UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

Article
Review
Presentation by ‘Adilah Husna
M20212002983

SBV60104 | Environmental Technology

UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

Published on 2019
 Abstract
Page 02

Textile industry is one of the anthropogenic activities that most

consume water & pollute water bodies
Textile dyes compromise the quality of water bodies, increase BOD &
COD, impair photosynthesis, provide bioaccumulation, and may
promote toxicity & carcinogenicity
Bioremidiation of textile dyes - transformation/ mineralization of
these contaminants by the enzymatic action of plant, bacteria,
extremophiles and fungi biomasses is fully possible
Bioremediation can be progressively enhanced by modern
biotechnological techniques that are related to the generation of
more degrading and more resistant engineered organisms
A sustainable solution that provides a fundamental and innovative
contribution to conventional physicochemical treatments
Therefore, can be used as tangible technological solutions for the
treatment of textile dye effluents.
Page 03

Introduction
According to Muthu (2017), major contributor to environmental issues came from textile
industry.
Other than its undeniable importance, this industrial sector is one of the biggest global polluters
and it consumes high amounts of fuels and chemicals (Bhatia, 2017).
The scraps of textile fabrics and yarns and discarded packagings constitute the primary solid
waste.
The main damages caused by the textile industry to the environment are those resulting from
the discharge of untreated effluents into the water bodies (Bhatia, 2017) causing the high levels
of BOD & COD in the waters.
Textile dyes are highly toxic & potentially carcinogenic which are related to environmental
degradation and various diseases in animals and humans.
Despite the prohibited agreements (Christie, 2007) of dyes that have been investigated for their
toxicity, there are more of them with potential for the formation of carcinogenic amines are still
available on the market (Lacasse & Baumann, 2012).
Thus, this study aims to investigate the main consequences to the health and environment
caused by textile dyes and the potential of living organisms that can be used in the
bioremediation processes of these pollutants.
 Page 04

Objectives
Objectives 1
To undertake a review on the main effects of
the release of industrial dyes and the
essential bioremediation mechanisms

Objectives 2
To provides a fundamental and innovative
contribution to conventional physicochemical
treatments
 Page 05

Findings
ENVIRONMENT
Conventional treatment plants is responsible for bioaccumulation of dyes in sediments
and soil which will be transported to public water supply systems
Long-term exposure of textile dyes will impact the structure & function of the ecosystems
For example - the use of complex metal dye in textile such as nickel, copper & cobalt.
The heavy metal cations can be assimilated by the fish gills when release to the
aquatic environment
Due to the presence of negative charge which will cause it to accumulate in certain
tissues.
Oxidative stress, provided by chromium of textile dyes offering a considerable damage to
the growth and development of plants, especially to photosynthesis and CO2 assimilation.
Page 06
LIVING ORGANISMS

Azure-B The Sudan I dye

Able to intercalate with the helical It will enzymatically transformed,
01 structure of DNA and duplex RNA 02 through the action of the intestinal flora,
into carcinogenic aromatic amine
when presence in the body
The Disperse Red I dye
Responsible for the formation of DNA
The Basic Red 9 dye
03 adducts which constitute a mutagenic
event that is key to the characterization
04 Offers carcinogenic potential in
humans & high environmental toxicity
of cancer

The Disperse Orange I dye The Crystal Violet dye

Inducing DNA damage involving base Responsible for mitotic poisoning &
05 pair substitution and frameshift 06 induce chromosomal damage
mutations that alter the reading frame
Page 07

Azure-B
Widely used in textile industry and it reveals mutagenic potentiality.
Able to intercalate with the helical structure of DNA and duplex RNA.
This dye also can reveal cytotoxic effects by acting as a notable
reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A which is an intracellular
enzyme of the central nervous system (Factor and Weiner, 2007) that
plays an important role in human behavior.
Its potential for enzyme inhibition also concerns glutathione reductase
(Paul & Kumar, 2013) which plays an essential role in cellular redox
homeostasis.
Page 08

Disperse Red I dye

Used in textile industry and exhibits mutagenic potential.

Capable to increase the frequency of micronuclei which indicate a
mutagenic activity at the chromosome level when used in vitro in
human lymphocyte & hepatoma cells.
Example - assays performed on Salmonella spp. (Vacchi et al., 2016)
suggests that it is responsible for the formation of DNA adducts which
lead to constitute a mutagenic event in humans that is key to the
characterization of cancer.
Page 09

Disperse Orange I
dye

Exhibits similar mutagenic behavior (Chequer et al., 2009) inducing DNA

damage,
Found in the Salmonella spp. assays involving base pair substitution and
frameshift mutations that alter the reading frame.
It also has a cytotoxic effect, with apoptosis, which it will destroy the cells
when in contact with human hepatoma cell.
Page 10

Sudan I dye
Family of azo-lipophilic compounds which widely used in various
industrial segments, including textiles
Once present in the bodies of animals or humans, it is enzymatically
transformed, through the action of the intestinal flora, into carcinogenic
aromatic amines
Carcinogenicity can be produced by both dye itself and its own
metabolized compounds (Christie, 2007).
Example - The presence of Sudan I dye in rats is confirmed by
neoplastic liver nodule
Page 11

Basic Red 9 dye

Widely used in textile, leather, paper and ink industries that offers
carcinogenic potential in humans & high environmental toxicity.
It breaks down, under anaerobic conditions, into carcinogenic aromatic
amines and their disposal in water bodies has the potential for allergic
dermatitis, skin irritation, mutations and cancer itself (Sivarajasekar &
Baskar, 2014).
Example - According to the tests performed on rats, it may comprise
local sarcomas and tumors in the liver, bladder, mammary glands and
hematopoietic system.
Page 12

Crystal Violet dye

A member of the cationic triphenylmethane group that shows a very
intense color.
Responsible for mitotic poisoning, which is associated with abnormal
accumulation of metaphases which induce chromosomal damge.
This powerful carcinogenic agent promotes fish tumors (Mani &
Bharagava, 2016), as well as hepatocarcinoma, reticular cell sarcoma in
various organs, such as the vagina, uterus, ovary and bladder in rats.
In humans, it is capable of generating chemical cystitis, irritation of the
skin and digestive tract, respiratory and renal failure.
 Page 13

Discussions

Based on this study, it reveals that textile dye has major effect on environment and
human health.
In face of this complex context, which presents deep unfolding to the ecosystems and
to the human being, there are possibilities represented by bioremediation technologies
which are directly related to the sustainable development.
Bioremediation technologies may generate the economic growth in harmony with the
environment and ensure the quality of life.
Page 14

Discussions
Phytoremediation
01 the ability of plants to degrade, extract, transform and detoxify through their
enzymes and associated microflora, the contaminants of the air, soil,
sediments, surface water and groundwater

Bioremediation
02 Bioremediation by microorganisms provides the removal, reduction or
destruction of harmful compounds by microorganisms such as bacteria,
algae, filamentous fungi and yeasts in soil, water, sludge, waste or effluent
Page 15

Phytoremediation

Phytoremediative capacity is related to the genetic adaptation that

has allowed the plants to become autotrophic bioreactors that
capable to reduce environmental stress (Bharathiraja et al., 2018;
Tahir, Yasmin, & Khan, 2016).
Page 16

Table S5 shows the hydroponics, hairy root

cultures, callus cultures and cell suspension
cultures mechanisms for the degradation of
dyes.
Hydroponics systems do not use the soil
which helps plant metabolism for the
extraction and degradation of textile dyes.
Hairy root cultures provide the basis for the
production of secondary metabolites and can
be used for the research of different plant
species with the ability to tolerate,
accumulate or remove environmental
pollutants.
Callus and cell suspension cultures are very
useful tools as it can biodegrade a wide
variety of textile dyes belonging to distinct
structural groups.
Page 17

Bioremediation
by microorganisms

Provides the removal, reduction or destruction of harmful compounds by

microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, filamentous fungi and yeasts in
soil, water, sludge, waste or effluent (Das & Dash, 2017; Saxena, 2015).
Involve in situ and ex situ bioremediation
In situ - Biostimulation or bioaugmentation by introduce the nutrients
to favor local microorganisms or the inoculation of exogenous
microorganisms.
Ex situ - Composting and landfarming, by bioreactors, by hybrid crops
and by the genetic improvement of lineages
Page 18

Bioremediation
by microorganisms

Bacteria can biodegrade textile dyes under aerobic or anaerobic conditions (Telke,
Kadam, & Govindwar, 2015).
The bacterial biomasses are good biosorbent materials for the bioremediation of textile
dyes (Tan, Li, Lu, & Chen, 2010), which serve as sources of carbon or nitrogen.
The mechanisms involved in the interaction between living and dead cell biomass and
textile dyes are complex.
include adsorption, where the interaction takes place between the molecules of the
textile dyes and the chemical groups, possessing electric charges, which are
present on the bacterial cell surface.
Page 19

Bacterial degradation using pure cultures

As shown in table S7, the bacterial
biodegradation of textile dyes can be
carried out using pure cultures.
After the bioaugmentation in activated
sludge, A. punctata and S. putrefaciens
can each degrade azo textile dyes Acid
Red 88, Reactive Black 5, Direct Red 81 and
Disperse Orange 3.
The azo dye Navitan Fast Blue S5R plays
great importance to the textile & tannery
industries, can in turn be degraded
aerobically, in the presence of glucose, by
P. aeruginosa.
Page 20
Bacterial degradation using hybrid cultures
The co-cultures, or hybrid bacterial cultures, can lead to a higher level of biodegradation
due to textile dye molecules are attacked in different positions.

As shown in table S8, sulfated textile dye

Green HE4BD is degraded by P. vulgaris and
M. glutamicus at much higher level.
The effectiveness of co-cultures is also
expressed in the communities of sulfate-
reducing bacteria present in microbial fuel
cells where biodegradation of the Red Acid
114 dye, the removal of sulfates and even
the obtaining of bioelectricity can occur.

The reason involved is that the textile industry effluent, containing dyes, can be used as a
substrate for the microbial fuel cell and its biodegradation is capable of producing
electrical energy through organic oxidation.
Page 21
Bacterial biodegradation, especially azo
dyes, generally exhibits a high degree of
removal and mineralization of the
harmful compounds
as well as being economically viable,
producing little sludge and being
faster than that performed by fungi.
However, it is necessary to constantly
monitor the effective toxicity of the
obtained compounds and to control the
various physico-chemical parameters
involved, such as the agitation and
oxygen levels, the type
concentration of substrate offered,
temperature, pH and concentration of
the textile dye (Saratale et al., 2011).
Bioreactor
Activated sludge which involve bacteria, fungi
and cyanobacteria, as well as protozoa and
metazoa microfauna is commonly used in
bioreactors is one of the processes most used
by the textile industry.
The anaerobic & aerobic phase bioreactor
used for the treatment of textile effluents can
be improved since various molecular &
functional groups, arranged along polymeric
chains, can form different interactions with the
dye molecules (Panic et al., 2013), the use of
polymers can make their absorption viable.
and increases the degradation efficiency of the
anaerobic & aerobic treatment steps, as
well as assists in reducing the toxicity to
biomass.
Page 22
Extremophiles, Halotolerant and Halophiles

Extremophiles are organisms that develop in conditions considered inhospitable.

Act as the most attractive bioremediation tools, especially in aggressive industrial processes,
such as those in the textile industry, which comprise stressful conditions of pH, temperature,
salinity and toxicity (Amoozegar, Mehrshad, & Akhoondi, 2015).
In textile dyeing, various salts are used providing significant difficulties for biodegradable
microbial communities.
The reason is that high saline concentrations can cause plasmolysis which lead the cytoplasm
to lose water and contract, such that the plasma membrane gradually separates from the cell
wall.
As an effective alternative, halotolerant and halophile microorganisms, or extremophiles living
in environments with high salt concentrations can be used to biodegrade azo textile dyes in
media with high salt content.
Page 23

As stated in table S9, the bacterial community formed by Bacillus, Sedimentibacter, P.

Clostridiales and Streptomyces exhibits good performance in the discoloration, under high
concentrations, of the Reactive Brilliant Red X-3B dye and the complete discoloration
occurs under high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Page 24
Thermophiles and Polyextremophiles
Thermophiles can withstand and develop at temperatures ranging from 45 ◦C to 122 ◦C
and are important alternative for the discoloration of azo textile dye.

As shown in table S10, A. pushchinoensis, A. kamchatkensis and A. flavithermus, can

◦
discolor, at a temperature of 65 C, in a bench scale bioreactor, the Reactive Black 5 dye
with a two-fold higher efficiency rate compared to bottle cultures.
A. rupiensis able to decolorize the dark red textile effluent, with pH 10.5, obtained from a
◦
dyeing plant by means of flasks incubated at 60 C.
Page 25
Thermophiles and Polyextremophiles
However, those organisms that can live stably in two or more extreme environments are
considered as polyextremophiles

An example comprises the bacterial strains belonging to the genus Bacillus sp. such as
Anoxybacillus rupiensis as stated in Table S10, that are able to degrade the effluent in a
◦
bioreactor of a textile drain with temperatures of 60-65 C and pH between 9.3 and 10.
Page 26
Fungal Biosorption
Fungi produce a large variety of intra and extracellular enzymes with high
biodegradability (Saratale et al., 2011).
Fungal biomass is used to biodegrade industrial pollutants in soil and water (Cotter, 2014).
The fungal treatment of textile dyes is an economical and effective alternative to
discoloration where the main mechanisms involved are biosorption, bioaccumulation and
biodegradation.
The fungal biosorption plays an important role in the discoloration of textile dyes
(Srinivasan & Viraraghavan, 2010).
Where the phosphate and carboxyl groups, which originate from glucuronic acid, are
probably responsible for the negative charges
The amino groups, originating from chitosan, create positive charges on the fungal cell
wall (Naja & Volesky, 2011).
These functional groups allow the binding or biosorption of the textile dye molecules to
the surface of the fungal cell wall in a process that can be complete in a few hours.
Page 27
Fungal Biosorption

Table S11 shows that the biomasses of dead cells of A. niger and Trichoderma sp. at pH = 2,
are able to bio-absorbed the Orange G dye.

The dead cell biomass of A. niger, obtained

by autoclaving at 121 ◦ C, can also bio-
absorbed, at the pH of 3 to 7, the Direct Blue
199 dye which contains, in its structure,
copper cations.
Autoclaving can break the fungal structure,
expose binding sites and maximize
biosorption, besides, it increases the
interaction between fungal cell walls and
textile dyes.
Page 28
Fungal
Biodegradation
Biodegradation is the main mechanism
used by fungi for the discoloration of
textile dyes where it is mediated by
enzymes which mainly comprise
azoredutases, lignin peroxidase, Mn
peroxidase and laccases (Saratale et al., Table S12 shows good results occurs in the
2011). biodegradation of Reactive Red 2 and Reactive
The white rot fungi are able to biodegrade Blue 4 dyes by Trametes versicolor.
the textile dyes through peroxidases and However, bioreactors with white rot fungi may
laccases. exhibit problems where excessive fungal growth
they can be used in different is capable of clogging the continuous reactor,
configurations of bioreactors, such as to bacterial contamination inhibiting fungal
fixed film, fixed bed, fluidized bed and enzymatic activity and to the long hydraulic
rotating biological contactors. retention time for discoloration of the textile dye
Page 29
Endophytic Fungal
Endophytic fungal are potential textile dyes degraders (Krishnamurthy & Naik, 2017) where
biodegradation occurs because of laccase enzyme.

Based on Table S13, it provides

examples of endophytic fungi and their
bioremediation potential for textile
dyes.

Thus, due to the extensive and

undeniable importance of
microorganisms for the dyes and their
effluents, it is essential to elucidate the
essential role of the main related
enzymes, such as azoredutases,
laccases and peroxidases.
Page 30

Bioremediation
by enzymes

Azoredutases are key enzymes for the discoloration of textile dyes where it promotes
the reductive cleavage of the azo bonds and release the aromatic amines that will be
degraded in CO2 and H2O (Imran et al., 2015).
This reductive cleavage reaction can occur through direct mechanisms and indirect
mechanisms
Direct mechanisms - azoredutase enzymes physically interact with the textile dye
molecules transferring the electrons
Indirect mechanisms - cooperation of coenzymes is required, such as nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP+) and flavin and adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
Page 31
Indirect Mechanisms
The azoredutase enzymes will transfer the electrons to the coenzymes which later will carry
them to the molecules of textile dyes promoting the breakdown of their azo bonds.
Therefore, coenzymes are not a part of the enzymatic structure, but intermediary carriers or
redox mediators (Telke et al., 2015)
which accelerate the rate of the electron transfer process responsible for reductive
cleavage.

In their oxidized forms NAD+, NADP+ and

FAD, coenzymes receive the electrons from
the azoredutase enzymes and reduced to
NADH, NADPH and FADH.
These reduced forms are then oxidized
when they donate these same electrons to
the molecules of the textile dyes and
return to their original NAD+, NADP+ and
FAD forms as shown in Figure 1.
Page 32
Degradation by laccase
Laccases can be used for the detoxification of
several industrial effluents among textile which
produces high levels of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons & sulfonated aromatic amines
Osma, Toca-Herrera, and Rodríguez-Couto
(2010) propose of transformation pathway of the
antraquinonic dye Remazol Brilliant Blue R by
immobilized laccase obtained from Trametes
pubescens.
The treatment provided subproducts with the
chromophore group broken and molecules with
less molecular weight, being expected to be less
environmentally hazardous than parent dye
molecule as shown in Figure 2.
Page 33
Degradation by peroxidase

The peroxidases exhibit hemeproteins which

responsible for electron transfer and redox catalysis.
These enzymes use hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an
electron-terminal recepto which is then reduced to
allow the oxidation of a wide variety of organic and
inorganic substrates.
propose a pathway of peroxidases to
degradation of sulfonated azo dyes, and
demonstrate that the peroxidase activity
promote an initial cleavage site in the
chromophore group as shown in Figure 3.
Suitable for the treatment of effluents containing
textile dyes due to its low specificity of substrates
Page 34

Bioremediation
by enzymes

Disadvantages of enzymatic bioremediation

Enzymes become susceptible to inactivation through the action of inhibitors found
in the severe conditions of the polluted environment to be treated

Advantages of enzymatic bioremediation

Act as an effective alternative to conventional physicochemical treatments, to
generate significantly reactive free radical & remove highly diluted or particularly
recalcitrant pollutants.
 Conclusion
Page 35

Textile industries gives a major impact to environment and living organisms due to their
production of effluents with high levels of toxic and recalcitrant compounds, such as dyes.
Prior to this study, plant, bacteria, extremophiles and fungi biomasses can be used to discolor,
transform or mineralize the textile dyes in order to control or eliminate the harmful effect.
However, there is limitation despite all bioremediations mechanisms in this study offer
excellent results.
Current practice such as molecular biology, genetic engineering and nanotechnology may
overcome this limitation by focusing more on efficient and stable engineered enzyme-
producing organisms.
Thus, environmental biotechnology is ethically and efficiently placed as the great tool to
promote sustainable development to the present and future.
 References
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 UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

Thank
You!
Presented by 'Adilah Husna
M20212002983

SBV60104 | Environmental Technology