directed attention in Euglend tower! the cost of maintaining ‘the fows while the Company itself cane in for strong oriticlmn. Tho Act prohibiting the ‘dealing end trading’ in claves in Britich ships, under ponalty of fine and confiscation, became lew on the 25th of Mereh, 1007. ‘The effect wae far-reaching = in ono dey nino-tenths of the trade on the Gold Coast became illegal end the rhole oxganisttion for the collection ani eale of slaves becane redundant. Tho solo of British goods dwindled alarmingly since the Africen Company was expected by the Britich Parliament to stop the very ‘trode upon which Africon purchasing power depended. Added to these @iffioultics the coastal tribes vere horassed by Achanti attacks whose arnt reached the coast for the first time in 1007. ‘There was much f1legel trading (a7) ‘the firet wes the ‘Company of Lendon Trailing into Africa’ which lasted imtil 1662 when the 'Compeny of Royal Adventurors of England Trading into Africa’ camo into being. this gave way in 1678 to the formation of a Dowertul now company called the "Royal Africa Company’ which was Feplaced in 1750 by the ‘African Compeny of uerghants'. ‘The last nened was in effect an associction of Mglich traders which received « grent fron Parliansnt of £10,000 to £15,000 a year to maintain the forts, An AcWof Porlianent dissolved the Company in 1621 and transferred its possessions to the Crorn. (Rei. Cave, Gold Const Forts, leleon, flo date. pasein). vid. in sleves which the 'Proventive Squadron of the Britich Nev did ite utmost so tntecoeps ‘Tho situation was clearly beyond the competence of the Company. As a result of tho report of a Parlionontary Comuittes tho African Company of Merehents rao cbolished in 1681 by Act of Perlionont, the Crown assuming direct control of tho scttlononts which were then placed under the Governor of Stezra Loon, Six Chavles licCartiy. © Ho clear relationship betwoen the British Grow and the Gold Coast peoples existed apart from treaties with local chiefs for the purpose of trade and the new factor of the rise of the power of Ashanti dominated the situation. the confederation of Ashanti tribes on which thie powor vas based was consolidated in the reign of Osei Tutu who became Asantehone in see, (29) at the opening of the nineteenth century, the Ashantis were beginning to look south, and the enti tribes, who now became the object of their attacks, tumed for protection to the Dvitich. In 1806 bogan the series of seven Ashanti wars, which ended ogy with the campaign of 100.') The first three were @izected mainly against coastal tribes but lod to sone conflict with the British. (28) he Danes hai abolished their slave trade in 1904, the Dutch in 1614, ani the Fronch in 1615. Spanish, Portuguese end American ships as well as Inglish privateers continued carrying slaves. Slowly the Buropean nations outlawed slave trading until the United States was the only nation loft in the trade. (Sherrard, Freedom from Fear, London,1959,p.169. At the most eriticel period of the war with Napoleon, one-sixth of the effective strength of the British lavy was on 'preventive duty’ off the Guinoe Coast. (Cave, ibid. p.45). (19) During the reign of Osei Tutu (1698-1751) Kumasi was founded and the priest Okomfo Anokye linked the Ashanti nation by the religious bond of ‘the Golden Stool. (Ward, ibid. pp.114-119). (20) The main cause of the expansionist policy of Achant was economic, a @esire to obtain Buropean goods, especially firearms. ‘The one export commodity Ashant could produce in large quantities was slaves, which were obtained by wars. (Ward, ibid. pp.142-5). vidd. In 1617 the Company concluded a tzoaty with Ashanti by vhich the latter unlertock uct to attack any tribe allied to the Dritich without firet lodging a comiaint with the conpeny's Govemor.("") he fattuse of the Governor to nodiate between the Komenda people ond the Ashantis three years lator led to the brecktoun of the treaty. Relotions vith the ishantis vere at a critical yoint shen Siz Charles MeCarthy Lended at Gape Coast in 1622. He received Little help from the fomor officers of the Oomyeny end vas Left without experienced advice. He strengthened ties with the Fentie end the Accras and, wrongly concluding that 4% vas usoloss to attempt to negotiate with Ashanti, began to prepare a tall militia, a hostile policy whieh led to the Ashanti attack of 1624 and the defeat of Snglich troops ond enti levies at Nsaenkow near the mouth of the River Pra. ‘Tho Governor vas vounted in the battle ond took hie om life in omer to avoid capture ani no fover thon 166 of tho militia were kiliea.'”*) ar tnough the British ond thelr tribal allies retelicted tuo yeare leter by winning the battle of Katamanso near Dodova, fifteen miles northeast of Accra, tho Britich Goverment decided to end ite offielal comection with the country, A Comittee of three London nezehants vas authorised to administer the forts ‘through the Comittes's ov Governor in Gaye Coast. ‘Thus comereiel interests again ruled the trading forts end from 1650 to 1045 the Gold Coast was reelly governed by George tinelean, the president of the Comittee, (@9) (21) Mis 16 tho subject of Bowlieh's ission from Capo Coast Castle te Ashentoe, Lonion, 1819. (22) Woltoon,' ibid. pp,110-115 quotes wajor HJ. Rickett's eyewitness account (ierrative of the Achentos War, London, 1861). (25) €4,000 was grontea to maintain the forts at Cape Coast and Accra vhich were to be free ports; the sottlenents wore to be governed by a Govemor mi Council who wore only empovered to rule the forts, roadsteads end horboure. Ward, 4bid. p.189. Under Unclean's jurisdiction the first real social and political impact of Westem institutions made themselves felt on the Gold Coast. Peace vas made vith the Ashentis ond he then sot Mmself the task of improving the economic position of the country and of establishing internal peace and (24) security. In spite of a revenue of only £4,000 a year and a police force of a more one hundred and trenty men Maclean's personality and influence exo such that his reputation ac a judge spread far outside bis court et Cape Coast. an extva-legel jurisdiction sprang up and chiefe from all over the Const brought their disputes to him; and in spite of the fact that his position vas umofiiclel is julgmnent sao henday over questioned.) prom thts tine ouanis Britich influence gprosd to the entire area between the Pra and Volta and as fer north as Aim, though the Denes still held Chricticnsborg anf Keta, and the Duteh Leld the forte at Hinina and Axim, (#6) Maelean's policies vere so successful that in 1645 the Grown resumed @hroctipoopousibility for tho British sottlenents on the Gold Coast. Under, ‘tho authority of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of the same year, a series of cloven treatios, or "onds', was negotiated between the British and the Fantis ond other tribes, which regularised the exercise of a limited jurisdiction over (24) In ten yoara he more than trebled the country’s trade, cspecielly in pelm of]; covrie sholis replaced gold dust as currency. ixporte in 1981 wore valued at £90,000; by 1840 thoy wore worth £525,000. In ‘exchange for palm of1 ani kernals people bought textiles, guns, gunpomior ond gin. (Claridge ibid. p.419). (25) erd, 1044. p.191. "Tt was the Deginning in practice of the British protectorate on the Gold Coast which vias given e legal becis by the Forolgn Jurisdiction Act of 1845" (Wight M. ‘The Gold Coast Legislative Goueli, London, 1946, p22). (26) ".essunt4l 1674’ its inhabitants were aitirely independent of the ich Crom. ‘The position of the countzy was anomalous in that its Andpentent peoples vere voluntarily oubmitting to a restriction on their independence in the ono particular of Julicial matters". Ward, bia. p.192. thom.'®") —ureetean was appointed Judiciol Assessor and in this capacity he judged eases together vith Ponti ehiefs involving Afriecn customary lar ond principles of Srttich equity.'"°) prom 1645 to 1850, the British sottlenente were ofministered by a Lieutenent Governor under the Covemor of Storra Loon. In the latter year, hovevor, tho Gold Coast wes constituted 8 coparate goverment with its om legislative and cxcoutive coueile, a Suprene Court being established by Oalinenee in 1652. At this timo the Colony consteted only of tho forte: the Fanti 1end_s vere vaguely referred to as ‘protected texzitezy'. Monvhile, in 1850, the Danes oold ol1 their forte to tho Sritich for £10,000, and Danish influence frou Christiansborg to Keta ond their vague ‘protectorate! over Alsiopin, Krobo ond perts of Aim, passed to the British Goverment, The Govermo moved from Cape Coast to Chricticnsbong and sortous thought vas then given to the reising of revenue, but the continued oxtatenee of the Dutch forta nade it alnoct dmosetble to Smpose oustons duties and the attempt to collect the Poll Tex of 1852 of one shilling per hood annually causod riots in Christiansbors. (27) Tho Bond of 1844 vas siened by the Governor, Commander Hill, RN, and eight Fonti chiefs. It ic quoted in full in Ward, ibid. p.194. It established British juriediction, foxbede mmsn saerifices and panyarring, and declared that ‘mers, robberies, and other crimes ani offences, Will be tried and inquired of before the Queen's judicial officors ond the chiofs of the districts, moulding the customs of the country to the general priniples of Briish lan’. No territorial suzereinty vas gronted. (28) ueclean died in Oape Coast Castle in 1847. Hie moral outhority was such that only one in thirteen years did he need to use force. Claridge, Abid. Vol.I. prté7-8. After the death of Macloon, British relations with the Fantis and Ashantis began to dotoriorate, the position being made more difficult by the fect thet the Dutch at Elmina cold guns ond perder indiscriminately. The fifth Achantd vor of 1665-65 104 tho British Govermmont to contemplate once again tho sbonfoment of tho Gold Coast, and, in 1865, as a step towards this ultimate afm, the colony was ploced under the Governor of Sierra Leone. ‘Tho widosproad unroct end fighting, ospoctally in areas over which ‘the Dutch oxoreieod influcncs, ruined trade. The Ashentis were tho chicf supporters of tho Duteh, although they wore cut off from Kinina, the most important fort in Dutoh hands. (?9) ‘Tho Ashanti qlitonce vith Eimina was a constent threat to stability and when in 1869 the Kmina people asked for help against thelr Fanti rivals, tho Ashanti rose against the coastal territories once again. They invaded Alwamm capturing the Basel misotonories Renseyer ond Kine at Anum and a Frenclman, Bonnat, at Ho, In the same year, a second Ashonti amy reached xin and marched to Elmina. At this stage tho Nethorlanis Govexmont opened nogotiations with the British Goverment for the cession of all ite torte, Tho Acantohene refuaod to accept the Dutch claim to hand over Elmina, ond although tho actual tronsfor took place in 1072 both of Kimina anf the othor Dutch forts, the sanentifo marched against Cape Coast ond von victories at Dunira and Jukva. At length, Major Conoral Gamet Woleoley was sont from Britain as Governor and Cormander- An-Chief ha lexge body of troops. ‘Hie drove the Ashantis from the area south of the Pra, end pursued thom as far cs Kumasi vhich he totally destroyed. (29) Wegotiations between Britain and Hollend had begun in 1865 but an ‘agroomont in 1867 to oxchange cottlenonts on the coast led to tribal warfare elong the coast from Cape Coast to Heyin. ‘The proposal was for the British to code the Boyin, Dixeove, sckondi ond Kenmenda forts to the Dutch, ond to receive the liorl, Kommantine, apan end Accra forts in exchenge. Unfortunately tho local people were never consulted. (80) The forts wero coded freo of charge, tho British paying £5,790 for the stores. Ward, ibid. p.243. mit. Toay 42) PPD HYP sey Pd Te weg vaca? sip J ty eden aq ering pre yng aneourdy org) apoarst, aywewwoy perreney aren won| son equa, aoytraney Brogromysinyy) sun wr idueong z Hwa wity

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