BEING LOGICAL: The Language of Logic Part I

statements
A statement is an expression in language that you can say is either true or false. Value statements are subjective opinion and should not be treated as objective fact. (Both in other's arguments and your own). A categorical statement tells us that something is definitely the case. They communicate certain knowledge (even if they are sometimes false).

The First Principles of Logic

1. The Principle of Identity 2. The Principle of the Excluded Middle 3. The Principle of sufficient Reason 4. The Principle of Contradiction Called first principles because they are self-evident. They cannot be proven. Otherwise they wouldn't be first.

Efficient Cause an agent whose activity brings something into existence or modifies its existence. -something that causes or changes something else Final Cause the purpose of the activity Material Cause material out of which an object is composed Formal Cause the identifying nature of a thing -How you describe it Example: a garden Not everything has all four causes

Types of Causes

Generalizing
All cats are mammals. - A universal statement uses every, all, or no Most cats have claws. -A particular statement uses some, most, only refers to part of a group

Deductive Arguments go from general to particular -All cats are mammals. Hello Kitty is a cat. Therefore, Hello Kitty is a mammal. Inductive Arguments go from particular to general -Hello Kitty has pointed ears. A lot of other cats have pointed ears. Therefore, it is likely that all cats have pointed ears. Inductive arguments are not as certain as deductive arguments They are guided by hypotheses -Then we gather evidence and find patterns

Inductive Argument

Founding an Argument
Arguments are composed of statements Premise starting point, support -Indicators: because, since, on account of, etc. Conclusion true because of premise(s) -Indicators: therefore, thus, so, etc. Note: A single conclusion is always best Example: Because it is raining outside, I have an umbrella.

Statements relate one idea to another, they are basically comparisons If the comparison in a statement reflects a real relationship in objective reality then it is a true statement If we don't connect ideas through making comparisons, they aren't very useful Number and significance are both important Analogies and comparisons Historical event example

Comparisons

Clear Communication
Don't assume your audience understands your meaning -When in doubt, spell it out! :-) Know your audience Don't treat value statements as if they were fact -If you want a value statement to be accepted, you must argue it. Avoid vague and ambiguous language -The more general a word is, the more vague it is -When terms are very meaningful, they can be vague -Two people can use the same word and mean different things

Define your terms! -step one: What group does the word belong to? -step two: Identify its difference from that group Be careful with negative statements No cats are dogs vs. all cats are not dogs -not all or not every does not equal none Some cats are black vs. some cats are not black -These say the same thing, but the affirmative is better In a logical argument, it is better to avoid negative statements

Clear Communication

Are the premises true? -How good is the evidence? -Are there rival causes? -Are the statistics deceptive? -What significant information is omitted? Are they relevant? -Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? Is the argument logically true? -Does it have logical structure? Is it ontologically true? -Does it reflect reality?

Assessing Arguments