ENERGY THEOREMS

STRAIN ENERGY AND COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY

Strain and complementary energies are two concepts that ae used extensively to derive
mathematical expressions and general properties of structures in structural mechanics.
As an example to illustrate the concepts, consider a prismatic bar subjected to the end load F as
shown in the figure above. Under the influence of this load, the bar extends by . For the sake of
generality, it is assumed that the material of the bar exhibits non-linear stress-strain behaviour as
illustrated in figure(a). At any load P, the corresponding extension is e, because the only stress
P e
present in the bar is an axial stress σ x = and the strain ε x = and the shape of the load –
A L
extension curve for the bar is identical to the stress-strain curve.
The infinitesimal work dW done by P due to an infinitesimal change in extension de is equal to:

Therefore, the total work done when the extension is ∆ is given by:

= area under the load – extension curve.

 STRAIN ENERGY
The work W is obviously external work done and because of the fact that energy must be
conserved, in the absence of any loss of any, the above is stored as energy in the bar which is
recoverable when the bar is unloaded. The energy stored in the bar is called strain energy. In this
case therefore;

Strain energy
It is convenient to derive an expression for the strain energy in terms of the strains themselves.
Consider a bar of area dA and length dL . If the stress in the bar is σ x , then the axial force is σ x dA
. If the strain is increased by d ε x, then the extension is changed by d ε x dL . The strain energy dU
stored in the infinitesimal element of volume dV of the bar is;

where the volume of the infinitesimal element. Therefore, the strain energy stored in
the bar is equal to;
∆
L

U =∫ σ x d ε x dV
0

In the special case of stress-strain behavior being linear, then for the prismatic bar of cross-

sectional area A and length L, , and because the state of strain is constant along
the bar,

because
It should be appreciated that the above expression for strain energy is applicable to linear elastic
materials only.
 COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY
A concept related to strain energy U is the complementary energy C. In terms of the “external”
force P and the corresponding displacement e, this is defined as (refer to Figure(b)).

= area “above” the load-extension curve.

Note that strain energy U =∫ Pde . In terms of the internal stresses and strains, this can be
expressed as;

In the case of a prismatic bar of linearly elastic material,

Therefore;

V = AL
Substituting and ,

It should be noted that irrespective of the stress-strain law,

If the response is linearly elastic, then

In all cases, irrespective of material laws, U +C is equal to loss of potential energy F ∆ of the
external loads.
 EXPRESSION FOR STRAIN AND COMPLEMENTARY ENERGIES IN TERMS OF
STRESS RESULTANTS AND CORRESPONDING STRAINS
As shown above, expressions for strain energy U and complementary energy C stored in an
infinitesimal volume dV were given in terms of normal stress σ and normal strain ε as

In a similar way, if the stress and strain under consideration are shear stress τ and shear strain γ ,
then;

These are general expressions in terms of stresses and strains applicable to all cases. However, in
approximate analysis, we deal with stress resultants such as axial force, shear force, bending
moment and twisting moment rather than with the more general normal or shear stresses. It is
therefore convenient to derive expressions for U and C in terms of stress resultants and
corresponding “strains”. It is assumed that the material is linearly elastic with a Young’s
Modulus of E. There U =C in all cases except that U is expressed in terms of “strains” and C is
expressed in terms of “stresses”.
1. Axial force F and axial extension ∆ .
It was shown above that
1 2
U = AE ∆ / L
2
1 2
C= F L/ ( AE )
2
AE=axial rigidity

2. Bending moment M and curvature .

In this case

Where I =second moment of area

y=distance ¿ the neutral axis ¿ point under consideration.

Therefore

Where it is assumed that σ x is the only stress present. Thus;

 Substituting dV =dAdx , where dA=¿ element of area as shown below

Internal bending stress in a beam

The expression for C becomes

M M 2
M
C=∫ MdM dx / ( EI ) y dA=∫ MdM dx / ( EI ) =
2
dx
0 0 2 EI

Where has been replaced by I .

The above expression for C can be expressed for a member as

U =C
and for linearly elastic structures , therefore U can be expressed as;

Therefore for linearly elastic members,

,
3. Shear Force Q and “average” shear strain γ
The distribution of shear stress τ at a cross-section depends on the particular cross-section
considered. However, by making simplifying assumptions, it is possible to derive
expressions for U and C in terms of γ and Q . Initially consider a rectangular section of
breadth b and depth d with the shear force parallel to the depth as shown below.
For this case, the shear stress τ is given by;

where y is the distance to the section from the neutral axis.

G=shear modulus , τ
Because , where and , substituting for , C can
be expressed as;

dV =dAdx∧dA=bdy and so, the above expression for C becomes

Integrating with respect to y between the limits to

Setting ;

for the element.

 The ratio is called Area Shear factor.

Although the above expression was derived for the case of a rectangular section, it is
assumed to be applicable to all shapes of sections with A shear being a suitable proportion
of the cross-sectional area A. For example, in the case of I sections with shear force
parallel to the web, because most of the shear force is carried by the web and the shear

stress is parabolically distributed in the web, it is fair to say that .

Similarly, if the shear force is parallel to the flanges,

A shear =area of the flanges /1.2

Assuming that the “average” shear strain

and ,
then

Where A=area of cross−section resisting shear

4. Torque T and twist ψ .

If the relationship between torque T and twist ψ is given by;

where J=Saint Venant ' s torsional inertia, then it can be shown that;
 CASTIGLIANO’S 1ST THEOREM
“The rate of change of the strain energy in a given structural system with respect to a
given load is equal to the deflection of that system at the load point in the direction of the
load.”

dW i
That is; ∆= dP
Where W i =strain energy

For linearly elastic structures W i also equals complementary energy.

To determine a component of deformation at a given point in a structure, all that is
needed is the rate of change in W i with respect to a load located at the point in question,
acting in the direction of the desired deformation.

Example 1
Determine the deflection at the point of loading in the beam. EI is constant.

Solution:
Let x be a variable distance from A along the longitudinal axis of the beam. The beam is linearly
elastic and subjected to bending. Therefore, the strain energy U =complementary energy C .

From Castigliano’s first theorem:

where M x is the moment at point x from A.

 From statics: for

Therefore

And for
Therefore:

Example2
Determine the vertical deflection and rotation at the free end B of the cantilever loaded with a
uniform load w. EI is constant.

Solution:

The vertical deflection at B, , due to uniform load w, is obtained by applying a fictitious load
P to the beam at B as follows;
Strain energy due to bending is expressed as;

.
With origin at B, and x measured as shown, the expression for moment at x in the beam is:

Therefore
Thus, the deflection at B is given by:

Since P is fictitious, it is set to zero to give the final desired deflection. That is;

The rotation at B, , due to uniform load is obtained by applying a fictitious moment

At B as follows;
The expression for moment at x in the beam is:

Therefore

Thus

is fictitious and thus set to zero in the above equation.

Therefore,
CASTIGLIANO’S 2ND THEOREM OR CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM OF COMPATIBILITY
“In a redundant structure, if the total strain energy is partially differentiated with respect to the
force or load in a redundant member, the result is the initial lack of fit of that member”. That is;

Where; is the force in the redundant member

is the total strain energy

is the initial lack of fit.

Where there is no initial lack of fit, i.e. , then .

This is a condition for minimum value of the strain energy.
The increase in strain energy is equal to the work done by the deflection of the applied loads.
Thus the relationship in equation of the minimum strain energy condition also expresses a
condition for the minimum value of the work done. This relationship is therefore known as the
Principle of Least Work.
Example
Find the reactions in the rigid frame using Castigliano’s 2nd theorem.
Solution:

are applied loads. The reactions at support A are shown as , and . as a variable
is measured as shown;
The general strain energy
For span AC;

For span CB;

Since EI is constant,

Total strain energy of the frame is given by;

From Castigliano’s 2nd theorem, since there are no deformations at the fixed support A;

, and

These three conditions give three equations needed to solve for , and . Then the frame
becomes statically determinate to solve for , and .