Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering

Course: Soil Mechanics

(CE 359)

Lecturer: Dr. Frederick Owusu-Nimo

 Introduction

What Can Cause this Problem?

 Introduction

What Can Cause this Problem?

Introduction
Introduction
 What is Consolidation?
• Removal of water from a saturated soil (clay)
over a long period of time , due to the
application of a load, resulting in a decrease
in volume

• Important to know the amount of settlement

and time it will take to settle
settlement

Granular soils are freely drained,

and thus the settlement is
instantaneous.
time
6
which could be several years.
Consolidation Theory – Spring Analogy
 Consolidation
• Consolidation is the process by which excess pore
pressure are dissipated resulting in a decrease in
volume
• The process involves gradual compression
occurring simultaneously with flow of water out of
the mass and with a gradual transfer of the applied
pressure from the pore water to the soil skeleton
• The process opposite to consolidation is called
swelling, which involves an increase in the water
content due to an increase in the volume of the
voids.
 Consolidation
• Consolidation may be due to one or more of the
following factors:
o External static loads from structures.
o Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.
o Lowering of the ground water table due to pumping

• Time required for completion of consolidation

process depend on;
o The soil type
o Thickness of soil layer
o Permeability of soil
 One Dimensional
Consolidation
• One-dimensional consolidation specifically occurs
when there is no lateral strain(e.g. under wide
foundations)
• For majority of practical settlement problems, it is
sufficient to consider that both seepage and strains
take place in one direction only; this usually being
vertical.
• There are three variables in consolidation:
o the excess pore pressure (u)
o the depth of the element in the layer (z)
o the time elapsed since application of the loading (t)
Oedometer Test
• Used to measure one dimensional
consolidation of saturated clay
water system
• Undisturbed soil sample is
contained in the brass ring
between two porous stones
(drainage from both surfaces)
• Sample is flooded and kept
submerged in a saturated
condition during the test
• A specific compressive load is
applied to the specimen and dial
readings corresponding to specific
times are recorded
• The reading is taken over a 24hr
period (Excess pore pressure is
expected to be dissipated after
24hrs)
• The applied pressure is doubled
and procedure repeated
 Determination of Cv
Plot dial gauge (deformation) readings vrs 𝑇 in mins for each
loading. Both scales are linear. Determining time of settlement
 Cv from Log Time Method
• Plot dial gauge (deformation) readings vrs time in mins on a semilog
sheet
• Find D0 from vertical distance above A (tB:tA = 4:1)
• Find D100 from intersection of tangent and extension
• Then D50 = (d0 + d100)/2
• Corresponding time value for d50 is t50

0.196𝐻𝑑𝑟 2
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑡50
Stages in Compression
• There may be three stages
of compression
o Initial or Immediate compression –
due to compression of air in the
system
o Primary consolidation – compression
due to dissipation of excess pore
water pressure
o Secondary compression – due to
gradual readjustment of the clay
particles into a more stable
configuration
• For primary consolidation
effective stress changes
with changes in void ratio
• For secondary compression
effective stress is constant
whiles void ratio changes
Stress- Strain Behavior
• For each load
increment, we obtain
void ratio at the end of
primary consolidation

• Plot of 𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 ′
o Curved portion corresponding
to ‘recompression portion’

o Linear portion corresponding to

‘virgin compression’

o A slightly curved portion

corresponding to “rebound”
portion
 Stress- Strain Behavior
• Soils are always under some form of pressure or stress insitu
• The maximum consolidation stress a soil has ever been subjected
to is known as Preconsolidation pressure
• A clay sample whose current stress is greater than the
preconsolidation pressure is known as a normally consolidated
clay
• If current stress is less than the presonsolidation pressure, it is
known as overconsolidated clay
• The maximum value of stress in the past (Preconsolidation
pressure) divided by the present stress value is defined as the
overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
• A normally consolidated clay thus has an overconsolidation ratio
of unity
• An overconsolidated clay has an overconsolidation ratio greater
than unity. The overconsolidation ratio can never be less than
unity.
 Determining
Preconsolidation Pressure
• Locate point B (max
curvature) on 𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 ′ curve
• Draw a tangent t to the curve
at B
• Draw a horizontal line h
through B
• Bisect the angle formed
between t and h
• Extend back the virgin
compression part of the
curve
• The intersection between
bisect and extended line
gives preconsolidation
pressure
 Example
• A clayey soil obtained The pressure vrs final
from the field was deformation readings are:
subjected to a lab
consolidation test. The Pressure
(kPa)
Final dial
readings (cm)
results are as follows:
0 0
o Diameter of specimen = 6.35cm
24.53 0.04
o Initial height of specimen = 1.981cm
49.05 0.072
o Specific gravity of solids = 2.72
98.10 0.124
o Dry mass of specimen = 75.91g
196.2 0.193
• Determine
o Initial void ratio
392.40 0.291
o Plot the e-log P curve 784.80 0.401
 Consolidation Equation
• From continuity equation for 2-D flow
𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ 1 𝜕𝑆𝑟 𝜕𝑒
𝑘𝑧 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑒 + 𝑆𝑟
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 1+𝑒 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
h = total head
k = permeability (in x and z direction)
e = initial void ratio
t = time
Sr = Degree of Saturation

• Applying assumptions governing 1D consolidation we obtain

Consolidation Equation (in terms of total stress)
𝑘𝑧 1 + 𝑒 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑒 𝜕𝑢𝑒 𝜕𝜎𝑣
2
= −
𝑎𝑣 𝛾𝑤 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 Assumptions of the 1D
Equation
• Assumptions governing 1D consolidation
o Clay sample is homogenous and 100% Saturated; Sr = 1
and 𝜕𝑆𝑟 Τ𝜕𝑡 = 0
o Compression and flow in one direction (flow in x direction is
0)
o Unique relationship between volume change, ∆𝑒 and
effective stress, ∆𝜎 ′ , that is 𝜕𝑒 = −𝑎𝑣 𝜕𝜎 ′

• Other assumptions
o Drainage is provided at both top and bottom of
compressible layer
o Darcy’s law is valid
o The soil grains and water are incompressible
 Solution to 1D
Consolidation Equation
• Assuming 𝜕𝜎𝑣 Τ𝜕𝑡 = 0, it means
𝜕 2 𝑢𝑒 𝜕𝑢𝑒
𝐶𝑣 2
=
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
• The general solution
𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑖 ෍ 𝑓1 𝑍 𝑓2 𝑇

𝑧
Where 𝑍 =
𝐻
𝑡
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣
𝐻2
Graphical representation of Solution

𝑢𝑒
𝑈𝑧 = 1 −
𝑢𝑖
Ue = excess pore
pressure remaining at
some location and
time

Ui = initial excess pore

pressure

Degree of consolidation or % Consolidation

 Example 2
• A 12m thick layer of clay is doubly drained. The
coefficient of consolidation Cv= 8.0x10-8 m2/s
o Find the degree or percent consolidation for the clay 5
years after loading at depths of 3, 6, 9 and 12m.

o If a structure applied an average vertical stress of 100kPa

to the clay layer, estimate the excess pore water pressure
remaining in the clay after 5 years for the depths in the
clay layer of 3, 6, 9 and 12 m.
Example 3
• Determine the
following at elevation
8.37m, four months
after the completion of
loading
o Excess pore pressure
o Pore pressure
o Effective stress
Average % Consolidation
 Example 4
• A 12m thick layer of clay is doubly drained. The
coefficient of consolidation Cv= 8.0x10-8 m2/s
o Find the degree or percent consolidation for the clay 5
years after loading
 Settlement Analysis
• In terms of settlement
𝑠 𝑡
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑠𝑐
S(t) is settlement at any time, t
Sc is total or final consolidation settlement

• Total settlement
∆𝑒
𝑆𝑐 = 1+𝑒 𝐻0
0

𝑆𝑐 = 𝑚𝑣 ∆𝜎 ′ 𝐻0
∆𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑒0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐻0 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
′
∆𝜎 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
 Settlement Analysis
• For normally consolidated clay
𝐶𝑐 𝐻0 𝜎 ′ 𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒0 𝜎 ′ 𝑣𝑜
• For overconsolidated clay
𝐶𝑟 𝐻0 𝜎 ′ 𝑣𝑜 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒0 𝜎 ′ 𝑣𝑜

𝜎 ′ 𝑣𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

∆𝜎𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐶𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐶𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Example 5
• A 12m thick layer of
normally consolidated
clay is doubly drained.
If a structure applied
and a vertical stress
increase of 50kPa to
the clay layer,
calculate the time
required for the clay
layer to settle 0.25m.
Example 6
• A surcharge load of
120kPa is applied on
the ground surface
o How high will water rise in
the piezometer (h)
immediately after
application of the load

o What is the degree of

consolidation at level A
when h is 6m

o Find h when the degree of

consolidation is 60%
Civil Engineering Department
College of Engineering

Course: Soil Mechanics

(CE 359)

Lecturer: Dr. Frederick Owusu-Nimo

 Stress Distribution
• Geostatic stresses – Stress induced by self weight of
soil
• Stresses due to loading

• Loading considered to be one dimensional, that is,

100% of the load influence is felt throughout the soil
o Fill is large in areal extent e.g. filling a large area with several
meters of selected compacted material referred to as ‘Areal Fill’

o The width of loaded area is significantly greater than the

thickness of the compressible layer e.g. one dimensional
consolidation in lab
Different Types of
Loading
Point load or concentrated load applied from column, wheel of
machine e.g. Vertical load transferred to soil from an electric
pole

Line load such as the load on Rail way and load from a long brick
wall; load dimension ton/m:

Uniform load on an area, e.g., middle of an embankment load

dimension ton/m2
Different Types of
Loading

Triangular load such as applied from embankment, or from the

dam, the load dimension is ton/m'

Oil or water storage tank

 Stress Distribution
Joseph Boussinesq Harald Westergaard
 Boussinesq’s Method
• Appropriate for determining vertical stress in a
homogenous isotropic medium
3𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 5Τ2
𝑟 2 2
2𝜋 1+ 𝑧
𝑧
𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝐵 2
𝑧
𝐼𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑞 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Values of IB can be obtained from plot or tables

• For a # of concentrated loads P1, P2, P3

𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝐵 1 2 + 𝐼𝐵 2 2+ 𝐼𝐵 3 2
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Stresses from Point Loads

Boussinesq Influence Factor

 Example 1
• A compressive load P=60kN is applied to the
surface of a soil.
o Find the vertical compressive stress at a point 2m below the
surface at a distance of 1m away from the line of action of
the force
o Plot the distribution of vertical compressive stress on the
plane 2m (i.e. for z = 2m) below the surface of the soil, for
various radial distances up to 2m from the line of action of
the force (i.e. r =, 0,……,2)
o Plot the distribution of the vertical compressive stresses on
various horizontal planes (i.e. for various values of z=0.5, 1,
……, 3) along the vertical axis (i.e. at r=0)
Uniform Load over a
Circular Area
 Uniform Load over a
Circular Area
• Uniform load on circular area
• 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝑞𝑜
 Example 2
• A circular area carrying a uniformly distributed load
of 2000 lb/ft2 is applied to the ground surface. The
diameter of the circular area is 20ft. Determine the
vertical stress due to this uniform load at a point 20ft
below the edge of the circular area
Uniform Load on a
Rectangular Area
Uniform Load on a
Rectangular Area
 Example 3
• A 15ft by 20ft rectangular foundation carrying a
uniform load of 4000lb/ft2 is applied to the ground
surface. Determine the vertical stress due to this
uniform load at a point 10ft below the corner of the
rectangular loaded area
 Westergaard’s Method
• Appropriate for determining vertical stress in layered
stratum

• It may be solved in the same manner as the

Boussinesq’s equation

𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝑤 2
𝑧
2:1 Method (Approximate
Method)
• Approximate method for determining the vertical
stress at some depth due to loading
• It gives an average stress at a particular depth
• It is simple, quick and easy to use

𝑃
𝜎𝑧 =
𝐵+𝑧 𝐿+𝑧
 Example 4
• A 10ft by 15ft rectangular platform carrying a
uniform load of 5000lb/ft2 rests on the ground
surface. Determine the vertical stress increment due
to this load at a depth of 20ft below the ground
surface by the approximate method
 Example 5
• A brown silty fill 5m thick was placed over a 15m thick layer of
compressible gray silty clay. Underlying the clay layer is brown
sandy gravel. The properties of the normally consolidated silty
clay layer are;
o Initial void ratio, eo = 1.1
o Compression index, Cc = 0.36
o Saturated density, = 1.52Mg/m3
o Coefficient of consolidation, Cv = 0.86m2/yr
• The density of silty sand fill is 2.0Mg/m3 and the groundwater
table is at the interface of the fill and clay
o Compute the consolidation settlement of the silty clay layer due
to the weight of 5m of new fill
o Determine time for which a settlement of 0.426m will occur
Average % Consolidation
 Example 6
• A circular tank, 8m high and 27m in
diameter (qo = 80kPa) is supported on
a flexible mat foundation on a sand
layer 9m thick that overlies a 30m
thick layer of Clay. Below the clay is
another layer of granular material.
The groundwater table is 2m below
the ground surface. Assume the tank
with the foundation is on the ground
surface. The average soil parameters
and profile are give.
• Compute the change in stress at
depth of 24m due to the foundation
load at the center and edge of the
tank
• Compute the settlement of the tank
at the center and at the edge