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2) The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by
51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations
among nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

Due to its unique international character, and the powers vested in its founding Charter, the
Organization can take action on a wide range of issues, and provide a forum for its 193 Member States
to express their views, through the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social
Council and other bodies and committees.

The work of the United Nations reaches every corner of the globe. Although best known for
peacekeeping, peacebuilding, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance, there are many other
ways the United Nations and its System (specialized agencies, funds and programmes) affect our lives
and make the world a better place. The Organization works on a broad range of fundamental issues,
from sustainable development, environment and refugees protection, disaster relief, counter terrorism,
disarmament and non-proliferation, to promoting democracy, human rights, gender equality and the
advancement of women, governance, economic and social development and international health,
clearing landmines, expanding food production, and more, in order to achieve its goals and coordinate
efforts for a safer world for this and future generations.

The UN has 4 main purposes

• To keep peace throughout the world;

• To develop friendly relations among nations;

• To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger,
disease and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms;

• To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve these

goals(ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED NATIONS)

3) The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and
agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of
the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Participants were representatives of all European powers and
other stakeholders, chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from
September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for
Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars
through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers
so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller
powers. More generally, conservative leaders like von Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate
republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the
constitutional order of the European ancien régime, and which continued to threaten it.

At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain, Prussia, Austria
and Russia, partly due to the military strategy of its dictatorial leader over the previous two decades and
his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all its recent conquests,
while the other three main powers made major territorial gains. Prussia added territory from smaller
states: Swedish Pomerania, most of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy
of Warsaw. Austria gained much of northern Italy. Russia added the central and eastern part of the
Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which had been
created just months before from formerly Austrian territory.

The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought
an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting
triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days
of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at
Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of
national, democratic, and liberal movements,[3] and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the
benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large
widespread wars for almost a century.(CONGRESS OF VIENNA)

4) The unification of Germany

was the process of building the modern German nation-state with federal features based on the concept
of Lesser Germany (one without multinational Austria of the Habsburgs), which commenced on 18
August 1866 with adoption of the North German Confederation Treaty establishing the North German
Confederation, initially a Prussian-dominated military alliance which was subsequently deepened
through adoption of the North German Constitution. The process symbolically concluded with the
ceremonial proclamation of the German Empire i.e. the German Reich having 25 member states and led
by the Kingdom of Prussia of the Hohenzollerns on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as
the customary date of the German Empire's foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant
to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 (accession of South German states and
constitutional adoption of the name German Empire) and 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the
permanent Constitution of the German Empire). Despite the legal, administrative, and political
disruption caused by the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German-speaking people of
the old Empire had a common linguistic, cultural, and legal tradition. European liberalism offered an
intellectual basis for unification by challenging dynastic and absolutist models of social and political
organization; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and
linguistic unity. Economically, the creation of the Prussian Zollverein (customs union) in 1818, and its
subsequent expansion to include other states of the German Confederation, reduced competition
between and within states. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational
travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict between and among German-speakers from
throughout Central Europe. The model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of
Vienna in 1814–15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through
Habsburg leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The
negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a
second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia
would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This German dualism presented
two solutions to the problem of unification: Kleindeutsche Lösung, the small Germany solution
(Germany without Austria), or Großdeutsche Lösung, the greater Germany solution (Germany with
Austria), ultimately settled in favor of the former solution in the Peace of Prague.

5) Korean War, conflict between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the
Republic of Korea (South Korea) in which at least 2.5 million persons lost their lives. The war reached
international proportions in June 1950 when North Korea, supplied and advised by the Soviet Union,
invaded the South. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal participant, joined the
war on the side of the South Koreans, and the People’s Republic of China came to North Korea’s aid.
After more than a million combat casualties had been suffered on both sides, the fighting ended in July
1953 with Korea still divided into two hostile states. Negotiations in 1954 produced no further
agreement, and the front line has been accepted ever since as the de facto boundary between North
and South Korea. The Korean War had its immediate origins in the collapse of the Japanese empire at
the end of World War II in September 1945. Unlike China, Manchuria, and the former Western colonies
seized by Japan in 1941–42, Korea, annexed to Japan since 1910, did not have a native government or a
colonial regime waiting to return after hostilities ceased. Most claimants to power were harried exiles in
China, Manchuria, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the United States. They fell into two broad categories. The
first was made up of committed Marxist revolutionaries who had fought the Japanese as part of the
Chinese-dominated guerrilla armies in Manchuria and China. One of these exiles was a minor but
successful guerrilla leader named Kim Il-sung, who had received some training in Russia and had been
made a major in the Soviet army. The other Korean nationalist movement, no less revolutionary, drew
its inspiration from the best of science, education, and industrialism in Europe, Japan, and America.
These “ultranationalists” were split into rival factions, one of which centred on Syngman Rhee, educated
in the United States and at one time the president of a dissident Korean Provisional Government in
exile.

1) The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union
and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term cold war is used because
there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported
opposing sides in major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based on the
ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their
temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in 1945. Aside from the nuclear
arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed
via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching
embargoes, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race. The
Western Bloc was led by the United States as well as a number of other First World nations that were
generally liberal democratic but tied to a network of often Third World authoritarian states, most of
which were the European powers' former colonies. The Eastern Bloc was led by the Soviet Union and its
Communist Party, which had an influence across the Second World and was also tied to a network of
authoritarian states. The Soviet Union had a command economy and installed similarly totalitarian
regimes in its satellite states. The US government supported anti-communist and right-wing
governments and uprisings across the world, while the Soviet government funded left-wing parties and
revolutions around the world. As nearly all the colonial states achieved independence in the period from
1945 to 1960, many became Third World battlefields in the Cold War.

The first phase of the Cold War began shortly after the end of World War II in 1945. The United States
and its Western European allies sought to strengthen their bonds and used the policy of containment
against Soviet influence; they accomplished this most notably through the formation of NATO which was
essentially a defensive agreement in 1949. The Soviet Union countered with the Warsaw Pact in 1955,
which had similar results with the Eastern Bloc. As by 1955 the Soviet Union already had an armed
presence and political domination all over its eastern satellite states, the pact has been long considered
"superfluous". Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Pact's primary function was to safeguard
the Soviet Union's hegemony over its Eastern European satellites, with the Pact's only direct military
actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.[6] In
1961, Soviet-dominated East Germany constructed the Berlin Wall to prevent the citizens of East Berlin
from fleeing to free and prosperous West Berlin (part of US-allied West Germany). Major crises of this
phase included the 1948–1949 Berlin Blockade, the 1945–1949 Chinese Communist Revolution, the
1950–1953 Korean War, the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the 1956 Suez Crisis, the 1961 Berlin Crisis, the
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, and the 1964–1975 Vietnam War. The US and the USSR competed for
influence in Latin America, the Middle East, and the decolonizing states of Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

2) The post-Soviet states, also known as the former Soviet Union he former Soviet republics, and in
Russia as the near abroad are the 15 sovereign states that were union republics of the Soviet Union,
which emerged and re-emerged from the Soviet Union following its dissolution in 1991. Russia is the
primary de facto internationally recognized successor state to the Soviet Union after the Cold War; while
Ukraine has, by law, proclaimed that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the Soviet
Union which remained under dispute over formerly Soviet-owned properties.

The three Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania – were the first to break away from the USSR by
proclaiming the restoration of their independence, between March and May 1990, claiming continuity
from the original states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940. The remaining
12 republics all subsequently seceded, all 12 of which joined the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS) and most of the 12 joining the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). In contrast, the Baltic
states focused on European Union (EU) and NATO membership. EU officials have stressed the
importance of Association Agreements between the EU and post-Soviet states.

Several disputed states with varying degrees of recognition exist within the territory of the former
Soviet Union: Transnistria in eastern Moldova, Abkhazia and South Ossetia in northern Georgia and
Artsakh in southwestern Azerbaijan. All of these unrecognized states except Artsakh depend on Russian
armed support and financial aid. Artsakh is integrated to Armenia at a de facto level, which also
maintains close cooperation with Russia.

Largely unrecognized Russian-occupied Crimea claimed independence for a week in March 2014,[10]
and the unrecognized Russian-controlled Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic in
eastern Ukraine claimed independence from 2014 to 2022, before Russia declared their annexation.

3) The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated suicide terrorist attacks
carried out by the militant Islamist extremist network al-Qaeda against the United States on September
11, 2001. That morning, nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners scheduled to travel from
the East Coast to California. The hijackers crashed the first two planes into the Twin Towers of the World
Trade Center in New York City, which were two of the top five tallest buildings in the world at the time.
Following the first two impacts, the third and fourth flights were similarly coordinated to attack targets
in the Washington metropolitan area. The third plane succeeded in crashing into the Pentagon―the
headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense―in Arlington County, Virginia, near the national capital
of Washington, D.C. The fourth was intended to strike a federal government building in D.C. itself, but
crashed in a Stonycreek, Pennsylvania field following a passenger revolt. The attacks killed nearly 3,000
people and instigated the global war on terror. The first impact was that of American Airlines Flight 11,
which crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan at
8:46 a.m. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03, the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United
Airlines Flight 175. Both 110-story skyscrapers collapsed within an hour and forty-one minutes,[f]
bringing about the destruction of the remaining five structures in the WTC complex, as well as damaging
or destroying various other buildings surrounding the towers. A third flight, American Airlines Flight 77,
crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m., causing a partial collapse. The fourth and final flight, United
Airlines Flight 93, flew in the direction of Washington, D.C. Alerted to the previous attacks, the plane's
passengers attempted to gain control of the aircraft, but the hijackers ultimately crashed the plane in a
field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, near Shanksville at 10:03 a.m. Investigators determined that
Flight 93 target was either the United States Capitol or the White House.

Within hours of the attacks, the Central Intelligence Agency determined that al-Qaeda was responsible.
The United States formally responded by launching the war on terror and invading Afghanistan to
depose the Taliban, which had not complied with U.S. demands to expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan and
extradite its leader, Osama bin Laden. The U.S.'s invocation of Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty—its
only usage to date—called upon allies to fight al-Qaeda. As U.S. and NATO ground forces swept through
Afghanistan, bin Laden fled to the White Mountains, where he narrowly avoided capture by U.S.-led
forces.[11] Although bin Laden initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he formally claimed
responsibility for the attacks. Al-Qaeda's cited motivations included U.S. support of Israel, the presence
of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq. After evading capture for almost a decade, bin
Laden was killed by the U.S. military on May 2, 2011. U.S. and NATO troops remained in Afghanistan
until 2021.
2) For nearly three decades, the Berlin Wall was a tangible representation of the so-called Iron Curtain
and the political divisions in Europe. When Mikhail Gorbachev took control of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1985, he did so with the intention of revamping the country’s economy and
government. He dismantled the secret police and introduced perestroika (economic restructuring) in an
attempt to begin mending relationships with Western European countries and the United States. By
studying the consequences of the collapse of the USSR, students today can gain an understanding of
how the end of the Cold War affected U.S. and Soviet relationships, and how it led to the current
political and economic climate between the two countries. In order to understand the consequences
related to the collapse of the Soviet Union, it is critical to first examine the overarching causes for the
USSR’s downfall. Gorbachev’s loosening of governmental power created a domino effect in which
Eastern European alliances began to crumble, inspiring countries such as Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia to
declare their independence. The Berlin Wall fell on November 9, 1989, leading East and West Germany
to officially reunite within a year, ending the Cold War. Once the Berlin Wall fell, citizens in Eastern
European countries such as Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania staged protests against their pro-
Soviet governments, hastening the collapse of communist regimes across the former Soviet bloc. Other
countries—such as the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine—followed suit, creating
the Commonwealth of Independent States. By the end of 1989, eight of the nine remaining republics
had declared independence from Moscow, and the powerful Soviet Union was finally undone. By the
summer of 1990, all the formerly communist Eastern European officials had been replaced by
democratically elected governments, setting the stage for the region’s reintegration into Western
economic and political spheres.

5) The Arab–Israeli conflict is an ongoing intercommunal phenomenon involving political tension,

military conflicts, and other disputes between Arab countries and Israel, which escalated during the 20th
century, but had mostly faded out by the early 21st century. The roots of the Arab–Israeli conflict have
been attributed to the support by Arab League member countries for the Palestinians, a fellow League
member, in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict; this in turn has been attributed to the simultaneous
rise of Zionism and Arab nationalism towards the end of the 19th century, though the two national
movements had not clashed until the 1920s. Part of the Palestine–Israel conflict arose from the
conflicting claims by these movements to the land that formed the British Mandatory Palestine, which
was regarded by the Jewish people as their ancestral homeland, while at the same time it was regarded
by the Pan-Arab movement as historically and currently belonging to the Arab Palestinians, and in the
Pan-Islamic context, as Muslim lands. The sectarian conflict within the British Mandate territory
between Palestinian Jews and Arabs escalated into a full-scale Palestinian civil war in 1947. Taking the
side of the Palestinian Arabs, especially following the Israeli Declaration of Independence, the
neighbouring Arab countries invaded the by-then former Mandate territory in May 1948, commencing
the First Arab–Israeli War. Large-scale hostilities mostly ended with ceasefire agreements after the 1973
Yom Kippur War. Peace agreements were signed between Israel and Egypt in 1979, resulting in Israeli
withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula and the abolition of the military governance system in the West
Bank and Gaza Strip, in favor of Israeli Civil Administration and consequent unilateral annexation of the
Golan Heights and East Jerusalem.
4)After the First World War, the Paris Peace Conference (18 January 1919 – 21 January 1920) set out to
redefine international relations and the Republic of Azerbaijan, having declared its independence on 28
May 1918, had high expectations. Independent Azerbaijan was the first modern secular republic in the
Muslim world. It relied on the Peace Conference to help with strategic issues such as recognition by
Western countries, equal membership of the international community and guaranteed territorial
integrity. The Soviet threat -From the very first day of its existence, Azerbaijan feared becoming a colony
of Soviet expansion. The Soviets wanted to reinstate a united Russia within its former borders. The
founders of the Republic of Azerbaijan were well aware of the threat took every opportunity to draw the
attention of the international community to their young republic’s situation.

They wanted recognition as an independent country, subject to international law with all the
concomitant political and security guarantees. At that historical point they needed an intensive
campaign to build political-diplomatic relations based on mutual interests with the international
community, especially with Europe.(MEDIUM)

1) Throughout the history of the great and powerful country known as the United States, copious
methods have been used in the dealings of foreign relations. The most adequate of these methods was
the “big stick” policy due to the benefits achieved through the time of practicing this policy and the lack
of hostility produced while dealing with other nations. Theodore Roosevelt famously spoke the words,
“Speak softly and carry a big stick”, implying that the best way to deal with foreign nations was to be
civil and considerate while also displaying the power that the United States had as a growing super
power. Unlike the other policies used by American presidents, Roosevelt’s “big stick” policy is among the
greatest. Unlike the Dollar Diplomacy method used by president William Taft, Roosevelt’s method in
foreign policy allowed for give and take between the nations where both sides could manage to benefit
and avoid issues that may arise. Used in Nicaragua, Dollar Diplomacy caused revolutions against the U.S.
Government and hostility in the land. The goal of this policy was to support the stability of the country
and removing the dictator while it ended up achieving the exact opposite. If the “big stick” policy had
been used in this situation, revolutions could have been avoided by peaceful negotiations while
constantly displaying the power of America to deter the idea of opposition.(COMPLEX)

5) In the history of Azerbaijan, the Early Middle Ages lasted from the 3rd to the 11th century. This period
in the territories of today's Azerbaijan Republic began with the incorporation of these territories into the
Sasanian Persian Empire in the 3rd century AD. Feudalism took shape in Azerbaijan in the Early Middle
Ages. The territories of Caucasian Albania became an arena of wars between the Byzantine Empire and
the Sassanid Empire. After the Sassanid Empire was felled by the Arab Caliphate, Albania

also weakened and was overthrown in 705 AD by the Abbasid Caliphate under the name of Arran. As the
control of the Arab Caliphate over the Caucasus region weakened, independent states began to emerge
in the territory of Azerbaijan. In 252-253 AD, Caucasian Albania was conquered and annexed by the
Sassanid Empire. It became a vassal state, but retained its monarchy; however the Albanian king had no
real power and most civil, religious, and military authority lay with the Sassanid marzban (military
governor). After the Sassanids’ victory over the Romans in 260 AD, this victory, and the annexation of
Albania, were described in the trilingual inscription of Shapur I at the Ka’be-ye Zartošt at Naqš-e Rostam.
Al-Walid sent a group of his men north across the river Aras under Salman ibn Rabiah, and to Nakjavan
(Nakhchevan) under Habib b. Maslama. Habib ended up with a treaty calling for tribute and jezya and
kharaj taxes from the population of Nakjavan, while the army of Salman moved on Arran and captured
Beylagan. Then the Arabs attacked Barda, and faced the resistance of local people. After a while, Barda's
population had to conclude a treaty with the Arabs. Salman continued his expedition to the left bank of
the river Kura and concluded treaties with the governors of Gabala, Sheki, Shakashēn and Shirvan.
(MEDIUM)

1) The greater ancient Near East (including Egypt) offers some of the oldest evidence of the existence of
international relations, since it was there that states first developed (the city-states and empires of
Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt) around the 4th millennium B.C.E. Almost 3000 years of the
evolution of diplomatic relations are thus visible in sources from the ancient Near East. However,
because only certain periods are well documented within that timespan, there remain many gaps in the
modern study of diplomacy in this era. The diplomatic relations of the ancient Near East are known only
in a fragmented fashion. A limited number of texts allow us to understand relatively well the
contemporary diplomatic practices of certain decades, spread out across more than two millennia and
large geographical distances. Long periods with little or no documentation are broken up by brief
periods of abundant documentation. However, this does not prevent us from understanding the broad
threads and general trends in the evolution of international relations, for it follows the evolution of
politics itself, which is known in general terms. Diplomatic relations have existed for as long as human
communities have been organized into political units, which precedes the period of this study. The first
Near Eastern states formed during the 4th millennium B.C.E., but international relations during this era
are unknown due to a lack of documentation.(SIMPLE)