TERM PAPER

ELE-102 ELECTRICAL SCIENCES-II

TOPIC:- Applications of
amplitude modulation
SUBMITTED TO:SUBMITTED BY:MR.ARVIND CHAN DAN MUNISH NAYYAR R4802A14

REG.NO.10804317 B.TECH (M.E)

ACKNOWLEDGE MENT
I devote all my achievements to the almighty GOD for granting me strength, art, skill and spirit to accomplish this project work .I am extremely thankful to Arvind Sir for guiding me about this project from time to time ,whenever I needed the help.He cleared my doubts to satisfaction, explaining each and every point in simplest possible way. I am also thankful to our Parents for their encouragement and kind cooperation throughout courses of this project .I am

also thankful to my very good friends for helping me to get best ideas, for gathering data, for the particular physics topic of amplitude modulations and other valuable things .They also assisted me to how I analyze, evaluate and present it in the best possible way under the available means.

CONTENTS

What is MODULATION? Its Types Why use modulation

What is amplitude modulation? Its types Types dercription and designation Techniques of AM Applications Amplitude modulator design Advantages Disadvantages

Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying one waveform in relation to another waveform. In telecommunications, modulation is used to convey a message, or a musician may modulate the tone from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. Often a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal to convey a lower frequency signal. The three key parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency information signal to obtain the modulated signal.

example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog passband channel, for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel. Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels. The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as aserial bus or a wired local area network. The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.

Types of Modulation
There are three types of modulation. As Sine wave (carrier) described by 3
parameters: amplitude, frequency and phase.

Aim
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog passband channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for

So we have:1.Amplitude Modulation 2.Frequency Modulation 3.Phase Modulation AM radio band ~500 to 1600 kHz FM radio band 88 to 108 MHz

Why use modulation?

Carrying one signal on another - uses carrier Modulated carrier transmitted

 Problems with transmitting baseband signals Antennas difficult at low frequencies Noise and interference at low frequencies Cant share with others Easier to transmit carrier at higher frequency Can choose convenient frequency Antennas can be smaller May be useful propagation effects Fractional bandwidth much smaller Antennas and other components easier to
design Can have many frequency channels

signals can be heard over stronger, closer ones with AM, allowing for emergency transmissions to have more chance of being heard over other traffic. Also, AM uses a narrower bandwidth than FM, allowing more users in a smaller space. This is important for the lower frequencies of Radio, where space is at a premium (ie shortwave bands).

Modulation by a sine wave:

Amplitude modulation AM is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker, or to specify the light intensity of television pixels. (Contrast this with frequency modulation, also commonly used for sound transmissions, in which the frequency is varied; and phase modulation, often used in remote controls, in which the phase is varied)
Amplitude modulation is one way to carry information on a carrier, such as a radio signal, the other is FM (Frequency Modulation). While FM offers greater clarity for audio, and the higher frequencies that FM use offer a wider bandwidth, allowing for more information to be transmitted, one application where FM and digital are not suitable are Aviation communication, which to this day still use AM analogue. This is because weaker

v(t) = AC cos (2 fCt) {1 + m cos (2 fmt)}

where AC = unmodulated peak carrier amnplitude fC = carrier frequency fm = modulation frequency m = modulation index (degree of modulation) m must be between 0 and 1 If m > 1 get overmodulation (bad distortion)

Types of AM
A form of amplitude modulationinitially called "undulatory currents"was the first method to successfully produce quality audio over telephone lines. Beginning with Reginald Fessenden's audio demonstrations in 1906, it was also the original method used for audio radio transmissions, and remains in use today by many forms of

communication"AM" is often used to refer to the mediumwave broadcast band (see AM radio). A simple form of AM often used for digital communications is on-off keying, a type of amplitude-shift keying by which binary data is represented as the presence or absence of a carrier wave. This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit Morse code, referred to as continuous wave (CW) operation. In 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the various types of amplitude modulation as follows: The power of an AM signal plotted against frequency. fc is the carrier frequency, fm is the maximum modulation frequency In radio communications, a sideband is a band of frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier frequency, containing power as a result of the modulation process. The sidebands consist of all the Fourier components of the modulated signal except the carrier. All forms of modulation produce sidebands. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave normally results in two mirror-image sidebands. The signal components above the carrier frequency constitute the upper sideband (USB) and those below the carrier frequency constitute the lower sideband (LSB). In conventional AM transmission, the carrier and both sidebands are present, sometimes called double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM). In some forms of AM the carrier may be removed, producing double sideband with suppressed carrier (DSB-SC). An example is the stereophonic difference (L-R) information transmitted in FM stereo broadcasting on a 38 kHz

A3E ( double-sideband full-carrier - the basic AM modulation scheme) R3E (single-sideband reduced-carrier) H3E (single-sideband full-carrier) J3E (single-sideband suppressed-carrier) B8E (independent-sideband emission) C3F (vestigial-sideband) Lincompex (linked compressor and expander)

Sideband

subcarrier. The receiver locally regenerates the subcarrier by doubling a special 19 kHz pilot tone, but in other DSB-SC systems the carrier may be regenerated directly from the sidebands by a Costas loop or squaring loop. This is common in digital transmission systems such as BPSK where the signal is continually present. Sidebands are evident in this spectrogram of an AM broadcast (carrier highlighted in red). If part of one sideband and all of the other remain, it is called vestigial sideband, used mostly with television broadcasting, which would otherwise take up an unacceptable amount of bandwidth. Transmission in which only one sideband is transmitted is called single-sideband transmission or SSB. SSB is the predominant voice mode on shortwave radio other than shortwave broadcasting. Since the sidebands are mirror images, which sideband is used is a matter of convention. In amateur radio, LSB is traditionally used below 10 MHz and USB is used above 10 MHz. In SSB, the carrier is suppressed, significantly reducing the electrical power (by up to 12 dB) without affecting the information in the sideband. This makes for more efficient use of transmitter power and RF bandwidth, but a beat frequency oscillator must be used at the receiver to reconstitute the carrier. Another way to look at an SSB receiver is as an RF-to-audio frequency transposer: in USB mode, the dial frequency is subtracted from each radio frequency component to produce a corresponding audio component, while in LSB mode each incoming radio frequency component is subtracted from the dial frequency. Sidebands can also interfere with adjacent channels. The part of the sideband that would overlap the neighboring channel must

be suppressed by filters, before or after modulation (often both). In Broadcast band frequency modulation (FM), subcarriers above 75 kHz are limited to a small percentage of modulation and are prohibited above 99 kHz altogether to protect the 75 kHz normal deviation and 100 kHz channel bound

Reduced-carrier transmission
Reduced-carrier transmission is an amplitude modulation (AM) transmission in which the carrier wave level is reduced to reduce wasted electrical power. Suppressed-carrier transmission is a special case in which the carrier level is reduced below that required for demodulation by a normal receiver. Reduction of the carrier level permits higher power levels in the sidebands than would be possible with conventional AM transmission. Carrier power must be restored by the receiving station to permit demodulation, usually by means of a beat frequency oscillator (BFO). Failure of the BFO to match the original carrier frequency when receiving such a signal will cause a heterodyne. Suppressed carriers are often used for single sideband (SSB) transmissions, such as for amateur radio on shortwave. That system is referred to in full as SSB suppressed carrier (SSBSC) or (SSBSC). International broadcasters agreed in 1985 to also use SSBSC entirely by 2015, though IBOC and IBAC digital radio (namely Digital Radio Mondiale) seems likely to make this irrelevant. FM stereo transmissions use a doublesideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC)

signal from a stereo generator, together with a pilot tone of exactly half the original carrier frequency. This allows reconstitution of the original stereo carrier, and hence the stereo signal.

Single-sideband modulation
Single-sideband modulation (SSB) is a refinement of amplitude modulation that more efficiently uses electrical power and bandwidth. It is closely related to vestigial sideband modulation (VSB) (see below). Amplitude modulation produces a modulated output signal that has twice the bandwidth of the original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth doubling, and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of somewhat increased device complexity. The first U.S. patent for SSB modulation was applied for on December 1, 1915 by John Renshaw Carson. The U.S. Navy experimented with SSB over its radio circuits before World War I. SSB first entered commercial service in January 7, 1927 on the longwave transatlantic public radiotelephone circuit between New York and London. The high power SSB transmitters were located at Rocky Point, New York and Rugby, England. The receivers were in very quiet locations in Houlton, Maine and Cupar Scotland. SSB was also used over long distance telephone lines, as part of a technique known as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). FDM was pioneered by telephone companies in the 1930s. This enabled many voice channels to be sent down a single physical circuit, for example in L-carrier. SSB allowed channels to be spaced (usually) just 4,000 Hz apart, while offering a speech bandwidth of nominally 3003,400 Hz. One method of producing an SSB signal is to remove one of the sidebands via filtering,

leaving only either the upper sideband (USB), the sideband with the higher frequency, or less commonly the lower sideband (LSB), the sideband with the lower frequency. Most often, the carrier is reduced or removed entirely (suppressed), being referred to in full as single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC). Assuming both sidebands are symmetric, which is the case for a normal AM signal, no information is lost in the process. Since the final RF amplification is now concentrated in a single sideband, the effective power output is greater than in normal AM (the carrier and redundant sideband account for well over half of the power output of an AM transmitter). Though SSB uses substantially less bandwidth and power, it cannot be demodulated by a simple envelope detector like standard AM.

Single-sideband suppressedcarrier transmission

Single-sideband suppressed-carrier (SSBSC) is a telecommunication technique, which belongs to the Amplitude modulation class. The information represented by the modulating signal is contained in both the upper and the lower sidebands. Since each modulating frequency fc produces corresponding upper and lower side-frequencies fc + fi and fc fi it is not necessary to transmit both sidebands. Either one can be suppressed at the transmitter without any loss of information.

Advantages Less transmitter power. Less bandwidth, one-half that of Double-Sideband (DSB). Less noise at the receiver. Size, weight and peak antenna voltage of a single-sideband (SSB) transmitters is significantly less than that of a standard AM transmitter.

Companding
In telecommunication, signal processing, and thermodynamics, companding (occasionally called compansion) is a method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. The name is a portmanteau of compressing and expanding. While the compression used in audio recording and the like depends on a variable-gain amplifier, and so is a locally linear process (linear for short regions, but not globally), companding is non-linear and takes place in the same way at all points in time. The dynamic range of a signal is compressed before transmission and is expanded to the original value at the receiver. The electronic circuit that does this is called a compandor and works by compressing or expanding the dynamic range of an analog electronic signal such as sound. One variety is a triplet of amplifiers: a logarithmic amplifier, followed by a variable-gain linear amplifier and an exponential amplifier. Such a triplet has the property that its output voltage is proportional to the input voltage raised to an adjustable power. Compandors are used in concert audio systems and in some noise reduction schemes such as dbx and Dolby NR (all versions). Companding can also refer to the use of compression, where gain is decreased when levels rise above a certain threshold, and its complement, expansion, where gain is also decreased when levels drop below a certain threshold. Companding is used in professional wireless microphones to improve the dynamic range of the microphone (the dynamic range of the microphone itself is higher than the dynamic range of the radio transmission).

Independent sideband
Independent sideband (ISB) is an AM single sideband mode which is used with some AM radio transmissions. Normally each sideband carries identical information, but ISB modulates two different input signals one on the upper sideband, the other on the lower sideband. This is used in some kinds of AM stereo (sometimes known as the Kahn system), but is generally otherwise prohibited in the U.S. by the FCC. ISB is a compromise between double sideband (DSB) and single sideband (SSB) the other is vestigial sideband (VSB). If the sidebands are out of phase with each other, then phase modulation (PM) of the carrier occurs. AM and PM together then create quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). ISB may or may not have the carrier suppressed. Suppressed-carrier ISB was employed in point-to-point (usually overseas) radiotelephony and radioteletype by shortwave (HF). In military use, ISB usually referred to a close pair of FSK radioteletype channels which could be demodulated by a single receiver, and employed in fleet broadcast, point-to-point, and between larger vessels and shore stations on HF and UHF.

The use of companding allows signals with a large dynamic range to be transmitted over facilities that have a smaller dynamic range capability. Companding reduces the noise and crosstalk levels at the receiver. Companding is used in digital and telephony systems , compressing before input to an analog-to-digital converter, and then expanding after a digital-to-analog converter. This is equivalent to using a nonlinear ADC as in a T-carrier telephone system that implements A-law or -law companding. This method is also used in digital file formats for better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at lower bit rates. For example, a linearly encoded 16-bit PCM signal can be converted to an 8-bit WAV or AU file while maintaining a decent SNR by compressing before the transition to 8-bit and expanding after a conversion back to 16-bit. This is effectively a form of lossy audio data compression.

Classical amplitude modulation Single-sideband modulation

Ring Modulation
Ring modulation (RM), introduced as the beat note waveform, occurs when modulation is applied directly to the amplitude input of the carrier modulated x(t) = cos(2 f1t) cos(2 fct). multiplication can also be expressed as the sum of sinusoids using the inverse of Eulersformula: x(t) =1/2cos(2 f1t) +1/2cos(2 f2t) Notice again in this type of modulation that neither the carrier frequency nor the modulation frequencyare present in the spectrum. Because of its spectrum, RM is also sometimes called double-sideband (DSB) modulation. Ring modulating can be realized without oscillators just by multiplying two signals together. The multiplication of two complex sounds produces a spectrum containing frequencies that are the sum and difference between each of the frequencies present in each of the sounds. RM therefore produces components equal to two times the number of frequency components in one signal multiplied by the number of frequency components in the other.

Original signal

After compressing, before expanding

Techniques of amplitude
There are three main techniques of amplitude modulation: Ring modulation

AMPLITUDE MODULATION IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Amplitude modulation (AM) occurs when the amplitude of a carrier wave is modulated, to correspond to a source signal. In AM, we have an equation that looks like this: Fsignal(t) = A(t)sin(t) We can also see that the phase of this wave is irrelevant, and does not change (so we dont even include it in the equation). AM Double-Sideband (AM-DSB for short) can be broken into two different, distinct types: Carrier, and Suppressed Carrier varieties (AM-DSB-C and AM-DSB-SC, for short, respectively). This page will talk about both varieties, and will discuss the similarities and differences of each.

The modulation index is defined as the ratio of the modulation signal amplitude to the carrier amplitude.

where

The overall signal can be described by:

More commonly, the carrier amplitude is normalized to one and the am equation is written as:

Characteristics
Modulation Index Amplitude modulation requires a high frequency constant carrier and a low frequency modulation signal. A sine wave carrier is of the form A sine wave modulation signal is of the form Here w can see that the amplitude of the high frequency carrier takes on the shape of the lower frequency modulation signal, forming what is called a modulation envelope. If the modulation index is zero (mam = 0) the signal is simply a constant amplitude carrier. If the modulation index is 1 (mam = 1), the resultant waveform has maximum or 100% amplitude modulation. It is simply written as:

Sidebands

Expanding the normalized AM equation:

Switching Modulators Switching modulators can be placed into two categories: unipolar and bipolar.

we obtain

Bipolar Switching Modulator

where: represents the lower sideband represents the upper sideband The sidebands are centered on the carrier frequency. The are the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and modulation signals. In the above example, they are just single frequencies, but normally the baseband modulation signal is a range of frequencies and hence two bands are formed.

The bipolar switch is the easiest to visualize. Note that an AM waveform appears to consist of a low frequency dc signal whose polarity is reversing at a carrier rate.

The AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation signal by 1.

AM Modulator
The standard amplitude modulation equation is:

However, since the square wave contains lots of harmonics, the resulting multiplication will contain lots of extraneous frequencies. Mathematically, the spectrum of the square wave signal (given by the Fourier Transform) is of the form

From this we notice that AM involves a multiplication process. There are several ways to perform this function electronically. The simplest method uses a switch.

This seems complicated but, if the square wave switching function has a 50% duty cycle, this simplifies to:

This tells us that the square wave is actually composed of a series of cosines (phase shifted sines) at odd multiples of the fundamental switching frequency. Therefore, using this signal to multiply the baseband signal results in AM signals being generated at each of the odd harmonics of the switching (carrier) frequencies. Since the amplitude of the harmonics decreases rapidly, this technique is practical for only the first few harmonics, and produces an enormous amount of unwanted signals (noise).

The process of reversing the polarity of a signal is easily accomplished by placing two switch pairs in the output of a differential amplifier. The Mc1496 Balanced Modulator is an example of such a device.

Unipolar Switching Modulator

As previously mentioned, an AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation signal by 0 & 1. A band pass filter can be used to select any one of the AM signals. The number of different output frequencies can be significantly reduced if the multiplier accepts sinewaves at the carrier input Removing the DC component from the input eliminates the carrier signal and creates DSBSC modulation. Physically this is done by reversing the signal leads: The spectrum of this signal is defined by:

Physically this is done by turning the modulation signal on and off at the carrier rate:

A high amplitude carrier can be used to turn a diode on and off. A dc bias is placed on the modulation signal to make certain that only the carrier (not the modulation signal) can reverse bias the diode.

Square Law Modulator

The voltage-current relationship of a diode is nonlinear near the knee and is of the form:

The coefficient a and b are constants associated with the particular diode.

Collector Modulator

Amplitude modulation occurs if the diode is kept in the square law region when signals combine.

The diode switching modulator is incapable of producing high power signals since it is a passive device. A transistor can be used to overcome this limitation.

Let the injected signals be of the form:

The trapezoidal oscilloscope display can be used to determine the modulation index. The voltage applied across the diode and resistor is given by:

AM modulation index: The current in the diode and hence in the resistor is given by:

The trapezoidal display makes it possible to quickly recognize certain types of problems, which would reduce the AM signal quality.

Which expands to:

The highest authorized carrier power for AM broadcast in the US is 50 kilowatts, although directional stations are permitted 52.65 kilowatts to compensate for losses in the phasing system. The ERP can be much higher

Modulation Index Measurement It is sometimes difficult to determine the modulation index, particularly for complex signals. However, it is relatively easy to determine it by observation.

C-QUAM

The basic idea behind the C-Quam modulator is actually quite simple. The output stage is an ordinary AM modulator however; the carrier signal has been replaced by an amplitude limited vector modulator. Therefore, the limiter output is really a phase-modulated signal.

A standard AM receiver will detect the amplitude variations as L+R. A stereo receiver will also detect the phase variations and to extract L-R. It will then process these signals to separate the left and right channels.To enable the stereo decoder, a 25 Hz pilot tone is added to the L-R channel.

AM Receivers
The most common receivers in use today are the super heterodyne type. They consist of:

Antenna RF amplifier Local Oscillator and

Mixer IF Section Detector and Amplifier

The need for these subsystems can be seen when one considers the much simpler and inadequate TRF or tuned radio frequency amplifier.Its main application is that it is used in communication systems like transmitting radio signals.