Injection

molding

Transparent Pressure –
A Quality Criterion for
Optical Parts

Dr.-Ing. Oliver Schnerr,

Kistler Instrumente AG,
Winterthur

Dr.-Ing. Erwin Bürkle,

Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Bernd Klotz,
Krauss-Maffei Kunststoff-
technik GmbH, Munich

Reprint from
Kunststoffe international
5/2007
Carl Hanser Verlag
Munich

Special print
920-358e-07.07
■ INJECTION MOULDING

2 © Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich Kunststoffe international 5/2007


The sensors are introduced into the compression plunger, where they measure the compression of
the steel caused by the cavity pressure (photo and graphics: Kistler)
used for quality monitoring, the cavity pressure is measured by a contactless
method with special measuring dowels. The flow path is incorporated into the pvT
diagram to develop the new process monitoring technique.
ERWIN BÜRKLE
BERND KLOTZ
OLIVER SCHNERR
here can be no compromises on the
T quality of high-end optical compo-
nents – on the contrary: Optical ap-
plications can only be produced at the very
highest quality level. In lenses, not only do
geometry and surface structure play an im-
portant role, but the reproduction quality
is also strongly influenced by internal
properties such as inherent stresses or mo-
lecular orientation. Consequently, for an
individual case, in order to assess the op-
tical properties at the machine,it is not suf-
ficient just to check the part geometry or
visually inspect the surface. It is more im-
portant to carry out optical testing, for ex-
ample to use a Shack-Hartmann sensor
(SHS) to test the distortion of the wave-
front as a result of the lens. Mathematical
methods can be used to derive further im-
portant quality functions [1].
Translated from Kunststoffe 5/2007, pp. 26–31
Kunststoffe international 5/2007
Transparent
Pressure
The above-described optical tests are
difficult to perform for a continuous pro-
duction process such as injection mould-
ing. Quite apart from the fact that the nec-
essary sensitive test equipment must be
externally mounted, this is a very time-
consuming process. A disproportionate-
ly long waiting time is necessary until the
results of the measurements are available,
which delays the entire sequence, partic-
ularly during start up. In general, the ma-
chine must be stopped during this time,
since rejects are unacceptable in view of
the very long cycle times and high ma-
chine costs.
Process Variants for
Manufacturing Optical Parts
In the injection moulding of optical parts,
the moulding process not only influences
the geometry but also has a crucially im-
portant effect on the interior properties
of the parts. Comparative studies to as-
sess the part quality showed, for example,
that changing from injection moulding
to injection compression moulding only
INJECTION MOULDING ■
A Quality Criterion for
Optical Parts. In injec-
tion moulding of optical
parts, there are limita-
tions to the direct meas-
urement of cavity pres-
sure, since marks on the
surfaces are taboo. But to
allow this important
process parameter to be
slightly increases the geometrical accura-
cy. However, the optical characteristics are
significantly improved by a factor of
about 7, and, therefore, testing of the part
geometry is not of itself sufficient for as-
sessing the optical properties [1]. Injec-
tion-compression moulding has therefore
proved a more suitable process for man-
ufacturing optical parts [2]. During the
pressing, the holding pressure phase
directly follows the compression phase.
The pressure is applied over the surface,
which is equivalent to a homogeneous
pressure distribution. As examples of dif-
ferent variants on injection-compression
moulding, conventional injection-com-
pression and expansion-compression
moulding are discussed below.
Conventional Injection-compression
Moulding: In contrast to standard injec-
tion moulding, injection-compression
moulding permits flow path/wall thick-
ness ratios of up to 500:1. It is important
that there are no changeover marks on the
part surface. The individual processes and
movements during a cycle must therefore
flow into one another.
3
■ INJECTION MOULDING
During the filling phase, the mould is
only slightly open. The gap corresponds
to the compression stroke. The plastic
melt is injected into the mould and the
compression process is started as a func-
tion of the screw position. Since the
mould is open, internal stresses are re-
duced or eliminated completely during
injection. The compression phase is ini-
tiated via an adjustable screw position.
Before the cavity has been completely
filled, the plastic melt is displaced towards
the end of the flow path and compressed
by further compression stages; this com-
pensates for shrinkage.
If the cavity is already filled at the end
of the filling phase, the compression phas-
es are initiated directly. With some ma-
chine settings, material can also be forced
back into the plastication unit, against the
holding pressure of screw, in this phase.
Idealised Process Control
Practical Process Control
4 © Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich
With this method, weld seam critical parts
(lenses with a large wall thickness ratio
SA / SI ≥ 3, e. g. biconcave lenses or diffu-
sion lenses with a negative meniscus) can
be produced without a weld seam or the
weld marks selectively shifted to the edge
regions.
Expansion-compression Moulding:
Expansion-compression moulding by
means of the clamping unit is preferably
suitable for parts with a constant wall
thickness across the cross-section. The
advantage of the process is that it does
not introduce stresses into the part after
mould filling, since the holding pressure
is not applied via the screw as in injec-
tion moulding but via the mould. The
cavity pressure is thus uniform and the
plastic can cool with virtually no stress-
es, and develop a homogeneous mi-
crostructure.
Fig. 1. Ideal process
flow in the pvT dia-
gram for standard
injection moulding
© Kunststoffe
Fig. 2. Actual process
flow in the pvT dia-
gram for standard
injection moulding
The individual phas-
es are explained in
the text
© Kunststoffe
The filling phase takes place in the
closed mould, as in standard injection
moulding. In the expansion phase, the
mould, possibly with a falling clamping-
force profile, is forced open by means of
the screw to a defined, precisely repro-
ducible position. The precision with
which the position is approached is the
crucial factor in achieving a reproducible
wall thickness. The expansion phase
serves to bring the compression core of
the mould into the compression position.
When the point has been reached
(measured directly on the mould), the
compression phase is initiated and the fill-
ing process is stopped. The compression
and holding pressure phase consists of a
multistage clamping force/compression
force profile.
Both expansion compression mould-
ing and injection-compression moulding
can be varied by compressing not the ma-
chine clamping unit but a mould core.
However, that only makes sense if a part
only needs to be partially compressed.
Depending on the concept of the injec-
tion moulding machine clamping unit,
however, compression is also possible just
with the mould core. Greatest flexibility
is offered by fully hydraulic tie-bar clamp-
ing units.
Process Control with a Three-
dimensional Problem Area
In the production of optical parts, a
three-dimensional problem-area must be
managed: The geometry, surface, and op-
tical properties must be brought into line
with the required product quality. This
requires precise process control, which
presupposes that it is known what states
are present in the mould and what
processes are taking place there. Under-
standing this requires a knowledge of the
cavity pressure. Because the cavity pres-
sure precisely describes the filling phase,
compression phase and holding pressure
phase during injection moulding, this in-
formation is helpful both during process
optimisation and for process and quali-
ty monitoring.
With idealised, holding pressure-free
injection moulding, the mould is theo-
retically filled isothermally, the melt is
compressed and then cooled isochorical-
ly, that means that the specific volume re-
mains constant in this phase (Fig. 1).
However, such a filling operation would
require an extremely high pressure, which
is not always possible because of the
stresses it puts on the mould and ma-
chine.
Kunststoffe international 5/2007
 INJECTION MOULDING ■

The classical pvT diagram illustrates

the actual process profile (with holding Three-Dimensional pvT Diagram
pressure) (Fig. 2):
(1) During the injection phase (1-2), the
pressure increases at almost constant
temperature (isothermally).
(2) At the end of the filling phase, with Fig. 3. Actual process
volumetric filling of the cavity, the flow in the pvT dia-
compression phase begins. The melt gram for standard
is compressed to ensure proper re- injection moulding,
production of the part contours. supplemented by the
(3) The maximum cavity pressure is flow path
reached – the holding pressure phase
begins. It compensates for the high
thermal contraction of the polymer,
i. e. the reduction of its volume as a
result of cooling, by feeding further
material.
© Kunststoffe
(4) Solidification of the melt in the gate
region (sealing point) – the progres-
sive thermal contraction allows the
pressure in the mould cavity to be re- Three-Dimensional pvT Diagram
duced to the ambient pressure (5).
The phase (4–5) is isochoric.
(5) The ambient pressure is reached –
processing shrinkage starts.
(6) The part reaches the ambient tem- Fig. 4. Actual process
perature – the change of specific vol- flow in the pvT dia-
ume in phase (5–6) is the processing gram for expansion
shrinkage. compression mould-
The important point is that during injec- ing, supplemented by
tion moulding, the pressures are trans- the flow path
mitted pointwise by the screw, through
the gate, to the part. Cooling effects cause
the outer layers to freeze along the flow
path. This results in a pressure gradient
that induces stresses in the part during
the compression and holding pressure
© Kunststoffe
phases.
The important thing about this con-
sideration is that the pvT diagram, as a creasing pressure and falling temperature phase (1–2) and then merges into the ex-
two-dimensional representation, actual- along the flow path. pansion phase (2). During this phase, the
ly only gives spot information. That For the example of expansion com- maximum pressure is reached (3) and the
means that it does not show the pressure pression moulding (Fig. 4), the ideal process is controlled isobarically. In (4),
states in the part along the flow path. For process runs with an isothermal filling the compression phase starts, which is al-
optical parts, however, the constancy of so isobaric. From (5), the process is iso-
the internal properties along the flow path choric again until the ambient pressure is
is important for quality – no internal
stresses must be induced.
i Manufacturers reached or until it has cooled down to am-
bient temperature (7). During isobaric
To determine the actual conditions, the Kistler Instrumente AG process control, the process flow is a flat
pvT diagram must be extended around Eulachstrasse 22 surface with constant pressure along the
the flow path into the third dimension CH-8408 Winterthur / Switzerland entire flow path.
(Fig. 3). Only this makes clear that, in Tel. +41 (0) 52/2 24 11 11 Starting from complete filling of the
standard injection moulding, there is an Fax +41 (0) 52/2 24 14 14 cavity, the process runs analogously to
inhomogeneous pressure state in the part, www.kistler.com standard injection moulding during the
which leads to internal stresses. Com- filling phase (1–2). Constant pressure
pensation of shrinkage by the screw hold- Krauss-Maffei Kunststofftechnik GmbH along the entire flow path also cannot be
ing pressure acting pointwise via the gate Krauss-Maffei-Straße 2 achieved with compression during the in-
has the effect that every point along the D-80997 Munich / Germany jection phase, since the flow resistance in-
flow path is subject to a different pvT Tel. +49 (0) 89/88 99-0 creases along the flow path. While the
state. In this three-dimensional diagram, Fax +49 (0) 89/88 99-2206 standard process then transforms into the
the process profile is represented as a sur- www.krauss-maffei.de compression phase with higher pressure,
face, for the standard process with de- the pressure is kept constant during com-

Kunststoffe international 5/2007 5

■ INJECTION MOULDING
Cavity Pressure Curve in Expansion
Compression Moulding
pression (3–5 in the pvT diagram). The
pressure drop along the flow path is com-
pensated during injection-compression
moulding by the large-area pressure ap-
plication. The aim of the compression
stroke, to achieve isobaric process control
during the embossing phase, is thus ful-
filled.
Like the ideal process flow in standard
injection moulding, this idealised flow
can also not be completely realised. That
is partly because of the freezing of the out-
er layers of the part. The actual flow de-
scribed in the diagram is therefore not
usually achieved.
Guidelines for Process
Optimisation
The pvT diagram for the compression of
optical parts shows the basic procedure
for process control, explained here for
the example of expansion-compression
moulding. After volumetric filling of the
cavity, the injection pressure and force of
the compression plunger must be opti-
mised for the expansion phase so as to
achieve a constant cavity pressure. After
6 © Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich
Fig. 5. The test results
recorded during the
optimisation phase
show an optimised
cavity pressure curve
(top), and its collapse
during the expansion
phase (centre) and
during the compres-
sion phase (bottom)
© Kunststoffe
changeover to compression, the force and
injection pressure must be set to constant
cavity pressure again. If a constant value
is not achieved, loss of optical quality can
be expected. Measurement of the cavity
pressure in the production of optical parts
is thus a prerequisite for optimum process
control. In addition, measurement of this
process parameter makes it much simpler
to optimise this complex process.
During the optimisation phase, differ-
ent cavity pressure curves were recorded
(Fig. 5): The top figure shows the opti-
mised curve. In the centre graph, the cav-
ity pressure collapses during the expan-
sion phase. In this phase, the force acting
on the plunger is too small – material is
displaced. The force must be increased to
achieve a constant rise in the cavity pres-
sure. Fig. 5 bottom shows how the cavity
pressure collapses during the compres-
sion phase because the shrinkage is not
compensated.A higher compression force
makes the process more favourable.
Besides the pressures and forces being
too low, the cavity pressure curve also
shows forces that are too high or incor-
rect transitions between the injection, ex-
pansion and compression phases, and
provides concrete information about ex-
pedient optimisation measures.
Contactless Measurement
of the Cavity Pressure
Obviously, parts for optical applications
must not have any marks or other flaws
in visible or functional areas. This elimi-
nates conventional sensors because they
measure the pressure in the cavity at the
part surface and may generate impres-
sions. A possible remedy is to dimension
the parts larger to displace the measure-
ment point to the edge region (outside
the optically useful zone) and then sub-
sequently mechanically remove the pro-
jection. But this approach does not come
into consideration because it increases
costs and reduces productivity (damage).
For contactless measurement of the
cavity pressure, Kistler Instrumente AG,
Winterthur/Switzerland, has developed
special measuring dowel sensors and, to-
gether with Krauss-Maffei Kunststoff-
technik GmbH, Munich/Germany, has
realised this instrumentation in an injec-
tion compression mould for lenses. The
new sensors are introduced into the
mould structure behind the cavity wall or
in the compression plunger, where they
measure the compression of the steel
SPECIAL REPRINT from
Kunststoffe intern. 5/2007
Volume 97 www.kunststoffe-international.com 5/2007
Kunststoffe
Magazine for Plastics
Injection
Moulding
One-piece Flow: Inline
Production and Finish-
ing of Plastic Parts
page 16
Nanoparticles
Improved Flame-
resistance of PP
compounds
page 49
SPECIAL
www.kunststoffe.de
ELECTRONICS
2007
from page 53 on
www.kunststoffe-international.com
© Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich. 2007.
All rights including reprinting,
photographic reproduction and translation
reserved by the publishers.
Kunststoffe international 5/2007
 INJECTION MOULDING ■

caused by the cavity pressure. With this

measurement set-up, it is possibly to Machine Parameters during Expansion
quickly and easily optimise the process Compression Moulding
control in a two-cavity test mould by
means of two measurement dowels. Dur-
ing production, the quality of the lenses
was monitored by means of the cavity
pressure.
Fig. 6 shows the cavity-pressure curve
(beige), the pressure in front of the screw
(black) and the compression-plunger po-
sition (red) for expansion compression
moulding. In the injection phase, the cav-
ity pressure increases until volumetric fill-
ing. Then the cavity pressure is built up
as a result of the holding pressure and ex-
pansion force. According to the pvT
curve, this remains constant. The com-
pression phase begins, which is ultimate-
ly followed by demoulding.

Quality Defects are Recognised © Kunststoffe

at an Early Stage
Injection-compression moulding has
proved a suitable process for manufac-
turing optical parts. Numerous parame-
ters have a significant effect on the qual-
ity, and their variation can only be tracked
and controlled if the cavity pressure is
known. The cavity pressure curve during
injection moulding is a function of the
variation of compression force or clamp-
ing force with time.
Continuous process monitoring by
measuring the cavity pressure provides
early information about the part quality
without complicated determination of
the optical properties. A production shop
therefore does not need to produce rejects
for an unnecessarily long time before the
quality defects are recognised.
The above-described results were con-
firmed in various series of experiments.
This demonstrates that a “pvT diagram
along the flow path”, a “three-dimension-
al pvT diagram”, is suitable as a reference
curve for the quality monitoring in the
production of optical plastic parts. The
reference curve also offers the advantage
that the optimum operating state can be
Fig. 6. The graph shows the curves for cavity pressure, for pressure in front of the screw and for the
mould position during expansion compression moulding
reached much faster on renewed start-up
of a mould.
The decisive factors are thus the mould
trials and the subsequent mould optimi-
sation phase. “Classical” cavity pressure
measurement is required to determine the
ideal basic process. Only when a reason-
able process flow has been achieved are
the parts subjected to the optical quality
test discussed above. When the necessary
quality is achieved, the reference curve has
also be found that ultimately makes pos-
sible production monitoring – and there-
fore quality monitoring.
Outlook
Because this reference curve correlates
with the optical properties, it is conceiv-
able to use the cavity pressure in future as
a control parameter for the compression
process. For this purpose, the current cav-
ity pressure (actual state) must be track
the reference curve (setpoint cavity-pres-
sure curve). With a suitable control strat-
egy, it will also be possible in future for a
machine to adjust itself fully automati-
cally for production start-up. This could
eliminate manual optimisation, since on-
ly the maximum permissible cavity pres-
sure would have to be specified. ■
REFERENCES
1. Bürkle, E.: Forschung fördert Durchblick. Kunst-
stoffe 96 (2006) 6, pp. 81–86
2. Bürkle, E.; Klotz, B.; Lichtinger, P.: Transparency in
Injection Moulding. Kunststoffe plast europe 91
(2001) 11, pp. 17–21
3. Informations from Kistler Instrumente AG
THE AUTHORS
DR.-ING. ERWIN BÜRKLE, born in 1942, is Head of
Preliminary Development, New Technologies and
Process Engineering at Krauss-Maffei Kunststofftech-
nik GmbH, Munich/Germany.
DIPL.-ING. (FH) BERND KLOTZ, born in 1956,
works in applications development at Krauss-Maffei.
DR.-ING. OLIVER SCHNERR, born in 1967, is Head
of Product Management in the Plastics Business Unit
at Kistler Instrumente AG, Winterthur/ Switzerland.

Kunststoffe international 5/2007 7

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