Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Energy analysis of fabric impregnated by shear thickening fluid in yarn

pullout test
Ruixiang Bai *, Yu Ma, Zhenkun Lei *, Yang Feng, Chen Liu
State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Impregnating fabrics with shear thickening fluid (STF) to form bi-phase composite is a potential method to
Fabric/textiles improve the bulletproof resistance of flexible fabrics. In this study, a planetary ball milling method was used to
Shear thickening fluid prepare STF with 62, 65 and 70 wt% mass fraction using silica (SiO2) as dispersing phase and ethylene glycol as
Energy absorption
dispersant. The Kevlar 49 plain woven fabric was impregnated to form bi-phase composite. The yarn pull-out
tests of neat fabrics and STF impregnated fabrics with loading speeds of 100, 500 and 1000 mm/min were
carried out respectively. The experimental results show that STF impregnated fabrics have higher yarn pull-out
loads than neat fabrics, and show a correlation of yarn pullout speed. A new energy absorption model is proposed
to analyze the energy absorption mechanism in yarn pullout test. It is concluded that the work done by external
force in yarn pull-out test can be equivalent to the energy dissipation of friction between yarns. The friction
energy dissipation of STF impregnated fabrics is obviously increased compared with that of neat fabrics.

1. Introduction nondimensional formulation of two analytical models has been devel­

Aramid fiber plain-woven fabric is widely used in soft ballistic pro­
tective equipment because of its advantages, for example light weight,
high strength, and corrosion resistance, and will have a small off-plane
displacement after the impact process, which helps to obtain better
performance in the ballistic penetration test. There are three primary
ways in which the fabric dissipates the kinetic energy of a bullet during
impact on it: the strain energy of the yarn in the fabric, the kinetic en­
ergy of the bullet converted into the yarn and the energy loss of the
friction when the yarn mutually slips and is pulled out [1].
Some energy absorption models were proposed for plain-woven
structure fabric subjected to impact from a projectile, and the energy
absorption ability of the primary yarn and the secondary yarn during the
impact were discussed. Gu et al. [2,3] carried out a theoretical model
analysis on the impact process of plain fabric and three-dimensional
interlocking fabrics by rigid projectiles, and calculated the strain en­
ergy and kinetic energy of the primary and secondary yarns during
ballistic penetration, and evaluated the ballistic performance of the
fabric. The fabric penetration time was estimated by the strain rate and
the ultimate strain value of the yarn, and a better matching result with
the experiment was obtained. Alonso et al. [4] studied the high-speed
impact of low-quality projectiles on woven composite panels, and
oped for thin laminates and thick laminates. The ballistic impact test
results of the E-glass fiber/polyester composite panel were compared
with the predicted results of the model (mainly the ballistic limit), and
present a good agreement.
The frictional force between the yarns in a flexible fabric is related to
the impact resistance of the fabric [5,6]. This mainly influences the
energy loss during the yarn pullout process. The mutual slippage be­
tween the yarns and the shear deformation of the entire fabric are the
other important influencing factors for fabric resistance to bullets [7,8].
A higher level of friction between yarns will enhance the efficiency of
stress transfer between yarns, so the response mode of the fabric will
change from local response to global response for improving the ballistic
resistance performance [9]. The improvement of the friction between
yarns is helpful to improve the impact resistance and energy absorption
of bulletproof equipment without increasing the number of layers of
ballistic fabrics [10]. A ballistic penetration test can be comprehensively
used to evaluate the overall ballistic resistance of a ballistic fabric,
including the kinetic energy change of the bullet and the shape of the
fabric before and after impact damage. It is helpful to understand the
dissipation of the kinetic energy of the bullet, and the energy absorption
capacity of the fabric. Unfortunately, it is impossible to capture the key
data on warp and weft yarns in detailed process of the bullet penetrating

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: bairx@dlut.edu.cn (R. Bai), leizk@dlut.edu.cn (Z. Lei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.106901
Received 25 January 2019; Received in revised form 1 May 2019; Accepted 16 May 2019
Available online 5 June 2019
1359-8368/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Bai et al.
the fabric, so this cannot be used to further study yarn deformation,
stick-slip, the load transfer process, or the energy absorption mechanism
of the fabric during the high-speed impact process at the mesoscopic
level.
In view of the limitations of the ballistic penetration test, many
scholars have developed a number of modeling test methods for the
analysis of yarn extraction, shear deformation, stress transfer mecha­
nisms, etc. during penetration. The shear test [11–13] was used to
analyze the shear deformation during the impact of the fabric specimen,
with the biaxial bias extension test [12–14] was used to analyze the
wrinkle behavior of the fabric. The fabric push-out test [15] is used to
analyze the stress transfer mechanism of the primary and secondary
yarns during the impact process.
The yarn pull-out test is used to analyze yarn slippage and extraction
during ballistic penetration. The single yarn pullout test is a model
experiment for the yarn pullout process during a ballistic penetration
test of flexible fabrics. Further, it can be used to characterize the fric­
tional effect of the yarn pullout process. Tapie et al. [16] conducted an
in-plane pullout test and out-of-plane pullout test with finite element
numerical studies on Kevlar plain fabrics. The results showed that the
maximum pullout forces and pullout energies changed linearly with the
transverse pre-tension applied to the fabric. Compared to the
out-of-plane pullout test, the pre-tension had a greater influence on the
in-plane pullout test. Nilakantan et al. [17,18] conducted an experi­
mental study on the mechanical response of Kevlar impact penetration,
which showed that the yarn slippage and pullout process is the main
energy-loss mechanism. In this experiment, greige fabrics showed a
larger pullout load variation than scoured fabrics. Bai et al. [19] con­
ducted an experimental study on the yarn friction sliding and shear
deformation of plain fabric. A digital image correlation method was used
to evaluate the in-plane shear deformation of a fabric sample. The re­
searchers found that the pullout load-displacement curve is mainly
divided into an a static linear friction stage and a dynamic oscillating
friction stage. Zhu et al. [20] established a mathematical model for the
yarn pullout test that divided the entire pullout process into elongated
and slip stages. Teklal et al. [21] presented an overview of various
analytical models developed to study the pullout (push-back) behavior
of a fiber embedded in a matrix block to characterize the fiber/matrix
interfacial adhesion. Two approaches can be distinguished: one based on
a maximum stress criterion (shear lag) and the other based on fracture
mechanics. Bilisik et al. [22] conducted an in-plane pullout test on
Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 129 plain fabrics. The results showed that the yarn
pullout force depended on the weaving density, geometric size, and the
number of yarns pulled out. The weaving density and yarn crimp had a
great influence on the pullout force. Kirkwood et al. [23] conducted
ballistic penetration and yarn pullout experiments on plain weave fab­
rics and compared the experimental results to prove that the yarn
pullout results could be quantitatively related to yarn pullout during
ballistic impact.
Adding nanomaterials to the interface improve friction is a widely
practiced method to enhance fabric mechanical properties. Malakooti
et al. [24] applied ZnO nanowires to aramid fibers to significantly
improve the interfiber yarn friction. It was confirmed that the ZnO
nanowires enhance the impact resistance of the aramid fabric while
enhancing interlaminar friction and limiting yarn slip. Landowski et al.
[25] reported that nano-SiO2 enhanced the performance of carbon
fiber/epoxy composites in low-speed impact tests. It was observed that
nano-SiO2 enhanced the fiber/matrix interface strength and exhibited
less deformation in low-speed impact.
The STF-Kevlar composite material is an important research area for
enhancing the impact resistance of fabrics. STF is a non-Newtonian fluid
composed of a disperse phase and a dispersant in a certain proportion,
and the fluid exhibits a strong nonlinearity between the shear rate and
the viscosity [26,27]. When the shear rate is low, the fluid viscosity also
shows a lower level, but as the shear rate increase and exceeds a
threshold value, the fluid viscosity rapidly increases and becomes
2
Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901
extremely viscous. This typical shear-thickening characteristic is also
widely used in the field of preparation of antiballistic equipment. The
impregnation of flexible fabrics with STF to form STF-Kevlar composite
is an important means for interfacial modification. The design of body
armor should not only consider its energy dissipation capacity but also
reduce the weight of the body armor as much as possible. The use of
STF-Kevlar composite armor can maintain the original stab resistance
when the fabric thickness is reduced by 20% [28]. It can be seen that STF
has a significant effect on the impact resistance of Kevlar fabric, and
does not affect the flexibility of the protective equipment.
In this study, Kevlar 49 plain-woven fabrics were impregnated with
STF with silicon dioxide (SiO2) as the disperse phase and ethylene glycol
(EG) as the dispersant. Yarn pullout tests were conducted to evaluate the
effect of STF on yarn interfacial friction. A new energy absorption
theoretical model is proposed to describe the frictional energy during
the yarn pullout test for better understanding the energy absorption of
soft fabrics.
2. Material preparation
2.1. Geometry of fabrics
Kevlar 49 plain-woven fabric produced by DuPont Company was
used in this study. The material properties are listed in Table 1.
A schematic of the geometric structure of the Kevlar 49 plain-woven
fabric used in this study is shown in Fig. 1(a). It can be seen that the plain
fabric is a cross-weaving of warps and wefts. A dotted square containing
2 � 2 warps and wefts is referred to as a “cell” of the plain-woven
structure, so the entire fabric can be regarded as an endless array of
numerous cells. A dotted rectangle including one warp and two wefts is
defined as a “wave”, which is a complete weaving cycle of the warp, as
shown in Fig. 1(b). Therefore, a “half wave” represents a warp/weft
intersection. Similarly, the weft trajectory with cross warps is shown in
Fig. 1(c).
In this study, the cross section of the weft is narrower and thicker,
and the cross section of the warp is wider and thinner. This indicates that
the warp yarn has a higher degree of crimp than the weft because of the
different forces exerted by the weaving machine on the warp and weft
yarns. Therefore, the gap between the wefts is wider than the one be­
tween the warps. Here, Wa and Wb represent the weft width and the
warp width. Ga and Gb represent the weft gap and the warp gap, and Ta
and Tb represent the weft and warp thicknesses, respectively, their
values being as listed in Table 2.
2.2. Rheology of STF
The STF used in this study was prepared by the planetary ball milling
method based on SiO2 as the disperse phase and EG as the dispersant
according to the specific mass fractions of 62, 65, and 70 wt%. The
average particle size of SiO2 used in the STF was 1 μm. The material
properties of the STF-impregnated fabric are also listed in Table 1.
The density data of the STF-impregnated fabric are given in Table 1.
The surface density ranges from 1.75 to 1.89 g/cm2 depending on the
STF mass fraction. Compared with the surface density of the neat fabric
of 1.44 g/cm2, the mass gain of the STF-impregnated fabric is between
21.5 and 31.3%.
The rheological viscosity curve of the prepared STFs used in this
study is measured with a rheometer (Physica MCR301, Anton Paar
Company), which consists of a base plate and a conical rotor, as shown
in Fig. 2(a). In the experiment, the diameter of the conical rotor is
R ¼ 25 mm and the taper angle is θ ¼ 2 rad. The relationship between the
shear rate r’ and the circular frequency ω is
ω
r’ ¼ (1)
tan θ
A force sensor is used to measure the torque at different circular
R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

Table 1
Material properties of Kevlar 49 Neat fabric and STF-impregnated fabric [29].
Fabric Dtex Density ρ (g/cm2) Number of fibers N Fiber diameter D (μm)

Neat 1580 1.44 1000 12

STF-impregnated 2560–2934 1.75–1.89 1000 12

Fig. 1. (a) Geometry structure of Kevlar 49 plain woven fabric, (b) warp trajectory with cross wefts, and (c) weft trajectory with cross warps.

pullout process, it is considered that the spacing between the two plates
Table 2
in Fig. 2(b) is equal to the cross-sectional thickness of the STF-
Dimensions of Kevlar 49 neat fabric and STF-impregnated fabric (Unit: mm).
impregnated fabric [Fig. 1(b)], namely
Neat fabric Weft Wa ¼ 1.0 Ga ¼ 0.1 Ta ¼ 0.23
Warp Wb ¼ 1.1 Gb ¼ 0.05 Tb ¼ 0.24 dr ¼ Ta þ Tb (3)
STF-impregnated Weft Wa ¼ 1.0 Ga ¼ 0.1 Ta ¼ 0.20
Warp Wb ¼ 1.2 Gb ¼ 0.0 Tb ¼ 0.20 According to the data in Table 2, combined with Eq. (2) and Eq. (3),
at the yarn pullout speed of 100 mm/min, the shear rate is approxi­
mately r’100 ¼ dv/(Ta þ Tb) ¼ 100 mm/60 s/0.4 mm ¼ 4.16 s 1.
frequencies ω and then converted into the viscosity. Finally, the shear
rate and viscosity curves are obtained as shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen
that the viscosity of the STF first decreases, and then increases with an
increase of shear rate. This indicates that the STF undergoes shear-
thinning and then a shear thickening phenomenon. In particular, as
the shear rate increases beyond a threshold value, the viscosity of the
STF suddenly increases, and the STF becomes extremely viscous and
solid-like. The process is well known as the shear-thickening phenom­
enon. The threshold values for STF with different SiO2 mass fractions of
62, 65 and 70 wt% are 46.4, 28.9, and 18 s 1, respectively.
In this study, the yarn pullout speed can be converted into the shear
rate in the single yarn pullout test for the STF-impregnated fabric.
Suppose that a pair of parallel plates with the spacing of dr is filled with
viscous fluid and the base plate is fixed, as shown in Fig. 2(b).
When the upper plate is subjected to a force and has a moving speed
of dv, the fluid of each layer also moves accordingly with a velocity
gradient dv/dr, so that the force is transferred layer by layer due to the
viscosity of the fluid. The shear rate r’ is defined as
r’ ¼ dv=dr (2)
Due to the complex contact and slip action during the single yarn Fig. 3. Rheological curve of the prepared STFs.

Fig. 2. (a) Testing principle of STF rheological performance and (b) schematic of shear rate of viscous liquids between plates.

3
R. Bai et al.
Similarly, the STF shear rate at the yarn pullout speed of 500 mm/min
and 1000 mm/min can be determined, respectively, as listed in Table 3.
At the same time, the corresponding shear rate at three yarn pullout
speeds is marked in the STF rheological test curve, as shown in Fig. 3.
The viscosity at the corresponding pullout speed is also listed in Table 3.
It can be seen from Table 3 that the shear rate increases with the yarn
pullout speed, and at the same shear rate, the STF viscosity is positively
correlated with the concentration of STF.
In particular, for STF with the same mass fraction, its viscosity de­
creases first and then increases with the shear rate. For example,
compared with the pullout speed of 100 mm/min, the viscosity of the
three mass fractions of STFs is correspondingly reduced at the yarn
pullout speed of 500 mm/min, indicating that all three STFs are in the
shear thinning stage. For the yarn pullout speed of 1000 mm/min, the
three mass fractions of STFs are in the shear thickening stage, where the
shear rate is close to the threshold value (46.4 s 1) for 62 wt% STF and
higher than the threshold values (28.9 and 18 s 1) for 65 wt% and 70 wt
% STFs, respectively.
2.3. Preparation of STF- impregnated fabrics
In this study, the fabric was impregnated in the STF diluted with
absolute ethanol, and was ultrasonically oscillated for more than 5 min
to increase the dispersion of SiO2 particles. Then, the fabric was taken
out and hung in a drying oven (DZF-6050, Shanghai Yi Heng Scientific
Instrument Co., Ltd.) for 5 min at 65 � C. The STF-impregnated fabric was
ready after the alcohol was completely volatilized. A scanning electron
microscope (SEM) (Quanta™, FEI Corporation) was used to observe the
Kevlar 49 neat fabric and the prepared STF-impregnated fabric, as
shown in Fig. 4.
Smooth surface and clean fibers were observed as shown in Fig. 4(a).
Only a small amount of dust particles attached to the neat fabric [Fig. 4
(b)]. According to the results of Nilakantan et al. [17], the scoured fabric
exhibits a lower level of inter-yarn friction compared to the greige
fabrics, and the yarn pullout ultimate load is lower in the yarn pullout
test. By comparison, a rough fiber surface [Fig. 4(c)] is observed in the
STF-impregnated fabric and is tightly attached with a layer of STF, as
shown in Fig. 4(d). An ultrasonic oscillator was applied to the fabric
during the STF impregnation process, the fibers were filled with the STF,
the yarns became looser, the yarn width increased, and the gap between
the yarns decreased.
3. Experiments
3.1. Yarn pullout test
The basic principle of the single yarn pullout test used in this study is
shown in Fig. 5. The fabric sample was clamped by a fixture without a
transverse preload. A free end of single yarn in the middle of the fabric
was left for gripping and pulling out by a test machine (Instron 3345) to
realize the yarn pullout process. In order to consider the effect of the
loading rate, three pullout speeds of 100, 500, and 1000 mm/min were
selected for the experiment.
Photos of the yarn pullout test before and after tension are shown in
Fig. 5(a) and (b). The fabric dimension used in the experiment was 65
waves (130 warp/weft intersections) in the direction of the warp and
weft. The 1st wave was at end of the pulled yarn, and the 65th wave was
Table 3
Viscosity of STF at three yarn pullout speeds.
1 4.2. Theoretical model for energy absorption
Pullout speed Shear rate (s ) Viscosity (pa⋅s)
62 wt % 65 wt % 70 wt %
100 mm/min 4.16 0.625 1.22 5.53
500 mm/min 20.83 0.513 0.875 3.52
1000 mm/min 41.67 0.441 1.97 308
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Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901
located on the pulled yarn entry, as shown in Fig. 5(a). The yarn pullout
test is an idealized quasi-static loading procedure to model the yarn
ejection phenomenon of the impacted fabric in a ballistic penetration
experiment. It can study the shear deformation behavior of the fabric,
and also analyze the crimp elongation, stick-slip phenomena, and energy
absorption mechanism when the yarn is pulled out.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Load-displacement curve
The load-displacement curves for the neat fabric and the 70 wt%
STF-impregnated fabric at 100 mm/min pulling speed are shown in
Fig. 6.
For the neat fabric [Fig. 6(a)], the load-displacement curve has two
stages: linear static friction and oscillating dynamic friction. After a rigid
displacement of the fabric, the linear static friction stage reflects an
uncrimping extension of the pulled yarn, and the load approximately
linearly increased with the displacement, until it reached an ultimate
value. In the oscillating dynamic friction stage, as shown in Fig. 6(b), the
load gradually decreases because the wave number of the pulled yarn in
the fabric decreases. When the pulled yarn slips through two in­
tersections it is a “slip in-out” process, corresponding to the production
of a load wave, shown as a dashed rectangle in Fig. 6(b).
For the 70 wt% STF-impregnated fabric [Fig. 6(c)], the load-
displacement curve has the same overall tendency, but there are some
differences. The pullout load of the STF-impregnated fabric is obviously
higher than that of the neat fabric, and the ultimate load is approxi­
mately seven times higher than that of the neat fabric. This indicates that
the addition of STF apparently increases the friction between yarns,
resulting in a large increase in the ultimate load. It can be seen from
Fig. 6(d) that there are nearly three consecutive peaks after static
friction.
For three different pulling speeds of 100, 500, and 1000 mm/min,
the load-displacement curves for the neat fabric are shown in Fig. 7(a).
Similarly, for STF-impregnated fabrics with 70 wt% mass fraction at
pulling speeds of 100, 500, and 1000 mm/min, the load-displacement
curves are shown in Fig. 7(b), respectively. The ultimate load for the
neat fabrics and the three mass fractions (62, 65 and 70 wt%) STF-
impregnated fabrics at the three pulling speeds are listed in Table 4.
According to the degree of change in the ultimate load, the effect of the
mass fraction of STF and the yarn pulling speed on the friction between
yarns is analyzed.
For the neat fabric at different pulling speeds [Fig. 7(a)], the linear
static friction stages of the load-displacement curves are very similar.
The ultimate load changes slightly within 0.5 N (see Table 4) at pulling
speeds of 100 mm/min to 1000 mm/min.
For the STF-impregnated fabrics with 70 wt% mass fraction at
different pulling speeds [Fig. 7(b)], the ultimate load of the STF-
impregnated fabric is considerably higher than that of the neat fabric,
indicating that the impregnation of the fabric by the STF can signifi­
cantly increase the friction between yarns. The yarn-pulling process will
consume more energy, which helps to increase the impact resistance of
the flexible fabric. Moreover, it is clear that the load-displacement
curves are related to the pulling speed. In the 70 wt% STF-
impregnated fabric, the ultimate load increases from 55.194 N to
74.198 N when the pulling speed increases from 100 mm/min to
1000 mm/min, as shown in Table 4. This phenomenon is related to the
relationship between the viscosity and the shear rate of the STF (Fig. 3).
For a ballistic penetration test of the fabric, the impact energy (E)
dissipation is divided into the following types:
E ¼ Esp þ Ekp þ Ess þ Eks þ Ef (4)
R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

Fig. 4. SEM images of Kevlar 49 plain fabric, neat fabric at a magnification of (a) 50 � and (b) 1500 � , STF-impregnated fabric at a magnification of (c) 50 � and
(d) 1500 � .

Fig. 5. Photos of yarn pullout test (a) before tension; and (b) after tension.

where Esp and Ekp are the strain energy and the kinetic energy of the
primary yarns, respectively, while Ess and Eks are the strain energy and
the kinetic energy for the secondary yarns. Ef is the frictional energy of
the primary yarns and secondary yarn.
The kinetic energy of the bullet dissipated by the fabric travels
mainly in the direction of the primary yarns that make contact with the
bullet, and the secondary yarns dissipate a small amount of energy [3].
Therefore, it is important to discuss the mechanism of energy absorp­
tion. Unfortunately, the dynamic impact process occurs instantaneously
in a ballistic penetration test, so the energies in Eq. (4) are difficult to
separate in detail. By contrast, this is possible for the yarn pullout test,
which is of great significance for the impact resistance of the fabric.
For a yarn pullout test, the drawing load F is mainly transmitted
along the pulled yarn, as shown in Fig. 8 (a), and is subjected to a friction
force f at the contact surface. By contrast, the load transmitted from the
pulled yarn to the secondary yarns by the friction force is small, and the
energy consumption of the secondary yarns (Ess and Eks) is neglected in
this study. At the same time, the yarn pullout test is a quasi-static test
and the pullout speed is small, so the pulled yarn kinetic energy (Ekp) is
also negligible. The energy dissipation (Ep) for the yarn pullout test can

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R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

Fig. 6. Load-displacement typical curve of (a) neat fabric and (b) local enlargement of stick-slip region, (c) 70 wt % STF-impregnated fabric, and (d) local
enlargement of stick-slip region at 100 mm/min pulling speed.

Fig. 7. Load-displacement curves of (a) neat fabric and (b) 70 wt% STF-impregnated fabric at three pullout speeds.

be simplified from Eq. (4) as

Table 4
Ultimate load of yarn pullout test. Ep ¼ Esp þ Efp (5)
Fabric Ultimate load (N)
where Efp is the friction energy consumed by the yarn pulled out of the
100 mm/min 500 mm/min 1000 mm/min
fabric, and Esp is the strain energy of the pulled yarn.
Neat 8.827 8.730 9.192 During the static friction stage, the yarn does not slip in the fabric, so
62% STF 57.295 57.439 63.795 the external force work is completely converted into the strain energy
65% STF 62.983 55.672 66.829
70% STF 68.604 55.194 74.198
(Esp1) for the tension of the yarn. During the dynamic friction stage, the
yarn starts to pull out of the fabric. Owing to the friction between the
yarns and the tension of the yarn, the external force work is mainly
converted into the friction internal energy (Efp) and the yarn strain

6
R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

Fig. 8. Mechanical analysis of pulled yarn: (a) force balance in yarn, (b) stress balance in typical intersection and yarn axial stress distribution along yarn, (c)
simplified bilinear model of load-displacement curve, and (d) frictional shear stress model of intersection, where S1 is static friction stage and S2 is dynamic fric­
tion stage.

energy (Esp2). Thus, Eq. (5) can be rewritten as intersection. According to the axiom that the static friction force is larger
than the dynamic friction force, it is assumed that the frictional shear
Ep ¼ Esp1 þ Esp2 þ Efp (6)
stress at the interface in static friction stage S1 and dynamic friction
In the following part, the energies of the yarn pullout test in Eq. (6) stage S2 are τ1 and τ2, respectively.
are formulated in detail. As shown in Fig. 8(d), in the frictional shear stress model of the
According to the force balance of the pulled yarn [Fig. 8(a)], both in intersection, τ1 increases linearly and reaches the maximum τmax when
the static friction stage and in the dynamic friction stage, the yarn the load reaches its maximum Fmax at the end of the static friction stage,
pullout load F can be simplified as a sum of the friction force fi for all n which indicates an adhesion function on the contact interface. In addi­
warp/weft intersections along the yarn, namely, tion, τ2 remains constant in the dynamic friction stage, and τ2 < τ1,
which is the sliding effect on the interface. These frictional shear stresses
X
n
F¼ fi : (7) satisfy the following definitions:
i¼1 8
<
In this study, it is assumed that the friction force at each intersection S1 : τ1 ¼ τs þ τsr ¼ K1 S
; (11)
is the same during the entire pullout stage, i.e., fi ¼ f. The above equation : S2 : τ2 ¼ τk þ τkr
is simplified as
where K1 is the slope of the shear stress change during the static friction
F ¼ nf : (8)
stage with a unit of MPa/mm, S is the static friction displacement within
Therefore, the external force and the total friction force have the the range [0, S1], and when the displacement S equals to S1, there is
same change history, as shown in Fig. 8(c), which illustrates a force- τ1 ¼ τ1,max ¼ K1S1, as shown in Fig. 8(d). In Eq. (11), the effect of natural
displacement (F–S) bilinear model. The F–S curve in the entire yarn surface roughness of the fabric on the shear stress τs and τk is considered
pullout displacement is divided into the static friction stage S1 and a to be unchanged during yarn pullout process and is not affected by the
dynamic friction stage S2. When the static friction stage ends, the STF impregnation. Besides, the influence of STF damping effect on load
maximum pullout load Fmax is reached, and then the load gradually transfer between impregnated yarns is also considered, namely, the
decreases to zero in the dynamic friction stage. shear stresses caused by STF damping effect are τsr at the static friction
A typical stress element for an intersection is extracted from a force stage and τkr at the dynamic friction stage, respectively.
balance analysis of the yarn, as shown in Fig. 8(b), which satisfies a In both the static and dynamic friction stages, the yarn axial stress is
stress equilibrium condition as linearly distributed and reaches the maximum at pulled end of the yarn,
as shown in Fig. 8(b). Considering the joint effect of yarn interfacial
Adσ ¼ Cτdx (9)
friction and STF damping effect, combining Eq. (9) with Eq. (11), the
yarn axial stresses are expressed as
where σ is the yarn axial stress, τ is the frictional shear stress on the
8
contact interface in the intersection, A is the cross-sectional area of the >
> τ1 C ðτs þ τsr ÞC
yarn, and C is the cross-sectional contact arc length. dx is the contact >
>
>
< S1 : σs ðxÞ ¼ x¼ x¼
K1 SC
x
length of the intersection in the direction of the yarn. The origin of the x A A A
; (12)
axis is in the yarn end. In addition, the frictional force f at the inter­ >
>
>
> S2 : σk ðxÞ ¼
τ2 C
x¼
ðτk þ τkr ÞC
x
>
section is written as the frictional shear stress in the form of : A A

f ¼ τCWa : (10)
where x is the contact length [Fig. 8(a)]. For the n warp/weft in­
where Wa is the weft width, which equals the contact length of the tersections, considering the axial stress as a constant σi at the ith

7
R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

intersection (corresponding to the contact distance x ¼ iWa and the 8

intersection order i ¼ 1, 2, 3, …, n), at the static friction and the dynamic <
S1 : Fs ¼ Aσns ¼ nAWa Qs ¼ nCWa τ1 ¼ nCWa K1 S
: (19)
friction transition moment (i.e., S ¼ S1), Eq. (12) can be rewritten in a : S2 : Fk ¼ Aσ ik ¼ iAWa Qk ¼ iCWa τ2
discrete form as
8 In particular, at the static friction and the dynamic friction transition
<
S1 : σis ¼ iQs Wa moment (i.e., S ¼ S1 and i ¼ n), the external load reaches the maximum,
; (13)
: S2 : σik ¼ iQk Wa namely,
8
<
C S1 : Fs;max ¼ nCWa τ1;max ¼ nCWa ðτs þ τsr Þ ¼ nCWa K1 S1
where Qs ¼ 1;max and Qk ¼ τ2AC are the static and dynamic friction (20)
τ
A :
: S2 : Fk;max ¼ nCWa τ2 ¼ nCWa ðτk þ τkr Þ
interface stiffness coefficients with units of MPa/mm, respectively.
In the static friction stage, the pulled yarn does not slip in the fabric,
The load corresponding to the peak of the first pullout wave load and
so it is assumed that the external force work is almost completely
the peak of the second wave load of the load-displacement curve in Fig. 7
transformed into the strain energy of the pulled yarn. The stress change
is extracted, and list in Table 4. It is defined as the limit load of the static
of each intersection is in accord with the linear Hooke’s law. Therefore,
friction stage and dynamic friction stage, i.e., Fs,max and Fk,max, respec­
the strain energy Esp1 for the pulled yarn in the static friction stage is
tively. Therefore, the frictional shear stresses τ1,max and τ2 can be
written in a discrete form with the intersection order as
calculated by Eq. (20), and then the corresponding shear stresses (τs and
X
n
σ2 τk) and the shear stiffness coefficient K1 are obtained as listed Table 5.
Esp1 ¼ Wa A is
: (14) For the neat fabric, it is noted from Table 5 that there is no STF
2E
damping effect, namely, the shear stresses related to the STF damping
i¼1

Substituting Eq. (13) into Eq. (14), the strain energy in the static effect are τsr ¼ 0 and τkr ¼ 0. This reveals that the interfacial parameters
friction stage is rewritten as are mainly controlled by the surface roughness of the neat fabric and
does not change obviously with the increase of pullout speed.
AW 3a Q2s Xn
nðn þ 1Þð2n þ 1ÞAW 3a 2
Esp1 ¼ i2 ¼ Qs : (15) For the STF-impregnated fabric in Table 5, as mentioned before, the
2E 12E
i¼1 shear stresses of τs and τk represent only the effect of natural surface
Similarly, the strain energy Esp2 corresponding to the dynamic fric­ roughness and are considered to be same to that of the neat fabric. More
tion stage is importantly, the STF damping effect can not be ignored for the STF-
impregnated fabric and is reflected by the shear stresses of τsr and τkr,
AW 3a Q2k Xn
nðn þ 1Þð2n þ 1ÞAW 3a 2 which can be obtained by subtracting the corresponding shear stresses of
Esp2 ¼ i2 ¼ Qk : (16)
2E i¼1
12E τs and τk (the effect of natural surface roughness). It can be seen that the
shear stresses of τsr and τkr caused by STF damping effect are signifi­
At the same time, in the dynamic friction stage, the yarn is gradually
cantly higher than the shear stresses of τs and τk related by the effect of
pulled out of the fabric, and the drawing load gradually decreases lin­
natural surface roughness, and are obviously affected by the yarn pull­
early [Fig. 8(c)]. Yarn slip occurs, and the sliding frictional energy
out speed and STF mass fraction.
consumption Efp can be expressed as
1 1
Efp ¼ nfS2 ¼ nCWa S2 τ2 : (17) 4.4. STF damping effect
2 2
In the yarn pull-out test conducted by Gyurgen et al. [30,31],
where S2 is the displacement of the dynamic friction stage, which can be
impregnated fabrics have higher yarn pull-out load at higher yarn
obtained from the force-displacement curve in the experiment. There­
pullout speed, which indicates that the shear thickening effect of STF has
fore, the energy loss in the dynamic friction stage can be obtained as the
a significant effect on the interfacial friction between yarns at higher
sum of the strain energy Esp2 and the frictional energy consumption Efp.
yarn pullout speed. Na et al. [32] conducted uniaxial tension,
The cross-sectional contact arc length (C) is regarded as the half-
bias-extension and picture-frame tests and observed the obvious loading
perimeter of the cross-sectional ellipse. The cross-sectional area of the
rate dependence of STF-impregnated fabrics. Khodadadi et al. [33]
yarn (A) can be calculated as
performed yarn pull-out and impact tests on various mass fractions STF
8
> h ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi i impregnated fabrics and found that the impregnated fabric exhibited
> C � π 3ðW þ H Þ pffið3W
>
< b b b þ Hb ÞðWb þ 3Hb Þ
4 : (18)
>
> 2
� Table 5
> A ¼ N πD 4
: Interface parameters of the neat fabric and STF-impregnated fabric at three
pullout speeds considering the joint effect of interface friction and STF damping
effect.
where D is the fiber diameter, and N the number of single fibers in a
single yarn. Combining Tables 1 and 2, the cross-sectional contact arc Fabric Pullout speed Static friction stage Dynamic friction
(mm/min) stage
length is C ¼ 1.16 mm, and the cross-sectional area is A ¼ 0.113 mm2.
K1 (kPa/ τs τsr τk τkr
4.3. Interfacial friction stiffness coefficient mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Neat 100 4.8 0.058 0 0.054 0

In order to determine the yarn strain energy and interfacial friction 500 4.75 0.057 0 0.053 0
1000 5.0 0.060 0 0.057 0
energy consumption in the static friction stage and the dynamic friction
62% 100 17.2 0.058 0.285 0.054 0.327
stage, the key parameters Qs, Qk and τk in Eqs. 15 and 16, and Eq. (17) STF 500 17.6 0.057 0.295 0.053 0.329
need to be inverted. According to the yarn axial stress [Eq. (12)], at the 1000 21.0 0.060 0.358 0.057 0.355
static friction stage and the dynamic friction stage, the relationships 65% 100 17.8 0.058 0.298 0.054 0.365
between the external load, axial yarn stress, and frictional shear stress STF 500 18.2 0.057 0.306 0.053 0.318
1000 21.9 0.060 0.377 0.057 0.388
are reduced to 70% 100 20.5 0.058 0.352 0.054 0.403
STF 500 16.8 0.057 0.278 0.053 0.314
1000 23.0 0.060 0.415 0.057 0.437

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R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

different friction properties under static load and impact force. In addition, the yarn strain energy (Esp1 and Esp2) can still be
It can be seen from Table 5 that the shear stresses of τsr and τkr caused neglected for the interfacial friction energy dissipation (Efp). Therefore,
by STF damping effect have the dependence of pullout speed. With the the strain energies of Eqs. (15) and (16) are ignored. The external force
increase of yarn pullout speed, the higher the shear thickening degree of work E for the yarn pullout test is approximately consumed by the
STF, the larger the damping, and the stronger the contact friction be­ frictional energy, so Eq. (4) can be finally simplified as
tween yarns, that is, the larger the τsr and τkr. Taking τkr as an example,
E � Efp (23)
the damping behavior of STF can be expressed as
Due to the increase of interfacial shear stress τkr caused by STF
τkr ¼ Gγ ¼ G’ð1 þ itan δÞγ; (21)
damping effect, this is the main reason that in the friction energy Efp of
where G is the shear modulus, γ is the shear strain, G0 is the storage the STF-impregnated fabric is greatly increased compared to that of neat
modulus, and tanδ is the shear damping rate. fabric. More importantly, the above deduction process involves the
Neagu et al. [34] established a micromechanical model to predict the mechanisms of load transfer and energy dissipation in the yarn pullout
damping parameters of fiber-STF-matrix composites interfaces. It was test. It is possible that the friction energy consumption of yarn pullout
found that STF significantly improved on the interfacial damping pa­ process in the ballistic penetration test can be independently and
rameters, showing dependence on external loading frequency and quantitatively studied.
amplitude. Furthermore, the relationship between the STF critical shear
strain γc and frequency ω is obtained by dynamic mechanical analysis
4.6. Friction energy absorption
(DMA). For the yarn pullout test in this study, the corresponding critical
shear strain at the three pullout speeds can be obtained in the range of
The energy absorption at the dynamic friction stage is discussed in
0.5–1, where the average is taken as γ ¼ 0.75.
this section. The area under the yarn load-displacement curve in Fig. 7 is
At the same time, Neagu et al. [34] measured the relationship be­
regarded as the total work E done by the external load, which equals the
tween storage modulus, shear damping ratio and frequency by DMA
friction energy Efp. Therefore, the friction energy consumption Efp,i for
experiment, and gave an average shear modulus of G ¼ 0.37 (1 þ i0.04)
the pulled intersections at the dynamic friction stage can be obtained as
MPa. The average shear strain γ and the average shear modulus G are
shown in Fig. 9. This can be regarded as the friction energy Efp [corre­
substituted into Eq. (21) to estimate the shear stress τkr approximately
sponding to the F–S2 triangle area in Fig. 8(c)] in a discrete form of (n - 1)
equal to
trapezoid areas and a triangle area as
τkr ¼ Gγ � 0:3MPa (22) � �
1 S2
Efp;i ¼ i f ; i ¼ n; …; 2; 1: (24)
The above results of τsr and τkr are of the same order of magnitude as 2 n
those obtained in Table 5. It can be concluded that the STF damping
Therefore, the sum of Efp,i equals the total friction energy Efp [Eq.
effect has a shear thickening function on the interfacial friction
(17)].
performance.
For the neat fabric [Fig. 9(a)], the dynamic friction energy has a
decreasing trend with the wave number, which is nearly unaffected by
4.5. wt of all energy absorption mechanism the pullout speeds. For the 70 wt% STF-impregnated fabric [Fig. 9(b)],
there is a similar decreasing trend in the dynamic friction energy, but
For the experiment in this study (Fig. 5), the number of warp/weft this is clearly related to the pullout speed. A wave contains two in­
intersections is n ¼ 65 � 2 ¼ 130, the contact length is Wa ¼ 1.012 mm, tersections [Fig. 1(a)], the initial friction energy of first intersection is
and the displacement in the dynamic friction stage is Sk ¼ 188 mm (neat the half of the first wave pullout energy, extracted the initial friction
fabric) and 180 mm (STF-impregnated fabric). The average elastic energy of neat fabric and STF-impregnated fabric with three mass
modulus of single yarn is approximately E ¼ 51 GPa [15]. Considering fractions and listed in Table 7.
the joint effect of yarn interfacial friction and STF damping effect, the It can be seen that the initial friction energy of the neat fabric is only
interface parameters of Table 5, the yarn strain energy (Esp1 and Esp2) approximately 11 mJ at the three pullout speeds. However, the initial
and the frictional energy consumption (Efp) of the neat fabric and friction energy of the STF-impregnated fabric is significantly enhanced
STF-impregnated fabrics in the yarn pullout test can be obtained by Eqs. to above 48 mJ, which has a significant correlation with the mass frac­
(15)–(17), and list in Table 6. tion and the pullout speed.
From the data of Table 6, the conclusion can be drawn: considering For example, for the STF mass fraction of 65 wt%, the initial friction
the influence of yarn surface roughness and STF damping effect, the energy of the STF-impregnated fabric first decreases from 67.37 mJ at
strain energy and friction energy consumption obviously correlate to the 100 mm/min to 49.72 mJ at 500 mm/min, and then increases to
STF mass fraction and the pullout speed. 92.19 mJ at 1000 mm/min. This trend is the same as those of the other
STF mass fractions.
Table 6
Strain energy and frictional energy consumption of the neat fabric and STF- 5. Conclusions
impregnated fabric at three pullout speeds (Unit: mJ).
Fabric Pullout speed (mm/min) Esp1 Esp2 Efp Yarn pullout tests were performed on neat and STF-impregnated
fabrics. These tests indicated that the load-displacement curve of the
Neat 100 0.349 0.303 774
500 0.338 0.292 760
neat and STF-impregnated fabrics presented the same trend, and were
1000 0.374 0.338 817 divided into two stages: static friction and dynamic friction. Unlike the
62% STF 100 12.232 15.092 5232 static friction stage, in which the neat fabric’s ultimate pullout load
500 12.880 15.170 5246 occurred, the maximum pullout load of the STF-impregnated fabric
1000 18.168 17.655 5658
appeared in the dynamic friction stage, and was significantly larger than
65% STF 100 13.181 18.252 5754
500 13.698 14.308 5095 that of the neat fabric.
1000 19.856 20.589 6112 The proposed energy absorption model of yarn pull-out test reveals
70.% STF 100 17.480 21.713 6276 that the work done by external force can be equivalent to the interfacial
500 11.669 14.001 5040 friction energy. The energy absorption capacity of STF-impregnated
1000 22.197 25.373 6785
fabric is much greater than that of neat fabric, and is obviously

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R. Bai et al. Composites Part B 174 (2019) 106901

Fig. 9. Friction energy vs. wave number curves at different pullout speeds for (a) neat fabric and (b) STF-impregnated fabric with 70 wt % STF.

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