REFL ECTI O NS

O N T HE

MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT;

FR OM THE ORI G INA L FRENCH OF

N .
-
L S .
-
.
Q A RNO T,

Gradua t e of t h e P o l y t ec h n i c S chool .

ACC O M P ANI E D BY

N
A N A CCO U T OF CA RNOT S T HE O RY
’
.

BY S I R W IL L IAM THO M S O N ( LO RD K E L VI N) .

E DIT ED BY

R . H . THURS TO N, M A O
,
LL D . .
,
D R ENG G ;
.
’

D ir e c t o r f S ib l e y Co l l eg e Corn e l l Un iv er si t y ;
O ,

de l I n st r u c t i on P u b l iq u e de Fr ance ”
’
Oflicier ,

e tc .
, e tc .
, etc .

FI R S T T H O U S A ND .

NEW YO RK
JO HN WI L E Y S O NS .

LOND O N : C HA M A N P HA LL , L I M ITED .

1897 .
O B ERT D RUM M O ND
R ,
 D E D I C A T E D
TO
5 am Carnot ,
PRESI DE TN O F T HE FRENC H REPUBLIC ,
T HAT DIST I NGU IS HE D M E M BE R OF T HE PR OFE SSI O N OF ENGI NEE R IN G
W H O S E W H O LE L I F E HAS B E EN AN H O NO R To H I S
PR OFE SSI O N AN D T o H I S CO UNT RY ;

W HO ELEVA TE D TO T H E H IG H ES T OFF I CE W I TH I N T HE GI FT O F T H E
r

A ND ,

FRENC H NATIO N,
H AS P R OV EN BY TH E Q U I ET DIG NITY AN D T HE E FF IC I ENC Y W ITH W H I CH
H E H AS P E RFO RM E D H I S A U G U S T D UT I E S THAT H E IS
A W O RTH Y M E M B E R O F A N O B LE FAMI LY
A LREAD Y REND E R E D FAM O U S BY AN EARL I E R S A DI CA RNO T
,

NOW IMM O R TAL I N T HE A NN A L S OF SC I E NCE ,

A ND IS H IMS ELF D ES E RV I N G O F EN R O L M ENT I N A L IS T O F GR EAT M EN

WH I CH I NCL UD E S TH A T O THE R DIS T I N G U IS HE D EN GI NEE R

,

O UR O WN FIRST P R E SID E NT ,

G E O RG E W A S H I NG T O N .
 CONTENTS .

P AG E
T HE W O RK OF N L S AD I
.
- .
-
C AR N O T . By the Editor, 1

II .

T HE L IF E OF N L S A D I C A R N OT
. .
-
. By M ons . H
.

Car not,

III .

RE F L EC TIO N S ON T HE M O TI VE PO W E R OF HEA T
A ND O N M A C H I N E S FITT ED TO D EV EL O P T HA T
PO WE R . By M o ns N L Sadi Car not. .
-
.
-
,

ACCO UN T OF C A RNO T
’
S T H EO R Y . By S ir Wil liam
Thom son ( L or d K el v in) ,

A PPEND I X .

EXT R AC T S F R O M UN P UB L I S HED
CA R N O T ,

CA R NO T
’

S FO OT -
N O TES ,

NOTE B Y T HE ED ITO R ,
 PU BL I S HE RS NO T E
’
.

T HE r ais on d étr e of t h e
’ ’

following tran slation Of

t he fa m ou s work o f C arnot is n ot t he u su al o ne ,

e i th e r with t he Publi sh e r s or t h e Ed itor — e x e c

p
t at ion Of gain i n e ith e r pur se or fa m e Ne i th e r .

could r eason ably b e anticip at e d fro m t he re produc

tion Of t he work of an author of m or e than a h alf
c entury ago in a fi e l d th en unr e cogni z e d an d
, ,

to d ay fam iliar t o but few ; and esp e c i ally wh en ,

as is in this c ase t h e fact t h e work it se lf has b e e n

,

long out of d at e as a sci ent i fic authority e v en had ,

it e v e r h e ld such a po sit i on It coul d not b e p re

.

su m e d that a v e ry l arg e proport i on Of ev en t he

m e n of sci enc e of t he Engl i sh sp eaking world -

would b e sufii c ien tl y fam ili ar with t h e subj e ct or

‘
,

int er est e d in it s origin t o purch ase such a rel ic of

,

a pri m it i v e p e riod as is thi s l i ttl e b ook Nor .

could t he tran slation Of t he work or t h e gath e r

,
,

ing tog e th e r b y t he Ed i tor of r el at e d m att e r b e ,

suppos e d lik e ly to b e productiv e o f any for m of

co m p en sation T he b ook is pu bli sh e d as m att e r

.

o f li m it e d b ut m o st i nt e ns e sci entific i nt e r e st ,

an d on th at scor e only .
 P UBL IS HERS ’
N0 TE .

It has se e m e d to the Editor an d to t he Pub

l ishe r s that t he pro d uct Of t h e won d e rful g e nius Of
Carnot ,
— th e gr e at foun dation ston e Of on e Of t he
-

m o st m arv e llou s an d i m port ant o f m od e rn sci e nc es ,

t h e fir st st at e m e nt Of t h e gr and though S i m pl e l aw s
Of Th e r m o d yn am i c s — as illu strat e d in thi s on e lit
,

t l e tr eat i se shoul d b e m ad e acc e ssibl e to al l w ho

,

d esir e to stu d y t h e work in Engli sh and pr ese rv e d, ,

S O f ar as it s publ i c ation i n th i s for m could ac

co m pl i sh it as a p e r m an ent m e m ori al in a for eign
, ,

tongu e Of such gran d truth s an d of su ch a gr eat

, ,

g e niu s as w as th e ir d i scov e r e r It is with this

.

purpo se th at Publi sh er s an d Editor h av e CO

Op erat e d i n thi s proj e ct .

T he book con si st s as will b e s e e n on in sp e ctio n

, ,

of t h e tr an sl ation o f Car no t s Re
’

f l ect ions s n r l a

P niss ance M otr ice da Fen pr e c e d e d b y a notic e

,

writt e n b y t h e Editor call i ng att e nt i on to it s

r e m ark abl e featur e s an d it s e xtraordin ary char
,

act e r as t h e produ ct of a m o st r e m ark abl e g e niu s

an d by a b iographic al sk e tch Of t h e gr eat author ,

writt en by his broth e r M ons Hypp ol yt e C arnot

, .
,

which sk etch w e find in t he Fr e nch Copy of t h e

work as pu b li sh e d by G authi e r Vill ar s t he l at est
-
,

r eprodu ction Of the book in t he origin al to ngu e .

To t h e m ain portion of t he book Carnot s Ré

’
,

fl e x i ons
,
i s a pp e nd e d t h e c el e b r at e d p ap e r Of Sir
 P UBL I SHERS NO TE .
ix

“
Willi am Tho m son h is A ccount Of Carnot s
,
’

Th eory ,
in which th at gr e at phy si c i st fir st po i nt s
o ut t o t h e worl d t h e tr e asur e so long conc e al e d ,

unnotic e d am ong t h e sc i e nt i fic li t e r atur e alr ead y

, ,

m ai nly antiqu at e d O f t he fir st qu art er Of t he n i n e

,

t e ent h c e ntury T h e d i stingui sh e d writ er of thi s

.

p ap e r has kin dly int e r est e d hi m self in the sch e m e

of t he Editor and has con se nt e d to it s i n se rtion
,

as a n atural an d d e sir ab l e co m m e nt ary upon t he

Old e r w ork and e sp e c i ally as e xh ib iting t h e r el a

,

tion s Of th e fund am e nt al pr i ncipl es di scov e r e d and

e nunci at e d by C arnot to t h e m o d e rn vi e w Of t he

—
n atur e o f th e r m odyn am ic ph eno m en a r el ation s
e vid e ntly un d e r stoo d b y th at wr i t e r b ut not b y
,

t h e l e ad er s Of sc i e ntific thought Of his t i m e an d ,

th er e for e ignor e d by him i n t he con struction Of

his n e w sci enc e .

T he A pp end i x cont ain s a nu m b e r O f Carnot s ’

ow n not e s too long t o b e in se rt e d in t h e b ody of

,

t h e p ap e r in it s pr e se nt for m an d wh i ch h av e
,

th e r efor e b een r em ov e d t o th e i r pr esent loc at i on

si m ply as a m att e r Of conv eni enc e i n b ook
m aking .

T he d e dic ation O f t he work to t he gr and

n eph e w Of t h e author who b y a singul ar coinc i
,

d enc e h app en s t o day to occupy t he h i gh est po si

-

t i on th at any citi z e n c an asp i re t o r each in that

X P UBL I SHERS ’
NO TE .

now prosp erou s Republic will b e r e cogniz ed as in

,

all r esp ect s appropriat e by e v ery re ad e r Of t he work

of t he earli e r S adi C arnot who is fa m ili ar with

t he ch aract e r t he hi story t he att ain m ents t he

, , ,

achi e v e m ent s of th e lat er Sadi C arnot in so

,

m any an d wid e ly div e r se fi elds The C arnot

.

t al e nt and t he C arnot C harac ter ar e e qu ally ob

serv abl e in both m e n wid e ly as th e y ar e se par at e d
,

in ti m e and in th e natur e Of t heir prof ession al

labor s Both ar e gr eat r e pr esentativ e s Of a nobl e
.

fam ily who se honor an d fam e th ey h av e bo th

spl e n didly u ph eld .

Th e Publi sh e r s O ff e r thi s littl e b ook to it s

r e ad ers as a sm all yet in on e sen se not uni m
,

portant contribution to t he gr eat c au se Of m od ern

,

sci e nc e as a r elic a m em orial a corn e r ston e

, , ,
-
.
 NO TE BY THE E D I TO R .

“ r op osé
Je m e s uis p de g r ands desseins dans cc
”
t it ou vr ag e, as Be
rn rdin a de S aint Pi err e
say s in
-
p e

t he pr e fac e to h is p ath e t i c story of P au l et Virg inie .

I h ave sough t t o pr esent to t he gr eat Engl i sh

sp eaking world t he work Of a g eniu s h i th e rto only

know n to a few m e n of sc i e nc e an d not well known

, ,

e v e n a m ong t h e p e opl e Of Fr anc e for who se cr e d it

,

he has don e so m uch In pl acing b efor e t h e r ead

.

i
e r s Of thi s tran slation h s book — s m all Of si z e but
gr eat in m att e r as it i s — I fe el th at I h av e ae co m
li sh e d an easy t ask but one Of r eal i m port anc e
p , .

I h av e b e en ask e d as Corr espond i ng M e m b e r for

,

t he U nit e d S t at e s o f t he S oci été de s Ingén i eur s

Civil s de Fr anc e to co m m unicat e t o m y coll eagu es
,

sc i e n t i fic an d profe ssion al m e m oir s an d w h at e v e r

m ay b e o f int e r e st t o th e m en a n m oi q ue nous ,

r esser r i ons f
l es liens q ni ont des ing enieur s on go
’ ’

nér al nn e sen le f
am i l l e
”
Th at w e r e a ple asant
.

t ask ; b ut a gr and er and a m or e agr eeabl e on e st i ll

is that Of b ringing n ear e r in h eart and thou g ht
t he m em be r s Of th at s t i ll l arg e r co m m unity t he ,

m en Of sci enc e Of t he worl d an d of w eaving st i ll

,

xi
x ii NO TE B Y THE ED I T OR .

m ore fir m ly and clo sely tho se bond s Of kindly

thought an d feel i ng wh i ch are growing continu ally
m or e nu m e rou s an d strong e r as t he n ation s ar e

brou ght to see th at hu m anity is l arg e r and m or e

i m port ant th an political divi sion s and th at t h e
,

l ab or s Of educ at e d m e n and Of t he gu i d ing m inds

in t h e gr eat i n d u stri e s are con st antly doing m or e
to pro m ot e a tru e b roth e rhood Of m ank ind than
e v e r hav e, or e v e r c an t he gr eat e st st atesm e n
,
.

Wh e n t he wond e rf ul i nt e ll e ctu al acc om pl ish f

m e n t s of m e n l i k e t he el d e r S ad i C arnot b e co m e

kno w n an d appr e ci at e d b y t h e w orl d m u ch m or e

,

will h av e b e e n acco m pl i sh e d i n thi s d i r e ction It

.

is p e rh ap s fro m th i s point O f Vi e w th at t h e im p or x

t anc e Of such work wi ll b e m o st fully r e cogniz ed .

Wh e n t he l i ttl e tr e at i se which is h e r e for t he fir st

t i m e pu bl i sh e d in Eng li sh b eco m e s fam il i ar t o
tho se for who m it is i nt e n d e d it will b e to m any
, ,

at l e ast a m att e r O f surpr i se no l e ss than pl e as ur e

,

to d i scov er th at Franc e has produc e d a writ e r on

thi s now fam i l i ar subj e ct who se i n spiration antici
p at e d m any Of t he principl e s th at tho se foun d er s
Of t he m o d e rn sc i e nc e Rank i n e and Cl au siu s
, ,

work e d o ut through t he t e d iou s and d ifficult

m e thod s O f t h e high e r m ath e m at i c s , an d which

w e r e h ai l e d by th eir cont e m porari e s as m arv ellou s

d i scove ri e s .
 NO TE TO S E CO ND E DI T I O N.

THE pr e sent e ditio n of this l i ttl e work is im

prov e d b y t h e r e m oval of a few e rrat a Ob se rv ed in
t he fir st i ssu e an d b y t he add i t i on o f a r e c e nt and
,

e xc ell e nt portr ai t O f Lord K elv i n as a front i sp i e c e

,

to his e ra m aking p ap er at p ag e 1 2 7 Th i s pic

-
, .

tur e t ak e n with i n t he l ast y ear is thought by t he

, ,

fri end s Of it s d i st i ngui sh e d su b j e ct to b e one of t he

b est ye t produ c ed Th at it i s sat i sfactory to him
.

an d his f r i end s is indic at e d by t he fact th at t he

or i gin al O f th i s r e produ ct i on Was pr e sent e d to t he

wr i te r by Lady K elvin in 1 8 9 5 i m m ed i at ely afte r
, ,

it w as t ak en an d t he autograph suppli ed by her

,

d i sti ngui sh e d hu sb an d The Edi tor t ak e s thi s

occ asion to ackno w l e dg e cor d i ally t he l ett ers Of
appr e ci ation an d co m m end ation r e c ei v e d fro m
tho se w ho h av e agreed with M Haton de la C ou
. r

il lié th at t h tr an l ation f C arnot an d it s

p r e e s o

pu b l i c ation in thi s m ann er with t h e fam ou s p ap er

,

Of Lor d K e lvin w i ll b e con sid er e d as worthy o f

,

approv al by Engl i sh sp eak i ng r e ad e r s as w ell as

-

“
appr e ci at e d by t he w hol e Fr ench n ation
 WORK O F S AD I C ARNO T °

BY T HE ED ITO R .

NI C O L A S -
L E O NA R D -
SAD I CA RNO T was,
p erhaps ,

t he great est g enius in t he d epar tm ent of phy sic al

,

sci enc e at l east that thi s c entury has produc ed

,
.

By this I m ean t hat he po ss ess e d in high est d egree

th at co m bin ation Of t he i m agin ativ e facul ty with
int ell e ctu al acut e n es s great log i c al pow er and c a
,

p a c it y for l earning ,
cl assifyi ng an d org anizing in
t heir prop er r el ations al l t he facts ph e no m ena
, , ,

an d l aws of n atu r al sci e nc e which distinguish e s

t he r eal g e niu s fro m oth e r m en and e v e n fro m t he

i m ply tal ent e d m an O nly now and th en in t he
.
,

c enturi es do es such a g eniu s co m e into v i e w

,
.

Euclid w as such in m ath e m atics Ne wton w as

such in m e ch anics Bacon an d Co m pt e w ere such
in logic an d phi l o sophy Lavoi si e r and Davy w e r e
su ch in ch em i stry ; and Fouri e r Tho m son M ax , ,
2 THE WORK OF SAD I CA RN T O .

w ell and Clausiu s w er e such in m ath e m atical

,

physics Am ong engin eers w e h av e t he ex am

.
,

pl e s of Watt as inv e ntor and philosoph er Rankin e ,

as his m ath e m atic al co m pl e m ent d e veloping t he

,

th eory of that art of which Watt illu str at ed t he

practic al sid e w e hav e Him as engin eer exp er i -

m e nt ali st and philosoph er as w ell Corl i ss as in

, ,

v e nt or and con s tructor and a doz e n cr eator s of

t he m achin ery Of t h e t e xtil e m anufactu r es in ,

which in t he a d ju st m en t of c am work t he high

,
-
,

est g enius O f t he m e ch anic app ears .

But C arno t e xhibit e d that m ost m ark e d charac

t erist ic Of r eal g enius t h e pow er Of applying su ch
,

qualiti e s as I hav e ju st e nu m erat e d t o gr eat pur

pos es and with gr eat r esult w hil e still a youth .

G eniu s is not d ep end ent as is tal ent upon t he

, ,

rip ening and t h e growth Of y ear s for its pr es

c ie nce it is r eady at t he earli e st m aturity and ,

so m eti m es earli er to e xh i bit its m arv ellou s works

,

as , for e xam pl e not e Ha m ilton t he m at hem a

,

t ic ian and M ill t h e logici an t he o ne b e co m ing

m ast e r Of a doz e n l anguag es wh e n hardly m or e

than as m any years of ag e r eading Ne wton s Prin

,
’

cipi a at sixt een and conc eiving th at won derful

sy st e m quat ernions at eight een t he oth er com
, ,

p et ent to b egin t he stu dy of Gr eek at thr ee l earn ,

ing Latin at sev en and readin g Plato b efor e he

4 THE WORK OF SA D I CA RNO T .

of bo di es not a sub st anc e and that it is id entical

, , ,

in its natur e with oth e r for m s Of r e cognizab l e

,

e n ergy,
as for e x am pl e m e ch anic al e n ergy A
, , .

qu art er Of a c en tury b efor e C arnot wrot e t he ex ,

rim e nt s Of Ru m ford and Of Davy h ad b een cru

p e

c ial in t h e se ttl e m ent Of t he qu e stion an d in t h e

proof of the corr ectn ess Of t he se cond of t he two

Oppo sing p art ies but th eir work had not b e co m e
so g en er ally known or so fully acc ept ed as to b e
acknowl edg e d as r epr e s entativ e of t he right vi e ws
Of t he subj ect T he pr e v al e nt opinion following
.
,

Newton w as favorabl e to t he first hypo th esi s ;

,

an d it was in d e f e r enc e to thi s opinion that C arnot

ba sed his w ork on an inaccurat e hypoth esi s ;

though fortun at ely t he fact di d not seriou sly
, ,

m ilit at e ag ain st it s v alu e o r his cr e di t and f am e .

Wi t h tru e philo sophic al c aution h e avoid s ,

co m m itting hi m self to thi s hypoth e s i s though he

m ak e s it t h e found ation Of his att e m pt to di scov e r
”
how work is produc ed fro m h eat .

T he r esults O f Car not s r easoning are f ort u

’
,

nat el y m ainly ind ep end e nt O f any hypoth esi s as

,

to t h e n atu r e Of h eat or t he m ethod or m ech ani sm

of d e v elop m ent an d tr an sf er or transfor m at i on of
it s en ergy C arnot w as in e rror in a ssu m ing no
.

*
Tait T h er m y
o d na mi cs p 13
, . .
 THE WORK OF SA D I CA RNO T . 5

lo ss Of h eat in a co m pl et ed cycl e and in thu s ignor

ing t he p er m an ent tr ansfor m ation of a d efinit e
proportion into m e ch anic al en ergy but his propo
sit ion that effici e ncy incr e ases with incr ease Of

t em p eratur e r ang e i s still corr e ct ; as is his asser

-

tion of its in d ep e nd enc e Of t he n atur e Of t he

working sub st anc e .

“
Carnot R éflexions l a P niss anee M otr ice
’
s s nr
”
da Fen, pu bli sh e d in 1 8 2 4 e sc ap e d notic e at the
ti m e w as only now and th en slightly r eferr ed to
,

lat er u ntil Cl ap eyron seiz ed upon its s ali ent id eas

,

and illu strat ed th e m by t he use of t he Watt dia

gra m of en ergy and m ight p erh aps h av e still re
, , ,

m ain e d u nknown to t h e world e xc e pt for the fac t

th at Sir Willia m Tho m son th at gr eat est of m od ern

,

m ath e m atic al phy sici sts fortunat ely wh e n still a

, ,

youth and at t he co m m enc em ent of his o wn g r eat

work di scov e re d it r e veal e d it s extr aordinary
, ,

m e rit and r eadjusting Carn ot s principl e s in ac

’
, ,

cordan ce with t he m od ern vi e w s of h eat en ergy -

,

g av e it t h e plac e th at it is so w ell e ntitl e d t o in

t he list of t he era m aking books of t he ag e

- But .

it still r em ain e d inacc essibl e t o all who could not

find the origi nal pap e r until only a fe w y ears ,
o

sinc e it w as r eprint e d by G authi e r Vi ll ar s t h e

,
-
,

g r e at publishing hou se Of Pari s acco m pani e d by a ,

biographical sk etch by t he young er broth er which ,

6 THE WORK O F S A DI CA RNO T .

it has b een thought wis e to r eproduc e with the

tran slation of Carnot s book ’
In m aking t he
.

translation also this lat er t ext has b ee n f ollow ed

, ,

and now for t he first ti m e so far as is known t o

, ,

the writ er t he work of Carnot is m ad e acc essibl e

,

t o t he r eader in Engli sh .

T he original m anu script of Ca rn ot has b een de

posit e d by his broth er in t he archiv e s of t he
Fr e nch A cad e m y of Sci enc es and th u s insur ed
,

p erp etual care The work of Carn ot includ es not

.

only t h e tr eatis e which it is the principal obj ect of

thi s transl ation t o give to our r ead ers but also a ,

consid erabl e a m ount of hith erto unpubli sh ed m at

t er which has b een pri nt e d by his broth er wit h ,

t he new e dition of t h e book as illu strativ e of t he

,

breadth and acut en ess of t he m ind Of t he Found er

o f t h e Sci e nc e o f Th er m odyna m ics .

Th ese pr eviou sly unpubl i sh ed m at erial s consist

Of m e m orand a r elating to t he sp e cific h eats of
substanc es t h eir v ari ation s and variou s oth er
, ,

facts and d at a and principl es as w ell ; so m e of

,

which are now r e cogniz ed as e ss enti al el em ent s of

t he new sci enc e e v e n of its fund am ental part
, .

T he book is particularly rich in wh at hav e b een

g en erally suppos e d t o b e t he discov eries of la t e r
writ ers and in e nunciations Of principl es now
,

recogniz e d as thos e for m ing t he bas e and t he sup

 THE WORK oE SA D I CA RNOT . 7

porting fra m e work of that lat est of th e sci enc e s .

As state d by Tait in his history of T herm ody

,

“ ”
nam ic s t he
,
t w o grand thing s which C arn ot ori
”
i n at e d a n d introduc e d w e re his id ea Of a cycl
g e
”
and t he notion of its r ev ersibility wh en p erfe ct, .

Without this work of Carnot t he m od ern th eory

,

Of en ergy and es pec i ally th at br anch Of it which

,

is at pr ese nt by far t he m ost i m portant in prae

tic e t he dyna m ic al th eory of h eat could not hav e
, ,

”
attain ed its now enor m ous d evelop m ent Th es e.

conc eption s origin al with our author hav e b een

, , ,

in th e h ands of his succ e ssors Clausius and o th er

,

Contin ent al writ ers particularly m ost fruitful of

, ,

int er esting and i m portant r esults and Cl ap eyron s ’

happy thought of so em ploying t he W att di agra m

of en ergy as to r e nd e r th e m e a sy o f c o m p rehe n

sion has proved a v aluabl e aid in this dir ection .

T he e xact e xp eri m ent al data n eed e d for nu m er

ical co m putations in application of Carnot s pr i n ’

c ipl e s w e r e inacc e s sibl e at t h e dat e of his writing ;

t h ey w er e suppli ed l at er by M ay e r by Coldi ng
, , , ,

by Joul e and by la t er inv estigators

,
Even the
.

I d ea o f e quival enc e according t o Hyp olyt e Car

,

n o t w as n ot originally fa m iliar to t he author of

,
.

thi s r em ark abl e work ; but was gr adually d ev elop ed

an d d e fin e d as he progr e s se d with his philosophy .

It is su ffi ci ently distinctly enunciat ed in his lat er

8 THE WORK OF S A DI O
CA RN T .

writings . He th en show e d a f am iliarity with

thos e notions which hav e b een ascrib ed g en e rally
t o M ay er and which m ad e t he latt er f am ous an d ,

with t h o se id eas which are now u su ally attribut ed

to Joul e with si m ilar r esult He s eem s actually to
.

h av e plann e d t he v ery kind of r e s earch which Joul e

finally carri e d ou t Al l th e s e adv anc e d vi e w s
.

m ust O f cours e h av e b ee n de v elop e d by Carnot

, ,

b efor e 1 8 3 2 t he d at e Of his illn ess and d eath and

, ,

t en or fift ee n y ears e arli er than th ey w er e m ad e

public by thos e who h av e sinc e b een co m m only
con sid er e d th eir discov er ers Th ese until l at ely
.

unp ublish e d not e s of C arnot cont ain e qually w ell

con stru ct ed argu m ents in favor Of the n ow acc ep te d
th e ory of h eat as en ergy Whil e sub m itting to
.

t h e auth ority of t h e gr eat est physici st s of his ti m e ,

an d so far as t o m ak e th eir Vi e w t he b asis of his

work to a c ert ain e xt ent he n e v erth el ess adh er e d

, ,

privat ely to th e tru e id ea His id ea of t he eq uiv a

.

l enc e of h eat and oth er for m s of en ergy was as dis

ti nct and e x act as w as hi s notion of t h e natu re Of
th at ph eno m enon He stat es it with p erf e c t ac
.

curacy .

In m aking his m easur e s of h eat en ergy he as -

,

su m es as a unit a m easur e not n o w co m m on but ,

one which m ay b e ea sily and conv eni ently r e duc e d

to the ne w g en eral syst e m of m easur e m ent He .

 THE WORK OF SA D I CA RNOT . 9

tak es t h e am ount of power r equir ed to e x ert an

e n ergy e q u al t o that n e ed e d to r ai se one cu b ic

m et e r of w at er through a h eight of on e m e t er ,

as his uni t ; thi s is 1 000 kil og ram m e ters t ak en ,

as his unit of m otiv e power ; w h i l e he says th at

thi s is t he equ i val ent of o f his units of
h eat ; which l att er qu antity would b e d estroy ed
in its produ ction of thi s am ount of pow er or ,

rath e r work .His unit of h eat is th us seen

to b e 1 0
00 z— or 3 70 kil ogram m e ters Thi s .

is al m ost id entic al with the fig ur e ob t ain e d by

M ay e r m or e th an t e n y ear s l at e r and fro m
, ,

pr esu m ably t he sam e approxi m at e p hysic al data ,

t h e b est th e n av ail abl e in t he ab senc e of a Reg

,

n ault to det erm in e t he ex act v alu es M ay er oh .

t ained 3 6 5 a nu m b e r which t h e l at er work of

,

Reg nault en abl e d us to prov e to b e 1 5 p er c ent .

t oo l o w a conclu si on v e rifi e d e xp eri m ent ally by

,

t h e l abors o f Joul e and his s ucc essor s Carnot w as

.

thus a discov er e r of t he e qui v al en c e of t he u ni ts of

h eat and work as w ell as the r e v eal e r of t he prin
,

c ip l es which h av e co m e to b e known by h is n am e .

Had h e liv ed a littl e lo ng e r th er e c an b e l i ttl e

,

doubt th at he w ould ha v e est abl i sh ed t he facts as ,

w ell as t he princi pl es b y convinci ng proof His

,
.

early death frustrat e d his d e s igns and de priv e d t he

,
10 THE WORK OF S AD I OA RNO T .

world of one of its nobl est int ell ect s just wh en it ,

w as b eginning its m arv ellou s car e er .

The following se nt enc e fro m C arnot illustr at e s

in bri ef his wond e rful pr e sci e nc e ; one c an h ardly
b eli e v e it possibl e that it shoul d hav e b een writt en
i n t he first quart er o f t he nin et ee nth c entu ry :
On p ent donep oser these g ener ale g ue la p uis
’

en

s anee nz ot r ice est en g nantite i nv ar ia ble da ns l a

’

Nat ur e ; gn el le n est jam ais ap r op r em ent p ar ler

’ ’
, ,

ni p r odnite, ni A l a v ér it e,
’

dé tr u ite . el le chang e

dir e gn el le p r ocl ni t tanidt a n g enr e

’ ’
de f or m e, c est a

tanidt n n m a is elle n es t
’
de m ouv em ent, a ntr e;
”
am ais aneantie It is this m an who has prob
’

j .

ably ina ugurat e d t he d ev elop m en t of the m od ern

sci enc e of th e r m odyna m ics and t he whol e rang e of
sci enc es d ep end ent upon it and who has thu s m ad e
,

it possibl e to construct a sci enc e of t he e n erg etics

o f t h e univ e rs e and to r ead t h e m yst eri es of e v e ry
,

phy sic al ph eno m enon of nat ur e ; it is this m an who

has don e m or e th an any cont e m porary in his fi eld ,

and w ho thu s di splay e d a m or e brilliant g enius

than any m an of sci enc e of t he nin et eenth cen t u ry z ~

y e t n o t e v en his na m e app e ars in t h e biographic al

dictionari es ; and in t he Encyclop aedia Brit annica
it is only to b e found incid entally in t he articl e on
Th er m odynam ics .

Throughout his littl e book w e find nu m erou s ,

12 THE WORK OF S A DI CA RNOT .

dent l y inclin ed to r egard as s u ch — his proc e ss and ,

*
argu m en t ar e p erf e ctly corr e c t .

Throughout his whol e work are distribut e d con

densed a sse rtions of principl e s now w ell r e cogniz e d
an d f ully e stablish e d which indic at e th at h e not
,

only had anticipat e d lat e r writ ers in th e ir est ab

l ishm ent but that h e fully und e rstood th eir r e al
,

i m portanc e in a th eory of h eat e n ergy and of h eat -

e ngin es In f ac t h e oft en i taliciz e s th e m placing

.
, ,

th em as ind ep end ent paragraphs to m or e thor

oughly i m pr e ss t he r ead er with th eir fun d am en tal
i m portanc e Thu s he s ay s . P ar tou t oil it ea is / e
’

u ne dif er ence de t em p é r at u r e il p en t g av oir p r o ,

du ction de p uissance m otr ice and ag ain this ,

e xtraordinary anti cip ation of m od e rn sci en c e le

m ax im um de p u issanc e r é s ul tant de l em p l oi de [a
’

v ap eur est aussi le m ax im u m de p uiss ance m otr ice

”
r é ali sable p ar q u el q u e m og en gu e cc s oit .

“
L a p uissance m otr ice de la chaleu r es t inde
is en
’

enda nte des ag ents m oeuv r e p our la r ealiser

p ;
i é a ée u niq uem en t
sa q uan t t es t
fi p ar l es t em p er a

*
A c c ount of Carno t Th eo ry of t h e M o tiv e P ow e r
’
s of

Heat ; S ir W m . Th om so n ; T ran s . Roy . Se c . of Edi n

b urg h x v i 1 849 ; an d M ath and Phys Pap ers x l i v ol 1
,
. . .
, . .

( C am bridg e p 1 1 3 I n thi s p ap er th e co rr ec ti o ns due

, . .

t o th e intro d uc ti o n o f t h e dy nam i c th eo ry ar e fir st appli ed .

 THE WORK OF S AD I CA RNOT . 13

tures des corp s entr e lesq uels se f ait, en der nier ré

”
s u l t a t, l e t r ansp or t da cal or i u e
q .

’
L orsgu h de tem p era
’
un g az p asse, s ans c ang er

tur e, d u n v ol um d u ne p r ession deter m ines au ne

’ ’ ’

e et
’

'

p r ess ion eg alem en t deter m inée, la q uantité

’

au t r e
’

de calor iq ue absor bee ou abandonnee es t touj our s la

’

l i
‘

m em e, g u el e g ue s o t l a na t u re da g az c hois i com m e

d eap ér ience
’
j
s u et .

Perhaps r e m arkabl e a di scov e ry as any one of

as

t he pr e c e ding ( and o ne w hich lik e t he se has b ee n , ,

re di scov e red and confir m e d by l ate r phy sici sts

one which w as t h e subj e ct of di sput e b e t wee n

Clau siu s w ho prov ed its truth by t he l at e r m ethods

,

which are no w t he sourc e of his fam e and t he ,

phy sicist s of his e arli er d ays w ho ha d obtain e d ,

i naccurat e m easures of t he sp ecific h eat s of t he

g ases ; — valu es which wer e fin ally corr ect e d by Reg
n ault thus proving Carnot and Cl ausius t o b e
,

r i ght —is t h u s st at e d by C arnot and is it aliciz ed ,

in h is m anu script and book

L a difi ér ence entr e la chaleur sp éc ifi gue ,
sous
’

p r es s ion con s tan te et la chaleur sp ec ifi gue sous cc

”
m em e p ou r t ous l es g az
'

l um e cons tant est la .

He b as es h is conclu sion upon s i m pl e st of th e

th e rm odyna m ic con sid eration s He sa y s th at t he .

i ncrease of volu m e s w i th t he sam e di ff er enc es of

t em p eratur e are t he sa m e according to Gay Lus sac ,
-
14 THE WORK OF SAD I OA RNOT .

and Dalto n and th at th er efor e according t o t he

, ,

l aw s of th e r m odyna m ic s as h e has de m on strat e d

th em t he h eat ab sorb ed with equ al aug m en ta
,

tions of volu m e b eing t he s am e t h e two sp e cific

,

b eat s are const ant and th e ir diff er enc e as w ell A s

, .

will b e s een on r efer ring to t he t e xt he b ases u p on ,

this principl e a d et e rm i nation of t he sp e cific h eats

of con st ant volu m e tak i ng as his valu es of t he de
,

t erm in ed sp e cific h e at s of con st ant pr essur e thos e

o f D el aroch e and Ber ar d m aking t h e con stant
,

differ enc e that o f air at con st ant pr e ssur e

b e ing t ak en as t he stand ard and as unity T he .

e st ablish m ent of thi s poi n t in t h e f ac e of t he op

,

posi tion and appar ently of t h e facts of t he b est

, ,

physici st s of his ti m e was one of thos e circu m

,
-

stanc es wh ich did so m u ch to w in for Cl au sius his

great f am e How m uch gr eat e r cr edit th en
.
, ,

should b e giv en Carnot who not only anticipat ed

,

t h e lat e r phy sicists in this m att e r but who m ust ,

hav e enunc i at e d h i s principl e und er far m ore Seri

ou s discourag e m ents and unc e rtainty
It m u st b e r em em b e red wh en r eading Car
,

“ ”
not th at all t he con stants of n atu re w e re in
, ,
,

his ti m e v ery inaccurat ely asc ertain ed It is only

, .

sinc e t he ti m e of Regnault s grand work that it has

’

b een t he rul e that su ch d et er m i nation s hav e b ee n

p u blish e d on l y wh e n v e ry e xactly d e t e r m in e d No .
 THE WORK OF SA DI CA RNO T . 15

change has b een att em pt e d in Carno t s figures in ’

,

any r esp e ct ; as it would b e f ar l ess sati sfactory t o

read a p araphra sed work and t he e x act figur es are ,

no w eas ily acc essibl e to e v ery o ne and his co m pu ,

tat ions m ay all b e m ad e if d esir e d o n t h e b asi s of

, ,

m od ern data Sir Willi am Tho m son has alr eady

.

rfor m e d thi s t ask in t he p ap er app e nd ed

p e .

Throughout t he whol e of thi s tr eatis e sm al l as ,

it is we find di stribut e d a singul ar nu m b e r of

,

th es e anticipations of m o dern th er m odyna m ic

principl es Studying t he r elation of h eat en e rgy
.
-

t o work don e he conclu d e s

,

“
La chute du calor iq u e p r odu it
p l u s de p u is

C
’ ’

san e m otr ice dans les deg r es i nf er ieur s gue dans

”
les deg r és ér ieur s
s up .

We t o day ad m it that sinc e t he one d egree at a

-
,

l ow t em p eratur e and t he corr esponding quantity

,

of h e at are l arg e r fr actions of t he total t e m p e r a

,

tur e and t he total h eat stor e d in t he sub st anc e

, ,

t han t he one d egr ee at a high e r point on t he sc al e

of absolut e t em p e ratu r e thi s principl e of Carnot
,

has b eco m e obviou s .

In t he enunci ation of t he e ss ential principl es of

effici ency of t h e h eat e ngin e w e find he proofs of
t
-
,

this sam e wond e rful pre sci enc e He assert s t hat

'

.
,

for b est efi e c t ( ) T h t p r tur f h

’
1 e e m e a e o t e

working fluid m u st b e rais e d to t he high est d egree

16 THE WORK OF S AD I CARN T O .

po ssibl e in order to secur e a co m m ensur at e range

,

o f t e m p e r atur e ; ( )
2 T he cool i ng m ust b e carri e d

to t he low est point on t he sc al e th at m ay b e found

practic abl e ( 3 ) T he p ass ag e of t he fluid fro m t he
u pp e r to t h e low e r l i m it of t em p er atur e m u st b e
“
produc ed by exp an sion ie it is n e c ess ary . .
,

th at t he cooling of t he g as sh all occ ur sp ont a »

n e ou sl y by it s r ar e faction w h i ch is si m ply his

m e thod o f stating t h e n o w univ e rsally und e r stood

principl e that fo r high est effici en cy t he e xpansion

, ,

m u st b e adi abatic fro m a m axi m u m

, t o a m ini
m u m t e m p e r at u r e He go es on t o e xpl ain th e se
.

principl es and th en says that t he advant age of

,

high pr essu r e engin e s l i es essentiel lem ent dans la

-

r endr e u t il e u ne
’

fac ul te de p l u s g r a nde c hu t e de ca

l or ig ne Thi s principl e as a pr actical syst em of

.
,

op er ation had already as h e t ell s us b een enunci

, , ,

at e d by M Cl em ent and h ad b een practi se d as

.
, ,

w e w ell know sinc e t he d ays of its origin ator

, ,

W att b ut Carnot saw cl early t he th er m odyna m ic

principl e which und erli es it and as cl early state s ,

it for th e first ti m e
, .

He s ees cl early t oo t he r easons for t he att em pts

, ,

o f Hornblow er and of Woolf pr em at u r e as th e y ,

prove d and as he also sees in t he introduction of ,

t he co m pou nd engin e and ev en sugg e sts that this ,

id ea m ight b e still furth er d e v elop ed by t he use

 THE WORK OF SA D I R
CA NO T 17

of a tripl e exp an sion engin e a typ e which is to

-
,

day j ust co m ing into use m or e th an a h alf c en

,
-

tury aft er C arn e t s d at e He r e cogniz es t he ad

’
.

vant ag es Of t he co m pound engin e i n b e tt er dist ri

b ut io n of pr essur es and i n di str i bution of t h e work
of expan sion b ut do es not of course p erc eiv e t he
, , ,

th e n undi scove re d li m itation o f t he effici ency of

“ ”
t he si m pl e engin e due to , cylind e r con d en sation ,

which has fin ally l ed p e rh aps m or e th an any oth er

,

circu m st anc e to it s di spl ac em ent so l arg ely by

,

t he m ulti cylind er m achin e

-
N0 one has m ore ex.

ac tl y and pl ainly stat ed t he r esp e c t iv e adv antag e s

to b e cl ai m e d for air and t he g as e s u sed as work ,

ing fluid s in h eat engin es t han do es Carnot nor

-
,

do e s any one to d ay b ett er r ecogniz e t he diffi c ul

ti e s which l ie in the p ath to succ ess in th at dirc e
tion in t he n ec essity of finding a m eans of h and
,

ling th em at high t em p er atur e s and of securing

high m ean pr essur e s .

His clo sing paragraph show s his extraordi nary

for esight and the pr e ci sion wi th which th at won
,

derf ul int ell e ct d et e ct e d t he practic al el e m ent s

o f t h e probl e m which t h e e ngin ee r f ro m t h e d ay s ,

of S av ery of Ne w c om e n and of W att has b e en

, , ,

c all ed upon t o study and t he i m port ance of t he

,

work which he b egan in t h e d ev elop m ent of a

, ,

th eory of t he action or of t he Op er ation of t he

, ,
18 THE woRE oE SA DI CA RN OT .

h eat ~
eng in es, wh i ch shoul d giv e e fi ect iv e assi stanc e
in t he d ev elop m ent o f th e i r i m prov e d for m s
On ne doit p as se fl atter de m et tr e jam ais d

p r o fit ,
da ns la p r atiq u e, tou te la p u issance des com
bust ibles L es tentativ es g ue l on er ait p ou r ap
.
’
f
p r o ch er cc r é s u l t at s er ai en t m i m e p l u s n u i s ibles
g u
’
u t il es ,
s i e ll es ai s ai en t nfé l
g g i e r d
’
au tr es c on s idé
r at ions im p or ta ntes
’ ’

. L econom ie da com bustible

’
n es t gu nne des conditions a r em p lir p ar les
’
m a

chi nes d f cu dans beaucoup de c ir c ons tances , el l e

’

secondair e el le doit
’
n est u s ouv ent c eder l e p as
g e

it l a setrete it la sol idit e, it la du r ee de la

’ ’ ’

, m achine,

dc p lace gu il f aut l u i f ai r e occ up er ,

’
au p eu a u p eu

de f r ais de son é tabl issem ent, etc S av oir

’

. app r e

dans chague cas, d leu r j uste v aleu r , l es con

c ier ,
’

sider ations de conv enance ci d econom ie gui p euc ent

’ ’

discer ner les p lus im p or tantes

’

s e p r esenter ; s av oir

de celles gu i sont seul em ent accessoir es, les balancer

t outes conv enablem ent entr e elles, afi n de p ar v enir,

p ar les les p l us aciles, d a m eilleur r es u l

m oy ens f ’

tel doit etr e l e p r inc ip al talent de l hom m e

'
’
tat :
app ete d dir ig er , d les tr ac ana
’

cc or donner entr e eux

-

de s es s em blables, d les fa ir e concour ir v er s n u but

’ ”
u tile de q u elq ue g enr e gu il s oit .

Such was t he work and su ch t he charact er of

this wond erful m an Tho se who se d esire to fol .

l o w m or e clos ely and to witn e ss t he proc e ss of de o

 II .

LI FE O F S A D I C A RNOT .

BY M H C A R N O T
. . .

As th e life of Sadi Carnot w as not m ark e d by

any notabl e e v ent his biogr aphy woul d hav e oc c u
,

pi e d o uly a fe w lin e s but a sci entific wor k by him ,

aft e r r e m aini ng long in ob scurity bro ught again ,

to light m any y ears aft er his d eath h as caus ed his ,

n am e to b e pl ac e d a m ong thos e of gr eat inv entor s .

In r eg ard to his p er son his m ind his charact er

, , ,

nothing what e ver h as b ee n kno w n Sinc e th ere re .

m ain s a w itn e ss of his pri v at e lif e— t he sol e wi tn e ss ,

has h e not a duty to fulfil ? Ought h e not to

sati sfy t h e n atur al and l egiti m at e int erest which
attach e s to any m an whos e work h as d e s e rv e d a
portion of glory
Nic ol as Léon ard Sadi Carnot was born Jun e
- -
1,
1 79 6, in t he s m all er Lu x e m bourg This w as th at .

p art of t he p alac e wh ere o ur fath er th en dw elt as

a m e m b er of t he D ir e ctory Ou r fath e r had a
.

pre dil e ction f or t he n am e of S adi which r e call ed ,

to his m ind i deas of wi sdo m and po etry His firs t .

born had born e this na m e and d espit e t he f at e

,

20
 L I FE OF SA D I CA RNO T . 21

of thi s poor child who liv ed but a fe w m onth s

, ,

he call e d t he se con d al so S adi in m e m ory of t he ,

c el ebrat ed Per si an po et and m oral i st .

Sc arc ely a year had passe d wh en t he p re scrip

tion which includ e d t h e Dir e ctor oblig e d him to
, ,

give up his life o r at l ea st his lib erty to t he con

, ,

sp irat ors of fru c t i d or O ur m oth er c arri e d h er

.

son far fro m th e p al ac e in w h i ch v i ol ation of l aw

had ju st triu m ph e d S h e fle d to St O m er w ith
. .
,

her fa m ily whil e h e r hu sb an d was e xil e d to S witz

,

e rland th en to G e r m any
,
.

O ur m oth er oft en s aid to m e Thy broth er was

,

born in t h e m ids t of t he c are s and agit ations of

gran deur thou in th e c al m of an obscu r e r etr eat
,

Your constitution s sho w thi s di ff e r enc e of or i gin .

M y broth er in fact w as of d elic at e con stitut i on .

He in cr e as e d his str ength l at e r by m ean s of v a ,

ri ed an d ju d iciou s bod i ly e x erci ses He w as of .

m e diu m si z e e ndo w e d wi th
, e xtr e m e sen sibility

an d at t he sam e ti m e with e xtr e m e en e rgy m or e ,

than r eserv ed al m o st rud e but si ngul arly cou

, ,

r ag eou s on occ asion Wh en he f elt h i m self to b e

.

cont ending ag ainst inj u st i c e noth i ng could re ,

str ai n him . T he following is an an e cdot e in illus

t ration .

Dir ectory had giv en pl ac e to t he Consul at e

T he .

Carnot aft er t w o ye ar s of exil e, r eturn ed to his

,
22 L I FE OF S AD I CA RNOT .

country and was appoint e d M ini st er of War .

Bonapart e at t he s am e ti m e was still in favor with

t he r epublican s He r e m em b er e d th at C arnot had
.

a ssi st e d him in t h e b eginning of his m ilitary c a

r eer and he r esu m e d t he in ti m at e r el ation which
,

had exi st e d b etw een th em during t he Directory .

Wh en t he m ini st er w ent t o M al m aison to work

with th e First Con sul he oft en took with h im h is
,

son th en about four y ears ol d to stay with

, ,

M ada m e Bon apart e w ho was gr eatly attach e d to

,

him .

S he w as one with so m e oth er ladi es in a

day
s m all boa t on a pon d t he l adi es rowing t h e bo at
,

th em s elv es wh en Bonapart e un exp e ct e dly ap

, ,

p earing a m u s e d hi m s elf by picking up ston es and

,

throwing th em n ear t he bo at spatt e ring wat er on

,

t h e fr e sh toil ets of t he ro w e rs T h e la di e s dar e d

.

not m anifest th eir di spl easur e but t h e littl e Sadi

, ,

aft e r having look ed on at t he afi air for so m e ti m e ,

sudd e nly pl ac e d hi m s elf boldly b e for e t he con

q ue ro r o f M a r e ngo and thr

, e at e ning h im with his
fi st h e cri ed
,
“
Bea st of a Fir st Consul will you ,

stop tor m enting thos e l adi es

Bon apar te at this un exp e ct e d att ack stopp e d
, ,

and look e d in astoni sh m ent at t he child Th en .

h e w as seiz e d wi t h a fit of laught er in which all

t he s pectators of t he scene join ed .
 L I FE OF SA DI R O
CA N T . 23

At noth er ti m e wh en t he m inist er wishing t o

a , ,

r eturn to Pari s sought his son w ho had b een l eft

, ,

w ith M ad am e Bon ap ar te it w as d i scov e re d th at he

,

h ad run away Th ey found him a lo ng way off in

.
,

a m ill t he m e ch ani s m of which h e was trying t o

,

und e rst and Thi s d esir e had b ee n in t he child s

.
’

m i nd for d ays and t h e hon e st m ill e r no t knowing

, ,

w h o he w as w as kindly an sw ering all his qu e s

,

tions Curio sity esp eci ally in r eg ard t o m ech anics

.
,

and physics was o ne of t he ess enti al traits of

,

S adi s m ind
’
.

O n account of thi s di sposit i on so early m ani

t e st ed Carnot did not h esit at e to giv e a sci entific
directi on to t h e studi e s of h is son He was abl e .

to und ert ak e thi s t ask hi m s elf wh en t he m on archi

c al t en denc i es of t h e ne w gov e rn m e nt had d e t er

m i n e d h im to r etir e For a fe w m onth s only S adi

.

follo we d the cou rse of M Bourdon at t he Ch arl e .

m agn e Lycé e t o pre par e hi m s elf f or t h e Poly

t echnic School .

The pupil m ad e r apid progr ess He was ju st .

sixt ee n y e ars ol d w h e n h e was ad m itt e d to t he

sc hool t he tw enty fourth on the li st Thi s w as

,
-
.

in 1 8 1 2 Th e following y ear he l eft it first in

.
,

artill e ry But he w as con sid e r e d t oo young for t he

.

sc h ool of M e tz an d h e cont i nu e d his stu d i es at

,

Paris for a y ear To this circu m stanc e is due t he

.
24 L I FE OF SA DI CA RNOT .

fact that he took p art in M arch 1 8 1 4 in t h e , ,

m ilitary e xploits of Vinc enn e s and not of t h e

,

butt e Ch au m ont as al m o st all t he his t orians of

,

t h e si eg e o f Paris d e clar ed M Chasl es o ne of

. .
,

S adi s school f ellows took pains to r e ctify this

’
-
,

e rror at a séanc e of t he Institut e in 1 8 6 9 .

If t h e pupils of the Polyt e chnic School di d not

e arli e r e nt e r into t h e ca m paign it w as not b e cau se
,

th ey had not ask ed to do so I find in m y broth

.

er s pap ers t h e copy of an addr e ss to t h e Em p eror

’
,

sign e d by th em D e c em b er 2 9 1 8 1 3
,

“
S I RE : T he country n eeds all its d efend ers .

The pupils of t h e Polyt e ch n ic School faithful to ,

th eir m otto ask to b e p e r m itt ed to h ast en to t he

,

fronti ers to sh ar e the glory of t h e br av e m en who

ar e cons e crating th e m s elv es to t he saf ety of Fr anc e .

The b att alion proud of h aving contribu te d to t h e

,

d ef eat o f t he e n e m y will r eturn t o the school to

,

”
cultiv at e t he sci enc es and pr ep ar e for ne w servic es .

G en er al C arnot was at A nv er s which he h ad ju st

,

b een defending again st t he conf ed e rat e English ,

Prus si an s and S w ed es wh er e t h e Fr ench flag ye t

, ,

flo at ed wh en he wrot e to his son A pril 1 2 1 8 1 4

, , ,

“
M Y D E A R S A D I I hav e l earn e d with e xtrem e
pl easu r e th at th e b att alion of t h e Polyt e chnic
S chool has disting u ish e d its elf and that you hav e
,

p erfor m e d your first m ili tary e xploits with honor .

 L I FE OF SA D I CA RNOT . 25

Wh en I am r ec all ed I sh all b e v ery gl ad if t he

,

M i ni st er of War will giv e you p e r m i ssio n t o co m e

to m e You will b e co m e acqu aint e d with a fi ne
.

country and a b eautiful city wh er e I h av e had t he

,

satisfaction of r em ai ning in p eac e whil e disast er

”
has ov e rwh el m e d so m any oth er pl ac es .

Peac e b eing r e stor e d S ad i r ejo i n e d his fath e r at

,

Anv ers and r eturn e d w ith him in t o Fr anc e .

In t he m onth of O ctob er he l eft t he Polyt ech

nic School r anking sixth on t he li st of young
,

m en d e stin e d t o s e rvic e in t he e ngin ee r corp s ,

and w ent to M etz as a c ad et sub li eut en ant at t he

-

school M any sci entific pap er s that he wrot e th er e

.

w er e a d ecid e d su cc ess One is particul arly re

.

fe rr ed to as v ery cl e v er a m em oir on t he inst ru

,

m ent call e d t he t heodol ite which is u se d in astron

om y and g e od e sy .

I obt ain th ese d et ails fro m M Ollivi er who was

.
,

of t he sam e r ank as S adi and w h o lat e r was one , ,

of t he found ers of t h e Ecol e O entr al e A m ong his

.

oth e r co m rad es b esid es M Chasl es t he l earn e d

.
,

g e o m e tric i an j ust no w r ef err e d t o w as Gen D u

,
.

vivi e r la m ent ed victi m of t he in surr ection of

,

Jun e 1 8 48 I ought al so to m ention M Rob el in

. .
,

S adi s m os t inti m at e fri en d w h o c am e to h elp m e

’
,

nurs e him during his l ast illn es s and who pub ,

26 L I FE OF S A DI CA RNOT .

l ish ed a notic e conc erning him in t he Rev ue ency

c l op edigu e t IV
’

. .
,

T he e v e nt s of 1 8 1 5 brought G en e r al C arnot back

into politic s during t he Cent Jour s whic h end e d
in a fr esh c at astroph e .

Thi s g av e S ad i a gli m ps e of hu m an n atur e of

whic h he co uld not sp eak without di sgu st His .

littl e sub li eu t en ant s roo m w as vi sit e d by c ert ain

-
’

sup erior offi c e rs who di d no t di sd ain to m ount to

t he third floor to pay th eir r esp e cts to t he son of
t he n e w m inist e r .

W at erloo put an end to th eir att entions T he .

Bo urbon s re e stablish e d o n t h e thron e Carnot was

-
,

pro scrib e d and S adi se nt su cc essiv ely into m any

t rying pl ac e s to pu r su e his voc ation o f e ngin ee r ,

to co unt brick s to r epair w all s and to draw pl an s

, ,

d estin ed to b e hidd e n in por t folio s He p erfor m e d .

th e s e d uti e s con sci entiou sly and w ithout hop e o f

r e co m p en se for his n am e which not long b efor e
, ,

had brought h im so m any flatt eries was h enc e ,

forth t he c au se o f his advanc e m ent b eing long

d el ayed .

In 1 8 1 8 th e r e c am e an unlock e d for roy al ordi -

nanc e authori zing t he offi c e r s o f all br anch e s o f

,

t he se rvic e to pr esent th e m selv es at t h e e x am in a

.

tio ns for t he ne w corp s of t he staff S adi w as .

w ell awar e that favor h ad m uch m or e t o do wit h

28 L I FE OF SA D I CA RNO T .

Oppos ed than h e t o t he
traditional and t he c on
v e nt io nal On h is m u sic d e sk we r e s ee n only th e
.
-

co m po sitions of Lully th at he h ad stu di ed and ,

t h e conc e rti of Viotti which h e e x e cu t e d O n his .

t abl e w e r e s een only Pascal M oli er e or La Fon

, ,

t ai n e and h e kn e w his f avorit e books al m ost by

,

h eart I c all this dir e ction origin al b e cau se it

.
,

w as ant e rior t o t he arti stic and lit e rary m ov em e nt

which pre c ed e d t he r e volution of 1 8 3 0 A s to t he .

sy m p athy of S adi f or t h e author of t h e P r ov in

cial es it was due not only to t h e r e sp e c t of t h e

,

youn g m ath e m atici an for one of t he m ast ers of

sci enc e but his d evoutly r el i gious m ind r egard e d
,

with horror hypocrisy and hypocrit e s .

A ppr e ciating t h e u seful and t h e b eau tif ul Sadi ,

fr e qu e nt e d t he m us eu m of t he Louvre and t he
It ali an Th eatr e as w ell as t he Jardin des Pl ante s
,

and t he Cons e rv atoir e des A rt s e t M e ti e r s M usi c .

w as al m o st a pa ssion w i t h him He prob ably in

.

h erit e d this fro m our m oth e r who w as an e xc el

,

l ent pianist to who m D al ayrac and esp e ci ally

,

M on sig ny her co m p atriot h ad giv e n instruc tion

, , .

Not cont ent wi t h b eing abl e to pl ay w ell on t he

violi n S adi carri ed to gr eat l ength his th eor etic al
,

stu di es .

His in sati abl e int ell e ct m or eov e r would not

, ,

allow him to r e m ain a strang er t o any branc h of

 L I FE OF SA D I CA RNOT . 29

k nowl edg e He dilig ently followed t he cour se of

.

t he Coll eg e of Fr an c e and o f t he Sorbonn e of ,

t he Ecol e de s M in es of t he M u seu m and of t he

, ,

Biblioth equ e .He vi si t e d t he work shop s with

eag e r in t e r est an d m ade h i m self f am il i ar with t he
,

proc esses of m anufactur e ; m ath e m at i c al sci enc es ,

n atur al history ind ustri al ar t politic al e cono m y

, , ,

—all th ese h e cultiv at e d with e qu al ardor I h av e .

see n him not only pract i se as an am u se m ent but ,

s earch th eor etic ally into gym nastic s fencing

, , ,

s wi m m ing d anc i ng and e v e n sk ating In ev e n

, , .

th es e thing s S adi acquir e d a sup eriority which

astonish e d sp e ci alists wh e n by ch anc e he forgot

hi m s elf enough to sp eak of th e m for the sat isfac

,

tion of his o w n m ind w as t he only aim t hat h e

sought .

He had such a r e pugnanc e to bri ng i ng hi m self

for ward that in h is int i m at e conv er sation s with a
,

f e w fri ends he k ept th e m ignor ant of t he tr easur es

,

of sci enc e which h e h ad accu m ulat ed Th ey n e ver

.

kn e w of m or e than a s m all part of th e m How .

w as it that he d et er m in e d to form ul at e his id ea s

about th e m otiv e pow e r o f h e at an d esp e ci ally t o
,

publi sh th em —
I still ask m ys elf t hi s qu e st ion I , ,

who liv e d with him in t he littl e ap art m ent wh er e

o ur f ath e r w as confin e d in t h e Rue du Par e Roy al -

whil e t he polic e of t he first Re storation w er e

30 L IFE OF SA DI CA RNOT .

thr eat ening him Anxiou s to b e p erf e ctly cl ear

.
,

S adi m ad e m e r ead so m e pa ssag es of his m anu

scrip t in ord e r to convinc e hi m self th at it would

b e und er stood by p erson s occupi e d with oth er

studi es .

Pe rhap s a solit ary lif e in s m all garrisons in t he ,

work roo m and in t he ch e m ic al l abor atory had

-
,

incr eas ed his n atu ral r es erv e In sm all co m pa .

ni es ho w e v e r h e was not at all tacit urn He t ook

, , .

p art volunt arily in t he g ay est pl ays ab andon i ng ,

“
hi m s elf to liv ely ch at T he ti m e p ass e d i n
.

l aughing is w ell sp ent he onc e wrot e His lan , .

gu ag e w as at such ti m es full of w it k een without ,

m al ic e origi n
,
al without e cc entricity so m eti m e s ,

paradoxical but without oth er pr et en sion th an

,

th at Of an innoc ent activity of int ellig enc e He .

had a v e ry war m h eart und e r a cold m ann er He .

w as obliging and d e vot e d sinc e r e and tru e in his ,

d ealing s .

Tow ar ds t h e e nd of 1 8 2 6 a ne w royal ordinanc e ,

having oblig e d t he staff li eut enants to r et urn t o

t he r ank s S adi ask e d and obtain e d a r etu rn to t h e
,

engin ee r corps in which he r e c e iv ed t he following

,

y ear as his rank of seniority t h e gr ad e of c aptain

, , .

M ilitary s ervic e how ev e r w eigh e d upon him

, , .

J ealou s o f his lib erty in 1 8 2 8 h e l aid a sid e his

, ,

u nifor m th at he m ight b e fr ee to co m e and go at

 L I FE OF SA D I CA RNO T . 31

will He took advantag e of his l eisur e to m ake

.

journ eys and t o vi si t o ur princip al c entr e s of

indu stry .

He fr e qu ently vi sit e d M Cl em ent D e sorm es

.
,

profe ssor at t he Conser v atoir e des A r ts ci M etiers ,

w h o h ad m ad e gr e at ad v anc e s in appl i e d ch e m i stry .

M D e sorm e s willingly took coun sel with h im

. .

He w as a n ativ e of Bourgogn e ou r fam ily coun ,

try which circu m st anc e I b eli ev e brought th em

, , ,

tog e th e r .

It w as b eforeth i s p e riod ( in 1 8 2 4) that S adi had

publi sh e d his R efl ect ions sur la p uissance m otr ice
da f eu He had seen h ow l it tl e progr ess had b ee n
.

m ade in t he th e ory of m achin e s in which th i s

pow e r w as em ploye d He had asc ert ain e d th at

.

t h e i m prov e m ent s m ad e i n th e ir arr an g e m ent w e r e

e ffe ct e d t e ntativ ely an d al m o st by ch anc e
,
He .

co m pr eh end e d th at in ord er to r ai se thi s i m portant

art ab ov e e m p i r i ci sm an d t o giv e it t he rank of a
,

sc i enc e it w as n
, e c e ssary to stu d y t h e ph e no m en a

of t he production of m otion b y h eat fro m t he ,

m o st g e n e r al po i nt of v i e w in d e p end ently o f any

,

m e ch ani sm o f any sp e ci al ag e nt ; an d such had

,

be en t h e thought o f h is l i f e .

D i d he for ese e that thi s s m all brochur e woul d

be c om e t he found at i on o f a n ew sci e nc e ? He
m ust h av e att ach e d m uch i m port anc e to it to
32 LI FE OF S A D I CA RNOT .

publis h it and bring hi m s elf out of his volunt ary

,

o b sc urity.

In fact ( as his working not e s prov e) h e p er ,

c eiv e d t h e e xi s ting r el ation b etw ee n h eat an d

m e ch an i c al w ork ; an d aft e r h aving e st ablish e d t h e

principl e to wh i ch savants h av e giv e n his n am e ,

b e d e vot e d h i m s e lf to t h e r e s earch e s which should

e n abl e h im to e st ab l i sh w i th c e rt ainty the secon d
pri ncipl e th at of e quiv al e nc e which h e alr eady
, ,

cl early divin e d T h e r m odyna m ic s w as e st ab li sh e d

.

fro m th at ti m e .

But th e se r e search e s w er e rud ely int e rrupt e d b y

a gr e at e v e nt — t h e Re volution of July 1 8 3 0 , .

S adi w elco m e d it e nthu si ast i c ally— n ot ho wev er , ,

it is e vi d e nt as a p e r son al advant ag e
, .

S ev eral ol d m e m b e rs of t h e Conv e ntion w er e

s till living e v e n o f tho se who h ad b e co m e c el e
,

b rat e d ; no favor o f t h e n ew gov e rn m e nt w as

accord e d th e m To t he son of Phil i pp e Egalit é
.
-

w as ascri b e d a saying which if it w as untru e at

, ,

l east agr e e d w e ll with t h e se nti m ent of his po si

“
tion : I c an do nothing for t he m e m b er s of t he
“
Conv ention th e m selv es h e s aid , but for th e ir
,

”
fa m ili es what ev e r th ey will .

How e v e r it m ay b e so m e o f tho se about h im

,

v agu ely qu estion e d m y broth er as to his d esir es in

case one of u s should b e call e d to t he Cha m b e r of
 LIFE OF SA D I CA N T R O . 33

Pe e rs , of w hich Carnot had b ee n a m e m b e r i n

1815 . We had on thi s occ asi on a b r i e f confe re nc e .

U nknown to u s b oth th i s d i stinct i on coul d b e

,

o ff e r e d only to a titl e in so m e sort h e r e di t ary .

We could not acc e pt it w ithout for saking t he pr in

c i l es of Carnot w ho had co m b at e d t he h e r e d i ty
p ,

of t he p ee rag e T he p at ern al op i nion th e r e fore

.

c am e to se con d ou r di stast e for t he p re p osit io n ,

and dict at e d our r e ply .

S adi fr equ e nt e d t he popul ar r e union s at th i s

”
p erio d w i thou t for sak i ng h is r ole of a si m pl e ob
serv e r .

Ne ve rth e l e ss he w as w h e n occ asion d em and e d

,

it a m an o f pro m pt an d e n e rg e t i c act i on
, One .

inci d ent will su ffi c e to prov e th i s an d to show t he

,

s a ng fr o id w hich ch ar act e ri z e d him

-
.

On t h e day o f t h e fun e ral of G e n L am arqu e .

,

S adi w as w alking thou g htfu l ly i n t h e v i c inity o f

t h e in surr e ct i on . A hor se m an pr e c e di ng a c o m
a
-

p y n, an d who w as e vid e ntly i ntoxic at e d p asse d ,

along t h e str e e t on t h e g all o p b randi shing h is

,

s ab r e an d striking do w n t he p asse r s b y S adi -

.

d art e d for w ard cl e v e rly av o id e d t he w eapon of

,

t he sol d i e r sei z e d him b y t h e l eg thr e w him to

, ,

t h e e arth an d l ai d him i n t h e g utt e r th e n cont i n

,

ue d on h is w ay to esc ap e fro m t h e ch ee r s o f t h e

cro w d am az e d at th i s d aring de ed
,
.
34 L I FE OF SAD I CA RNO T .

Befor e 1 8 3 0, S ad ifor m e d part o f a Reu nion

had
o l t ch i z igu e in du s t r iel l e m ad e up o f ol d pupil s
p y e ,

o f t h e school with a pl an o f s t ud y in co m m on
, .

A ft e r 1 8 30 h e w as a m e m b e r of t he A ssoc iat ion

,

p yo l t echn igu e con,

si sting al so of g r adu at e s t h e ,

o b j e ct b e ing t h e popul ar prop agatio n of u se ful

knowl e dg e T he pr esi d ent of thi s association was
.

M de C hoi se ul Prasl i n ; t h e v ic e pr e si d e nt s M M
.
- -
, .

de Tr acy Augu s te Co m t e e t c
, , .

The hop e s of t he d e m ocr acy m eanwhil e se e m ing

to b e in ab eyanc e S adi d e vot e d hi m self an ew to
,

stu dy and pur su e d his sci e ntific l ab or s with al l t he

,

gr eat e r en e rgy as he brought to b ear upon th e m

,

t he politic al ardor n o w so co m pl e t ely r e pr ess e d .

He und e rtook profound r ese arch e s on t h e phy sical

prope rti e s of gases an d v apor s an d esp eci ally on ,

th e i r el astic t en sion s U nfortunat ely t he t abl e s

.
,

which h e pr e p ar e d fro m h is co m p ar ative e xp er i

m e nt s w e r e not co m pl e t e d ; b ut h appily t h e e xc e l

l ent work s of Victor Re gn ault so r e m ark abl e for ,

th eir accur acy h av e suppli e d to sci enc e in thi s

, ,

r esp ect t he blank s of wh i ch S ad i Carnot w as con

,

sciou s .

His e xc essiv e application affect e d his h ealth

tow ard s t he e nd of Jun e 1 8 3 2 Feeling t e m p orar
, .

ily b e tt e r he wrot e g ayly to o ne Of h is fri end s w ho

,

had wr i tt e n se v eral l e tt er s to him : M y d el ay this

36 LIFE OF SAD I CA RNOT .

ju stic e and o f lib e rty We can follow th er e in t he

.

trac e s o f al l his v ariou s studi es But t he only .

work t hat he actu ally co m pl e t e d is this which is

h e r e publ i sh e d It will suffic e to pr e serv e his
.

n am e fro m Oblivion .

His m or al ch aract e r has oth e r clai m s on ou r

r ecognition O ur only am b ition h er e is to pr esent
.

a sk e tch of it Bu t m uch b e tt er than through

.
,

t h e p e ru sal of th e se fe w p ag es S adi Carno t c an b e

, .

appr e c i at e d b y r e ad ing t h e tho u ght s s c att e r e d

through h is m e m orand a wh i ch ar e to b e Car eful ly

,

coll e ct e d Th e r e are m any pract i c al rule s of con

.

duct w hich he r e cor d s for h i m s elf m any Obs e r va

tion s th at he d e sir es to fix i n h is m e m ory so m e
ti m e s an i m pr ession th at has ju st co m e to him ;
grav e o r g ay so m e ti m e s t o o tho ugh r ar ely a , ,

trac e of ill hu m or dir e ct e d ag ain st m e n or soc i e ty

-
,

He n e v e r thought th at th e se not es t h e outpouring ,

of h is m i nd would b e r e ad by oth e r e y es th an his

,

o w n or th at th e y would so m e day b e u se d to j u dg e
,

h im . I find in th e m for m y p art touch i ng an alo

, ,

gi e s with t h e thought s of m y fath e r although t he ,

fath e r an d son h ad unfortun at ely liv e d al m o st

, ,

*
alw ay s ap art b y forc e o f c i rc um st anc es
, .

S ee t h e A pp en di x f o r th ese m e m o anr da , an d f or o th e r
pre vi ously un p ubli sh ed m att e r
.
 I II .

REFL ECT I O NS ON T HE M O T IVE POWER

-
OF
HEA T , A ND ON M A C HI NES FITTED TO
D EVELO P T HA T P O WE R .
*

BY S . C AR N O T .

E V E RY know s th at h eat can produc e m otion

one .

That it pos sess es vast m otiv e pow e r no one c an -

doubt I n th es e d ays wh en t he st ea m engin e is

,
-

e v e rywh e r e so w ell known .

To h eat al so are due t he v as t m ov em ent s which

t ak e pl ac e on t he ear th It c au se s t he agit ation s
.

o f t he at m o sph er e t he asc e nsion o f clouds t h e f all

, ,

of r ain and of m e t e or s t he curr ent s of wat e r w hich

,

ch ann el t he surfac e of t he glob e and of wh i ch ,

S ad i Carno t Reflexions l a p uissance m otr ice da

’
s sur

fen ( Paris Bac h eli e r 1 8 2 4)

, l o n a
g g w as
o c o m pl e t e ly e x

h anst ed A s b ut a sm all nu m b e r o f c o pi es w ere pri nt ed

. ,

thi s r em arkabl e w o rk r em ai n ed l o ng u nk no w n t o t h e
earli e r writ e r s o n T h e r m ody nam i c s I t w as th e r e f o r e fo r
.

t h e b ene fit o f sav ant s un abl e t o st udy a w ork u t o f pri nt

O ,

as w e ll as t o r e n d e r h ono r t o t h e m em O I y o f S adi C ar no t ,

th at t h e ne w p ubli sh e rs o f t h e A nna tes S cientifigue de

l Bco le Nor m al e sup er ieu r e ( ii se ri e s t 1 1 8 72 ) p ubli sh e d a
’ ’

.
.
, ,

new e diti o n f r om whi c h th is transl ati o n is r e pr od u c ed

,
.

37
38 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T
.

m an has thu s far em ploy e d b u t a sm all portion .

Ev e n e ar thqu ak e s and volc anic eruption s are t h e

r esult of h eat .

Fro m th i s i m m en se r eservo i r w e m ay d raw t he

m oving forc e n e c essary f o r o ur purpo ses Natur e .
,

in prov i d ing u s w ith co m bu stibl es o n all si d es ,

has giv en u s t he po w er to produc e at al l ti m es and ,

in al l pl ac e s h eat an d t he i m p elling pow e r which

,

is t he r esul t of it T o d ev elop this po w e r to

.
,

appropri ate it t o our u ses is th e obj e ct of h eat ,

e ngin e s
.

The stu d y of th e se engin e s is of t he gr eat est

int er est th eir i m port an c e is enor m ou s th eir u se
, ,

is continu ally incre asi ng and th ey see m d est in e d

,

t o produc e a gr eat r e volution in t h e civiliz e d world .

A lr eady t he st eam engin e work s our m in e s im

-
,

p el s o ur ships e xcavat e s ou r port s and ou r riv e r s

, ,

forg es iron fashions wood grinds gr ain s spin s

, , ,

an d w eav e s our cloth s t ran sport s t h e h eavi est

,

burd e ns e t c I t app ears that it m u st so m e day

, .

se rv e as a u niv er sal m otor and b e su bstitut e d for

,

ani m al po w e r w at e rf all s an d air curr e nt s

, , .

O v e r t h e fir st of th e se m otor s i t h as t he adv an
t ag e of e cono m y ov er t he two oth er s t he in est im a
,

bl e adv ant ag e t h at it can b e u se d at all ti m e s and

plac es without int erru ption .

If so m e day t h e st ea m engin e sh all b e so p er

, ,
-
 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T . 39

fec t e d t h atit c an b e set u p and suppl i ed wi th fu el

at s m all cost it will co m b i n e al l d esirab l e qu al i ti es
,

and w i ll aff ord to t he i n d u str i al art s a r ang e t h e

e xt en t of which c an sc arc ely b e pr e di ct ed It is .

not m er ely th at a pow erful and conv en i ent m otor

th at c an b e procur e d an d c arri e d anywh er e is
sub sti tut ed f o r t h e m otor s alr e ad y in u se b ut th at ,

it c au ses r api d e xt en si on i n t he art s in w hich i t is

appli e d an d c an ev e n cr eat e e ntir ely ne w art s
, .

The m o st si gn al se rv i c e th at t h e st eam e ngin e -

h as r en d e r e d to Engl and is undoubt edly t h e

r ev iv al of t he w orking of t he co al m in e s wh i ch had
-
,

d eclin ed and thr eat en ed to c ease ent i r ely in con

, ,

s e qu en c e of t he continu ally incr easi ng di ffi culty of

drain ag e an d of r ai sing t he co al
,
*
We should
.

rank secon d t h e b en e fit to i ron m anufactur e bo th ,

by t he abund ant supply of co al sub stitu te d for

w oo d ju st w h en t he l att e r had b egun t o grow sc arc e ,

*
It m ay id th at c oal m i ni ng h as i nc r e ased t enf old
be sa -

in Eng l and si nc e t h e i nv e nti o n of th e st eam e ng i ne-

I t is . .

al m o st e q u ally tr u e in r e g ard t o t h e m i ni ng o f c o pp e r t in , ,

an d ir o n Th e r es ult s prod u c ed in a h al f c ent ury b y t h e

.
-

st e am e ng i n e in t h e m i n e s o f Eng l an d ar e t o day p arall e l

- -

ed in t h e g old and silv e r m i n es o f t h e Ne w W o rld — m i ne s

o f whi c h t h e w o rki ng d ec li ne d f ro m day to day pri n ,

c ip al l y o n ac c o un t o f t h e insuffi c i e nc y o f t h e m o t o r s e m

pl oye d in th e drai ni ng and t h e ex trac ti o n of t h e m i ne ral s .

40 M OTI VE P O WEB OF HEA T .

and by t he po w e rful m achin es of all kind s t he use ,

o f w h i ch t h e introduction o f t he s te am engin e h as -

p e rm itt e d or facilit at ed .

Iron and h eat are as w e know t he support ers

, , ,

t he ba se s o f t h e m e c h anic arts
, I t is doubtful if
.

th er e b e in England a s i ngl e indu stri al est abli sh

m e nt of which t he e xi st enc e do es not d e p en d on

t he u se of th ese ag ent s and w h ich do es not fr eely

,

e m ploy th e m To t ak e away t o day fro m Engl and

.
-

her st ea m e ngin es wou l d b e to t ak e aw ay at t he

-

s am e ti m e he r coal and iron It would b e t o d ry

.

up all her sourc es of w ealth t o ruin all on which

,

h er pro sp erity d e p ends in short t o annihil at e th at

'

, ,

colo ssal po wer T he d es t ru c tion of he r nav y

.
,

which she consi d er s he r strong e st d e fenc e would ,

p erhap s b e l ess fatal .

T h e saf e an d r ap i d n avig ation by st e a m ships

m ay b e r e g ar de d as an entir ely n e w art du e t o t h e

st eam eng i n e
-
A lr e ad y thi s ar t h as p er m i t t e d t he
.

e st abli sh m ent o f pro m pt and r egul ar c o m m unic a

tio n s acro ss t h e ar m s of t h e sea and on t he great ,

riv e r s of t he old and ne w co ntin e nts It has m ade .

it po ssibl e to trav er se s av ag e r egions wh ere b efor e

w e could scarc e ly p e n etr at e It has en abl e d usto
.

carry t he fruit s of civiliz ation ov e r portions of the

glob e wh er e th ey wo uld el se h av e b ee n w anting for
y ears . S t eam n avi g at i on br i ng s n ear e r tog eth er
 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T . 41

t he m ost di st ant nation s It t end s to unit e the

.

n ation s of t he earth as inh ab it ant s of one country .

In fact to l essen t he ti m e th e fat i gu es t he uncer

, , ,

t ain t ie s an d t h e d ang e r s of trav el — is n ot thi s t he

,

sa m e as gr eatly to shor t e n d i st anc es ”

The d i scov ery of t he st e a m engin e ow e d its birth

-
,

l i k e m o st hu m an i nv ention s to ru d e att e m pts ,

w hich h av e b een attribut e d to diffe r en t p e rson s ,

whil e t he r eal author is not c ert ainly kno wn It .

is how ev er l ess in t he fir st att e m pt s th at t h e prin

, ,

c ip al di scov ery con si st s th an in t he succ e ssi v e im

,

rov e m e nt s which h av e brought st e am e ngin es to

p
-

t h e condition in which w e find t h em t o day Th er e -

.

is al m ost as great a dist anc e b et w ee n t he first app a

ratu s in which t he expan siv e forc e of st ea m was
di spl ay e d and t he e xi sting m achin e as b etw een t he ,

fir st raft th at m an e v er m ad e and th e m od ern v essel .

If the honor of a d i scov e ry b elong s to the n ation

in which it has acquire d its gro wth and all its
d e v elop m ents this honor c anno t b e h er e r efu se d
,

*
We say , to l essen the dang e r s
j r y s of I n f
o u ne
ac t .
,

alth o u g h t h e use of t h e st e am eng i ne o n ship s is att e nd e d

-

b y som e d ang e r whi c h h as b ee n g r e atly exag g e rat e d thi s ,

is m o r e th an c o m p ensat ed b y t h e p ow e r o f f ol l owi ng al
w ays an appo i nt e d and w ell k no w n rout e of resi sti ng t h e
-
,

f o r c e of t h e wi nd s whi c h w o u ld dr iv e th e ship t o w ard s

t h e sh o r e t h e sh oal s o r th e r o c k s
, ,
.
42 M O TI VE PO WER oF HEA T .

to England Sav e ry Ne wco m en S m eato n t he

.
, , ,

fam ou s W att Woolf Tr evithick and so m e oth e r

, , ,

Engli sh e ngin ee rs are t he v e rit abl e cr e ator s of t h e

,

s team engin e It h as acq uir e d at th eir hands all

-
.

it s succ essiv e d egr ee s o f i m prov e m e nt Finally it .

,

is natur al t h at an inv e nt ion should hav e it s birth

and esp eci ally b e d e velop ed b e p erf e ct ed in that , ,

pl ac e wh er e its want is m o st strongly f elt .

Not with st anding t he work of all kind s don e by

s t eam engin es not with st and i ng t h e sati sf actory
-
,

condition to which th ey h ave b een brought t o day -

,

th e ir th eory i s v ery l i ttl e und e rstood and the at ,

t em pts to i m prov e th em are still dire ct e d al m ost

by chanc e .

T he qu e stion has oft en b een rais e d wh eth er t h e

*
m oti v e pow e r of h e at is unbound ed wh eth er t he ,

po ssibl e i m prov em ents in s tea m engin es h av e an -

assign abl e li m it — a li m it which t h e n atur e of

,

things will not allo w to b e p assed by any m eans

wh at e v er ; or wh e th er on t he contrary th es e im
, ,

p ro v e m e nt s m ay b e carri e d on i n d e finit ely W e .

*
We u se h e r e th e ex pr essi o n m o ti v e p o w e r t o e x pr ess
t h e u se f u l e ff e c t th at a m o t or is c ap abl e o f pr od uc i ng .

T hi s e ff ec t c an alw ays b e l ik e ne d t o t h e e l ev ati o n o f a

We i g ht t o a c e rt ain h ei g ht I t h as as w e k n ow as a
.
, ,

m e asu r e t h e pr o d u c t o f t h e w e i g ht m u ltipli e d by t h e
,

he i g ht t o whi c h it is r ai se d .
44 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

e v er t he working sub stanc e and w ha t e v er t he

m e thod by which it i s op e r at e d .

M achin es which do no t r e c e i v e th e ir m otion fro m

h eat tho se which hav e for a m otor t he forc e of
,

m e n or of ani m al s a w at e rfall an air curr ent e t c

'

-
, , , .
,

c an b e studi e d e v e n to th e ir s m all e st d e tail s by

t h e m e chanic al th eory Al l ca se s are for e seen al l

.
,

i m agin abl e m ov em ent s are r eferr e d to th ese g en eral

principl es fir m ly e st ablish ed and applicabl e und e r
, ,

al l circu m st anc e s Thi s is the ch aract e r of a com

.

pl ot e th eory A si m ilar th eory is evid ently n eed e d

.

for h eat engin es We sh all hav e it only w h en t he

-
.

laws of Phy sics shall b e e x tend e d e nough g en e ral ,

iz ed enough t o m ak e known b efor e hand all t he

,

e ff e cts of h eat acting in a d e t er m in e d m ann e r on

any body .

We will suppos e in what follow s at l east a

sup e rfici al knowl e d g e o f t he d i ff e r e n t p art s wh i ch

co m po se an or din ary st eam engin e ; and w e con -

si d e r it unn e c e ssary to e xpl ain wh at are t he

f urnac e boil e r st e am cylind e r pi ston cond e n se r
, ,
-
, , ,

e tc .

T he production of m otion in st e ngin e s is eam -

al w ay s acco m p ani e d b y a circu m s tanc e on wh i ch

w e should fix o u r att ention Thi s c ircu m stanc e

.

is t h e r e est ab li shing of e quil ib riu m in t h e c aloric ;

-

that is it s p assag e fro m a bo d y in which t he

,
 M O TI VE P0 WER OF E EA T . 45

t e m p e r atur e is m or e or l e ss el e v at e d to anoth e r i n ,

which it is low e r Wh at h ap p e n s in fact i n a

.

st e am e ng i n e actu ally i n m ot i on
- ? T he c aloric
d e v elop e d in t he furn ac e by t he effe ct of t he c om
b ust ion tr av e r se s t he w all s of t he bo i l e r pro d uc es ,

st eam ,
an d inso m e w ay i ncorpor at e s it self wi th i t .

Th e l att e r c arry i ng it away t ak e s it fir st into t he

,

cyl i nd e r wh e r e i t p e rfor m s so m e f unct i on an d

, ,

fro m th e nc e i nto t h e con d e n se r wh e r e it is l i qu e

,

fi e d b y cont act w ith t h e col d w at e r which i t e n

count e r s th e r e Th e n as a fin al r e sult t h e cold
.
, ,

w at e r of t he cond en se r t ak e s po sse ssion of t he

c aloric d e v e lop e d by the co m b u stion It is h eat ed .

by t h e int erv ention of t he st eam as if i t had b een

pl ac e d d ire ctly ov e r t he furn ac e The st eam is .

h e r e only a m ean s of tran sporting t he c aloric .

It fill s t he sam e o ffic e as i n t he h eat i ng of b ath s

b y st e am e xc ept th at i n thi s c as e its m ot i on is
,

r en d e r e d u seful .

We e asily r e cogniz e in t he op e ration s th at w e

hav e ju st d e scri b e d t he r e est ab li sh m e nt of e qui
’
-

li b r i u m i n t he c aloric it s p assag e fro m a m or e o r

,

l ess h eat e d b o d y to a coo l e r o n e T h e fir st o f

.

th ese b o d i es in thi s c ase is t h e he ated air of t he

, ,
'

fur nac e ; t he se con d is t he con d en sing wat e r T he .

re e stabl i sh m e nt of
-
e qu i li b riu m of t he c alor i c
t ak e s pl ac e b e tw e e n th em if not co m pl et ely at
, ,
46 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

l e a st p arti ally for on t he one h an d t he h eat e d air

, ,

aft e r h aving p e rfor m e d it s funct i on h aving p asse d

,

round t h e b oil e r go es o u t t hrough t h e ch i m n ey

,

with a t e m p e ratur e m u ch b elow th at which it had

acquir e d as t he e ff e ct of co m b u stion ; an d on t he

oth e r h an d t h e wat e r of t he cond en se r aft e r hav

, ,

ing l i qu e fi e d t he st eam l eav e s t he m ach i n e w ith

,

a t e m p e r atur e high e r th an th at with which it

e nt e r e d .

The production of m otiv e pow e r is th en due in

st e am e ngin e s not to an actu al
- con su m ption of
c aloric b ut to its tr a nsp or tat ion fr om a w ar m
,

body to a c ol d body th at is t o its r e e st abli sh m e nt

, ,
-

o f e quili b riu m — an e quili b riu m con sid e r e d as de

stroy e d b y any c au se wh at e v e r by ch e m ic al action
,

such as co m bu sti on o r b y any o th e r

, We sh all .

see shortly th at thi s princip l e is applic ab l e to

any m achin e se t in m otion b y h eat .

A ccord i ng to thi s princ i pl e t he production of

,

h eat alon e is not suffici ent to giv e b irth to t he

i m p elling po w e r : it is n e c essary th at th e r e should
al so b e col d ; withou t it t he h e at would b e u se
,

l ess An d i n f act i f w e sho uld fi nd about u s

.
,

only b o d i es as h ot as o ur furn ac e s h ow can w e ,

cond en se st e am ? Wh at should w e do with i t if

onc e pro duc e d We should not pr e su m e th at w e
m i ht d i sch ar e it into t h e atm o sph e r e as is don e
g g ,
 M OTI VE PO WER OF HEA T . 47

*
in so m e e ng i n e s ; t he at m o sph e re woul d not re
c e iv e it . It d o e s r e c e iv e it un d e r t he actu al con
di tion of thing s only b e c au se i t fulfil s t he offic e
,

o f a v as t con d e n se r b e c au se it is at a low e r t e m
,

e rat ure ; o th e r w i se it would soon b e co m e f ully

p
ch arge d or r ath e r w ould b e alre ady satur at e d ) ;
,

C e rt ai n e ng in es at hi g h pressur e thr ow t h e st e am out

into t h e at m osp h e r e i nst ead o f t h e c o nd ense r T h e y are
.

u se d sp e c i ally in pl ac e s wh e r e it w o uld b e di ffi c u l t t o

pro c u re a stream o f c o ld w at e r sufli c ient to produc e ‘

c o nd ensati o n .

{ T h e exi st e nc e o f w at er in t h e li q uid stat e h er e

ne c e ssarily assu m e d S i nc e with o u t i t t h e st eam e n i ne
g
-
,

c o uld no t b e f ed s upp o ses t h e ex i st e nc e o f a pr ess ur e

,

c ap abl e o f pr e v e nti ng thi s w at e r f ro m vap orizi ng c o n ,

seq ue ntly o f a pr ess ur e e q ual or su p e ri o r t o t h e t e nsi o n

o f v ap o r at th at t e m p e r at u r e I f suc h a pr essu r e w e re
.

no t ex e rt e d b y t h e at m o sph eri c air th e r e w o uld b e in

,

stant l y pr od uc e d a q uantity o f s t e am suffi c i e nt t o g ive

ri se t o th at t ensi o n and it w o u ld b e nec e ssary alw ay s

,

t o o v e r c o m e thi s pr e ssu r e in o rd e r t o thr o w o u t t h e

st eam f rom t h e e ng i n e s i n t o t h e n e w at m o sph e r e No w .

thi s is evi dently equiv al e nt t o o v e rc o m i ng the t e nsi on

wh ic h t h e st eam r etains af t e r its c o nd ensati o n as e ff e c t ed
,

b y o rdi nary m e ans .

I f a v e ry h ig h t em p er at u r e ex i st e d at t h e su rf ac e o f
‘

o ur g l ob e as it se em s c e rt ai n th at it ex i st s in its i nt e ri o r
, ,

al l t h e w at e r s o f t h e o c e an w o uld b e in a s l at e o f v ap o r

in t h e at m osph e re and no p o rti o n of it w oul d b e f ound

,

in a liq uid stat e .

48 M 0 T] VE P O WER OF HEA T .

Wh er ev e r th er e e xi sts a di ff e renc e of t e m p era

tur e wh er e v e r it has b ee n pos sibl e for t h e eq uilib
,

ri mm of t he caloric to b e re est ablish ed it is po ssibl e -

,

t o h av e al so t h e production of i m p elling pow e r .

St eam is a m ean s of r ealizing thi s pow er but it is ,

no t t h e only o ne Al l sub s tanc es in n atur e can

.

b e e m ploy ed for this pu rpos e al l are su sc e ptibl e o f ,

ch ang e s of volu m e of succ essiv e contr actions and

,

d i l at ation s through the al t ernation of h eat and cold

, .

A ll are c ap abl e of ov e rco m ing in th eir ch ang e s of

volu m e c ertain r e si st anc e s and of thu s d e v eloping ,

t he i m p elling pow e r A solid body — a m et allic

.

b ar for e x am pl e— alt ernat ely h eat e d and cool ed in

cr eases and di m ini sh es in l ength an d c an m ov e ,

bodi es fast en e d to its e n d s A liqu id alt ern at ely .

h eat e d and cool e d incr eases and di m inish es in v ol

um e an d c an ov e rco m e ob stacl es of gr eat e r o r l e ss
,

siz e Oppo sed to its dil at ation A n a eriform fluid i s

, .

su sc e pt i bl e of con sid e rabl e chang e of volu m e by

v ari ation s of t e m p er ature If it is e nclo se d in an .

e xpansibl e spac e such as a cylind e r provid e d with

,

a piston it will produc e m ov e m ent s o f gr eat ex

,

t ent Vapor s of al l sub st anc e s c ap abl e of p assing

.

into a g aseou s condition as of alcohol of m ercury , , ,

of sulph u r e t c m ay fulfil t h e sam e o ffi c e as vapor

, .
,

o f w at e r Th e l att e r alt ern at ely h e at e d and

.
,

cool e d wo uld produ c e m otiv e p ow er in t he shap e

,
 M O TI VE P 0 WER OF HEA T .

of p er m an ent g ases th at is without e v er r eturn

, ,

ing to a liquid stat e M ost of th ese sub stanc es

.

hav e b ee n propo se d m any ev en have b een tri e d

, ,

although up t o this ti m e p erhaps without r em ark

abl e succ e ss .

We hav e shown th at in st eam engin es t he m otiv e -

po w er is due to a re estab l i sh m ent of equilibriu m

-

in the cal oric this t akes plac e not o nly for st eam
engin es b ut a
, lso for e v ery h eat engin e— that is -
,

for ev e ry m achin e of which c aloric is t he m otor .

Heat can e vid ently b e a cau se of m otion only by

virtu e of t he ch ange s of vol um e or of for m which
it produc e s in bodi e s .

Th ese ch ang es are n ot cause d by uniform t e m

p e rat ure but,
r ath e r by alt e rnations of h eat and

cold No w to h eat any sub stanc e what ev er r e quire s

.

a body war m er than t he one t o b e h eat e d ; t o cool

it r equir e s a cool er body We supply c aloric t o
.

t he first of th ese bodi es th at w e m ay tr an sm it

it t o t he se cond by m ean s of t he int er m e diary .

sub st anc e Thi s is to re e stablish or at l east to

.
-
,

end e avor t o re e stablish t he e quilibriu m

-
, of t h e

caloric .

It is natural to ask h er e thi s curiou s and i m por

tant qu e stion I s t he m otiv e power of h eat inv ari ~

abl e in quantity or do es it v ary w ith t he ag ent

,

e m ploy ed to r ealiz e it as t he int e r m edi ary sub

50 M O TI VE P0 WER OF HEA T .

t nc e s el ect e d as t he subj e ct of action of the

s a ,

h eat
It is cl ear that this qu estion c an b e ask e d only
*
in r egard t o a giv e n quantity of c aloric the differ ,

e nc e o f t he t em p e r atu r e s al so b e i ng giv e n We .

t ak e for e x am pl e o ne body A k ept at a t e m p era

, ,

°
tur e of 1 00 and anoth er body B k ept at a t em p e ra
ture of and ask wh at q u antity of m otiv e powe r
c an b e produ c e d by t h e pa ss ag e of a gi v e n portion

of c aloric ( for e x am pl e as m uch as is n e c essary to

,

m elt a kilogram of ice ) fro m t he fir st o f th ese

bodi es to t he s e cond We in q uir e wh eth e r this
.

quant ity o f m otiv e pow er i s n e c essarily li m it e d ,

wh e th e r it vari e s with t h e substanc e em ploy e d to

r ealiz e it wh eth er t he v apor of w at er o ffe rs in thi s
,

r esp ect m or e or l ess advant ag e than t he v apor of

alcohol of m e rcury a p er m an ent gas or any oth er
, , ,

sub st anc e We will try to an sw er th ese qu e stion s

.
,

availing ours elv es of id eas alr e ady e st ablish ed .

*
I t is id e r e d u nnec essary t o e x pl ai n h e r e w h at is
c ons

q uant ity of c al o ri c or qu an tity o f h eat ( fo r w e em pl o y

th ese t w o e x pr essi ons indifi ere ntl y ) or t o d escribe h ow w e
,

m easur e th e se q u antiti es b y t h e c al o ri m e t e r .Nor will w e

e x pl ai n wh at is m ean t by l at e n t h e at d e g r e e o f t e m p e r at u r e
, ,

sp ec ifi c h e at e t c ,T h e r ead e r sh o uld b e f am il iar iz e d wit h

.

th ese t e rm s through th e st udy of th e e l e m entary tre at ises

o f p h y si cs o r o f c h em i str
y .
52 M O TI VE P 0 WER OF B EA T .

t wo bodi e s A and B k ept e ach at a const ant t em

,

rat ure th at of A b e ing high er than that of B

p e , .

Th es e two bodi es to which w e c an giv e or fro m

,

which w e can r em ov e t h e h eat wi t hout causing

th e ir t em p erature s t o v ary e x erci se t he function s
,

of t w o unli m it e d r e s e rvoirs of c aloric We will .

c all t h e first the furnac e and t he s e cond t h e re

frigerat or .

If w e wish t o produ c e m o tiv e po wer by carrying

a c e rtain qu antity of h e at fro m t he body A t o t h e
b ody B w e sh all proc e e d as follows
( )
1 To bo rrow c aloric fro m t h e body A t o m ak e

i —
st eam with t that is to m ak e thi s body fulfil
,

t he f unction of a furn ac e or rath e r of t h e m et al

,

co m po sing t h e boil er in ordin ary engin es— w e h er e

assu m e th at t h e st eam is prod uc e d at t he sa m e
t e m p er atu re as t he body A .

( )
2 Th e st e am h aving b e e n r e c e iv ed in a spa c e

c ap abl e of exp an sion su ch as a cylind e r furni sh e d

,

with a piston to incr ease the volu m e of this spac e

, ,

and cons e qu en tly al so that of the st eam Thu s rar e

.

fi ed t he t e m p e r atur e will fall spontan e ou sly as

, ,

occurs with al l el astic fluids ad m it th at t h e rare

faction m ay b e continu e d to t h e point wh er e th e
t e m p er atur e b e co m es precis ely that of t he body B .

( )
3 T o cond e ns e t h e s t e am by putting it in con
tact with t he body B and at the sa m e t i m e e x e rt
,
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 53

ing on it a con st ant pr essu re unt i l it is entir ely

l i qu efi ed Th e body B fills h ere t he plac e of t he
.

inj e ction wat er in ordin ary eng i n es with thi s d i f

-
,

fer e nc e th at it cond ens es t he vapor witho ut

,

m ingling with it and without changing its own

,

t e m p eratur e .

We m ay p erh ap s w o nde r h ere t h at th e b ody B bei ng

at t h e sam e t e m p e r at ur e as th e st eam is abl e t o c ond e nse
it. D oubtl ess thi s is not stri c tly p o ssibl e b ut t h e sli g ht e st
,

di ffer enc e of t e m p erat ure will d et erm i ne th e c o ndensati on ,

whi c h suffi c es t o est abl ish t h e justi c e of o ur r easo ni ng I t .

is th u s th at in t h e di ff e r e n ti al c al c ul us it is sufii c ie n t that
, ,

w e c an c onc e iv e t h e ne g l e c t ed q uantit ie s i nd e fi nit ely r e

d uc ib l e in pr op o rti on t o t h e q uantiti e s r e t ai ne d in t h e
e q uat io ns t o m ak e c e rt ain o f t h e e x ac t r e su lt
, .

T h e body B c ond enses t h e st e am with o ut c h ang i ng its

o w n t e m p e r at ur e —thi s r e su lt s f r o m o ur su pp o siti o n We .

h av e ad m itt ed th at thi s body m ay b e m ai nt ai ned at a c on

st ant t em p e r at u r e W e t ak e aw ay th e cal ori c as t h e st eam
.

f ur ni sh e s it T hi s is th e c onditi on in wh ic h t h e m e t al o f
.

t h e co nd en se r is f ound w h en t h e lique f ac ti on o f t h e st e am

is ac co m pli sh e d b y applyi ng c o ld w at e r ex t e r nally as w as ,

f o r m erly d one in sev eral eng i ne s S i m il arly th e w at e r of

.
,

a r ese rv o ir c an b e m ai nt ai ned at a c o nstant l e v e l if t h e

li q uid fl o w s o ut at o ne side as it fl o w s in at t h eo th er .

O ne c o uld e v e n c o nc eiv e t h e bodi es A and B m aint aining

t h e sam e t e m p e rat ur e alth o ug h th ey m i g ht l o se o r g ai n
,

c e rt ai n qu antiti e s o f h e at I f f o r e xam pl e t h e b o dy A
.
, ,

w e r e a m ass o f st eam r e ady t o b e c om e l iq uid and t h e bo dy

,
54 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

T he op erations wh ich w e h av e j ust describ ed

m ight h av e b ee n p e rfor m e d in an inv e r se dir e ction
.

and ord e r Th er e is nothing to pr e ve nt for m ing

.

vapor with th e caloric of t he body B and at t he ,

t em p er atur e of that body co m pr essing it in such ,

a w ay as to m ak e it ac q uir e t he t e m p eratur e of t h e

body A finally cond en sing it by contact with this

,

latt e r body and continuing t he co m pr ession t o

,

co m pl et e liqu efaction .

By our fir st op erations th er e would hav e b een

‘

at the s am e ti m e produ ction of m otiv e pow er

and transfer of caloric fro m t he body A t o t he
body B By t he inv ers e op erations th er e is at t he
.

sa m e ti m e e xp enditur e of m otiv e powe r an d r eturn

of caloric fro m t he body B to t he body A But .

if w e hav e act ed in each c as e on t he s am e q uantity

of vapor if th er e is produ c ed no loss e ith e r of
,

m otiv e p o w e r or c aloric t h e quantity of m otiv e

,

pow er produc e d in t he first plac e will b e e q ual to

that which would hav e b een e xp end e d in t he s econd ,

and t he q uantity of c aloric p as sed in t h e fir st cas e

fro m t he body A to t he body B would b e eq u al t o
t he q uantity which p asses back again in t he se cond
fro m t he body B to t he body A ; so th at an indefi
B a m ass o f ic e ready t o m e lt th ese b odi e s m i g ht as w e
, ,

k now ,
f ur n i sh o r receiv e cal o ri c without therm om etric
c h ang e .
 MO TI VE PO WER OF BEA T . 55

nit e nu m b er of alt ern ativ e op eration s of th is sort

co uld b e c arri e d o n witho ut in t he end having
e ith e r produc e d m otiv e pow e r or transf err e d caloric

fro m one body to t he oth er .

No w if th er e e xi st e d any m eans of using h eat

prefer abl e to tho se which w e h av e e m ploy ed that ,

is if it w er e pos sibl e by any m ethod what e v e r to

,

m ak e t h e c aloric produc e a qu antity of m ot i v e

powe r gr eat er th an w e hav e m ad e it produc e by our

fi rst seri e s of op eratio n s it would suffic e to divert
,

a portion of t h i s pow e r in ord er by t h e m ethod just

i n d icat e d t o m ak e t he c aloric of the body B return
to t he body A fro m t he r efrigerator to t he furnac e ,

to r e store t he ini t i al conditions and thus t o b e,

r eady to co m m e nc e again an op er ation pre cis ely

si m il ar to t he for m er and so on : this would b e
,

not only p erp etual m otio n but an unli m it ed cr ea

,

tion of m otiv e pow er without consu m ption eith er

of c aloric or o f any oth e r ag ent wh at e v e r Su ch .

a cr eation is e ntir ely contr ary to id eas now acc ept ed ,

to t he l aws of m e chanics and of sound physics .

It is i nad m issibl e We should th en conclud e t h at

the m axim um m otiv e r es u l t ing the
f
o p ow er f r om

em p loym ent o is also the m ax im u m of m ot iv e

f s team

p ow er r ealiz abl e by any m eans w hatev er . We will

No t e A , A pp end ix B .
56 M O T] VE PO WER OF BEA T .

soon giv e a s econd m or e rigorous d e m onstration of

this th eory Thi s should b e consid er e d only as
.

an approxi m ation ( S ee p ag e
.

We h av e a righ t to ask in r egard to t he propo

,

sit ion j u st e nu nci at ed t he following qu estio ns

,

What is t he s ens e of t he word m axim um h er e ?

By w hat sign can it b e known th at thi s m axi m u m
i s att ain e d By wh at sign can it b e known wh eth e r
t he st e am is e m ploy ed t o gr eat e st po ssibl e adv an
tage in t he production of m otiv e pow er
Sinc e e v e ry re establish m e nt of e quilibriu m in
-

t he c aloric m ay b e t he caus e of t h e production of

m otiv e pow er e v ery r e e stablish m e nt of e q uilibriu m
,
-

which sh all b e acco m pli sh ed without production of

thi s pow er should b e consid e re d as an actual lo ss .

No w v ery littl e r efl e ction would show that all

,

ch ang e of t em p er atu re which is not due to a change

of volu m e o f t he bodi e s c an b e only a u s el e ss r e
*
e st abli sh m e nt of e quilibriu m in t h e caloric The .

n e c ess ary condition of t he m axi m u m is th en that , ,

W e assu m e h ere no c h em i c al ac ti on betw een th e b odies

e m pl oy e d t o r eal iz e th e m o tiv e p o w er o f h e at
. T h e c h em
i cal ac ti o n w h i c h t ak es pl ac e in t h e f ur nace is in som e
,

so rt,
a pr e li m i nary ac ti o n —ah O p e rati o n d esti ne d no t t o
,

produce i m m edi at e ly m otiv e p o w e r b u t t o d estroy th e

,

e q uil ibri um o f t h e c al o ri c t o pr od uc e a di ff e r e nc e of te m
,

p e rat ure w h i c h m ay fi nally g iv e ri se t o m ot io n .

 M O TI VE P0 WER OF BEA T . 57

i n the bodies em p l oy ed to r ealiz e the m otiv e

p ow er
f
o heat ther e shou ld not Occ ur any chang e of t em

p er atur e w hich m ay not be due to a chan e O

g f
volum e . Re ciproc ally, e v e ry ti m
that thi s condi
e

t ion is fulfill e d t h e m axi m u m w i ll b e att ain e d .

Thi s principl e should n ev er b e lost sight of in the

construction of h eat engin es it is its fund am ent al
-

b asi s If it c annot b e s trictly obs e rv ed it should

'

.
,

at l east b e d ep art e d fro m as littl e as po ssibl e .

Ev ery chang e of t e m p e ratur e w hich is not due

t o a ch ang e of volu m e o r to ch em ic al action ( an
ac tion th at w e prov i sionally suppo se not to occur
h er e ) is n ec essarily du e to t he dir e ct p assage of t he
c aloric fro m a m or e or l es s h eat e d body to a cold er
body Thi s p assag e occurs m ainly b y th e cont act
.

o f bodi es of di ff e r ent t e m p e r atur e s ; h e nc e such

contac t shoul d b e avoi de d as m uch as po ssi b l e It .

cannot prob ably b e avoid ed e ntir e ly but it should ,

at l east b e so m an ag e d th at the bo d i es brought in

contact with each o th er diffe r as littl e as po ssibl e
in t e m p eratur e Wh en w e j ust now suppo sed in
.
,

our d em on str ation t he c aloric o f t h e bo d y A e m

,

ploye d to form st eam th i s st eam w as con si d er ed as

,

g en e r at e d at the t em p e r atur e of t he b ody A thu s

t he cont act took pl ac e only b e tw een bod i e s of e qu al
t e m p eratur es t h e ch ang e of t em p e rature occurring
aft erw ards in t he st eam w as due t o dilatat ion con ,
58 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

s equ ently to a cha ng e of volu m e Fi nally coud en

.
,

sation took pl ac e al so without contact of bodi es of

diff erent t e m p eratures It occurre d whil e e x er t
.

ing a constant pr essur e on t h e st eam brought in

contact with t he bo d y B of t he sam e t e m p e ratur e
as its elf T he condition s for a m axi m u m are thus
.

found to b e fulfill e d In r eality t he op e ration

.

cann ot proc ee d e xactly as w e hav e as sum e d To .

d e te r m in e t h e pa ss ag e of c aloric fro m one body to

anoth er it is n ec essary that th er e should b e an
,

e xc e ss of t em p e r atu r e in t he first but thi s e xc ess

,

m ay b e suppos e d as slight as w e pl e as e We can .

r egard it as ins en sibl e in th eory without th er eby

,

d estroying t he e xactn es s of t h e argu m ents .

A m or e substantial obj ection m ay b e m ad e to

our d em onstr ation thu s , Wh en w e borrow c aloric
fro m t he body A to produc e st eam and wh en this ,

st eam is aft erw ards cond e n se d by it s cont act wi th

t he body B t h e w at e r us e d t o for m it and whic h
, ,

w e consid e r e d at first as b e ing of t h e t em p e r atur e

of t h e body A is found at t he clo se of t he op e ra
,

tion at t he t em p eratu re of t he body B It has .

b eco m e cool If w e wi sh to b egin ag ain an Op er a

.

tion si m ilar t o t he fir st ,if w e w i sh t o d e v elop a

n e w quantity of m otiv e pow er wi t h t he sam e in

stru m ent with t h e s am e st eam it is n e c essary fir st

, ,

t o r e establish t h e original condition—to r estor e

-
60 M O TI VE P 0 WER OF B EA T .

t e m p eratu r e will b e al so ind efinit ely s m all and un

i m portant r el ativ ely t o that which is n e c essary t o
prod uc e st eam — a q u antity always li m it ed .

The propo sition found els ewh er e d e m onstrat ed

for t h e cas e in which t he diffe r enc e b e tw een t he
t e m p eratur e s of t he two bodi es is ind efinit ely sm all ,

m ay b e e a si ly e xt e nd e d to t h e g en e r al c ase In .

fact i f it op erat ed to produ c e m otive pow er by t he

Z
,

pa ssag e of c aloric fro m t he body A to t he body ,

the t e m p e ratu re of this l att e r body b eing v e ry dif

feren t fro m th at of t he for m e r w e should i m agin e
,

a seri e s of bodi es B O D o f t e m p e r atu r e s

Z
, , .

int er m ediat e b etw een thos e of t h e bodi e s A , ,

and sel e ct e d so that t h e di ff erenc es fro m A t o B ,

fro m B to 0 et c m ay all b e i nd efini t ely s m all

Z
.
, .
,

The caloric co m ing fro m A would n ot arriv e at

till aft er it had pas se d through t he bodi es B O D , , ,

et c . and aft e r h aving d ev elop e d in e ach of th ese

,

stag es m axi m u m m otive pow e r T he inv er se .

op erations would h er e b e entir ely po ssibl e and t he ,

r easoning of p ag e 52 would b e strictly applicabl e .

A ccording to e stabli sh e d principl e s at t he pr e s ent

ti m e w e c an co m p are with su ffici ent accuracy t he
,

m oti v e pow e r of h eat to that o f a w at e rfall Each .

h as a m axi m u m th at w e cannot e xc ee d what ev er ,

m ay b e on t he o ne hand t h e m achin e wh i ch is
, ,

act e d up on by t he w at er and what ev er on t he

, ,
 M O TI VE P 0 WER OF B EA T 61
’
.

o th er hand t he sub st anc e act e d upon by the h eat

, .

Th e m otive pow e r of a w at erf all d ep e nd s on it s

h e i ght and o n t he quantity of t he l i qu id ; t he
m otiv e pow e r o f h e at d e p e n d s al so o n t he qu antity

of c aloric u se d an d on wh at m ay b e t e r m e d on
, ,

wh at in fac t w e will c all the h eig ht of its fa ll

'

*
, ,

th at is to say t he difl ere nc e of t em p eratur e of t he

,

bodi e s b etween which the e xch ang e of caloric is

m ad e . In t he wat erfall t he m otiv e pow er is ex
ac t l y proportional to t he d iffe r enc e of l ev e l b etw ee n

t he high er and low e r r eservoirs In t he fall of

.

c aloric t he m otiv e pow e r un d oubt edly increas es

with the di ff er enc e of t e m p er atur e b et w een t he
war m and t he cold bodi es ; but w e do not know
wh eth er it is proportion al to thi s di ff er enc e We .

do not know for e x am pl e wh e th er the fall of c a

, ,

loric fro m 1 00 to 50 d egrees furni sh es m or e or l ess

m otiv e po we r than t h e f all of thi s sa m e c aloric fro m

50 t o z e ro .I t is a qu estion which w e propo se t o

e x am in e h e r eaft e r .

We sh all giv e h ere a second d em on stration of

t he fund am ental proposition e nunci at e d on pag e
56 and pr ese nt this propo sition un d e r a m or e g en
,

e r al for m th an t h e o ne alr ead y g i v en .

The m a tt e r h e r e de alt with b e i ng e n ti rely ne w w e are

,

obli g e d t o e m pl o y ex pr essi o ns no t in u se as y et and wh ic h

,

p e rh aps ar e l ess c l ear th an is d esirabl e.

62 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

Wh en a g ase ou s fluid is r apidly co m pr esse d it s

t em p eratur e ris es It f all s on t he contr ary wh e n
.
, ,

it is r apidly dil at e d Thi s is on e of t he facts b est

.

d em on strat e d by e xp eri m ent We will tak e it for.

*
t he ba sis of o ur d e m o nstr ation .

If wh e n t he t e m p e ratur e of a gas has b ee n

,

r ais e d b y co m pr e s sion w e wi sh to r e duc e it to its

,

for m er t e m p erat ur e without su b j e cting its volu m e

to new ch ang es so m e of it s c aloric m u st b e r e
,

m ov e d . This c aloric m ight h av e b e e n r e m ov e d in

proportion as pr e ssur e w as appli ed so th at t he ,

t em p e ratur e of t h e gas woul d r e m ain con st ant .

Si m il arly if t h e gas is r are fi e d w e can avoid low e r

,

ing t he t e m p e ratur e by supplyi ng it with a cer

t ain qu antity of c aloric L et us call t h e c aloric
.

e m ploy e d at su ch ti m e s wh e n no ch ang e of t e m
.
,

r e occur s ca lor ic du e to chan e o l

p e r a t u , g f v o um e .

Thi s d e no m in ation do es not ind i cat e that t h e

c al O r ic app e rt ain s to t h e volu m e it do e s not ap
p ert ain to it any m or e t han to pr essur e and ,

m ight as w ell b e call e d cal or ic due to the change

Of p r es s u.r e W e do not know wh a t l aw s it

follo ws r el ativ e to t h e v ari ation s of volu m e it is
po ssi b l e th at its qu antity ch ange s e ith e r with t he
natur e of t he gas it s d en sity or its t e m p eratur e Ex
, , .

No t e 1 3 , A pp e ndi xB .
 M O TI VE P O WER O F H EA T . 63

p e r im e nt has t au g ht nothing
us on th i s su b j e ct It.

has only shown u s th at thi s c alor i c is d e v elop e d l n

gr eate r or l e ss qu ant i ty b y t h e co m pr e ssion of t he
e l ast i c flu id s .

Th i s pr eli m i nary id ea b eing establi sh e d l et us ,

i m agin e an e l ast i c flu i d at m osph e ri c air for e x am

,

l e sh u t up in a cylindric al v e ss e l abc d (Fig

p , , .
.

rovid e d with a m ovabl e dia

p
p h ra m
g or pi ston e,d L e
.t
th er e b e al so t w o bodi es A and ,

B k e pt each at a con st ant

,

t em p e ratur e that of A b e ing

,

h i gh er th an that of B L et .

u s pictur e to our selv e s now

th e ser i e s o f op e r ation s which

ar e to b e d e scri b e d

( )
1 Cont act of t he body
A wi th t h e air enclo se d in t he
sp ac e abcd o r with t h e w all

of thi s S p ac e—a w all t hat w e

will suppo se to trans m i t the

c aloric r ead ily T he air b e
.

FG 1 I . .

co m es by such contact of t he
sam e t em p e r atur e as t h e b ody A
; cd is t he actu al
po sition of t h e p i ston .

( )
2 Th e pi ston gr adu ally ri se s and t a k e s t h e

p o sit i on ef . T he body A is al l t he ti m e in con

64 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

tac t w i th t h e air which is thu s k e pt at a con st ant

,

t e m p eratur e during t he rar efaction T he b ody A .

furni sh e s t h e caloric n e c e s sary to k ee p t he t em

erat ure con st ant
p .

( )
3 T h e body A is r e m ov e d and t h e air is th e n
,

n o long e r in cont act with any body c ap ab l e of fu r

nish ing it with c aloric The p i ston m ean whil e

.

continu es to m ov e and p as ses fro m t he po sition ef

,

to t he po sitio n g h The air is r ar e fi e d w i t hout

.

r e c eiving c aloric and its t e m p eratur e fall s L e t

, .

u s i m agin e th at it fall s thu s till it b e co m e s eq ual

t o th at of t he body B ; at thi s in st ant t he pi ston
stop s r em aining at t he position g h
, .

( )
4 T h e air is pl ac e d in contact with the body

B ; it is co m pr e s se d b y t he r e turn of t h e p 1 st onas
it is m ov e d fro m t he po sition g h to t he pos ition
cd . This air r em ain s how ev e r at a cons tant
, ,

t e m p er atur e b e cau se of it s cont act with the b ody .

B to which it yi el d s its c aloric

,
.

( )
5 Th e body B is r e m ov e d and t,h e co m pr e s
sion of t he air is contin u e d , which b ei ng th e n
i sol at e d it s t e m p e ratur e ri ses The co m pr ession
, .

is continu e d till t h e air acquir e s t he t e m p e r atu r e

of t he body A The piston p ass es dur i ng thi s
.

ti m e fro m t h e position cd to t he position He .

( )
6 T h e air is again pl ac e d in cont act w ith t he

body A T he pi ston r eturns fro m t he po si tion ih

.
 M O TI VE P O WER O F HEA T . 65

t o t he po sition ef t he t e m p eratur e r e m ain s un

ch ang e d .

( )
7 Th e st e p d e scri b e d und e r nu m b e r 3 is r e

n ew e d th e n su cc e s siv ely t he st e p s 4 5 6 3 4 5
, , , , , , ,

6 3 4 5 and so on
, , ,
.

In th ese variou s op e rat i on s t he pi ston is su b j e ct

to an efl ort of gr eat er or l e ss m agn i tu d e e x ert e d ,

by the air enclo se d iri t he cylind e r ; t h e el ast i c

forc e of thi s air v ari e s as m uch b y r eason of t he
ch ang es in volu m e as of ch ang e s of t e m p e ratur e .

But it shoul d h e r e m ark e d th at w i th e qual

volu m es th at is for t he si m il ar po sitions of t he
, ,

piston t h e te m p eratur e is high e r during t he m ov e

,

m e nt s of dilat ation th an during t h e m ov e m ent s of

co m pr ession During t he for m e r t he e last i c forc e

.

of t he air is found to b e gr e at e r an d con se qu e ntly

,

t h e quantity of m otiv e pow e r pro d uc e d b y t he

m ov em e nt s of dil at at i on is m or e con sid e r abl e th an

th at con su m e d to produc e t he m ov e m ent s o f c om

pr ession Thu s w e shoul d o b t ai n an e xc ess of
m otiv e pow e r—an e xc ess which w e could e m p loy
for any purpos e wh at e v e r The air th en has .
, ,

serv e d as a h eat engin e -

w e h av e in fact e m ploy e d
, ,

it in the m o st adv ant ag e ou s m ann e r p bssib l e for ,

no us e l e ss r e e st ab l i sh m ent of e qu i l i briu m has

-

b een eff e ct e d i n t h e c aloric .

Al l t h e abov e d e scri b e d op e ration s m ay b e

-
 66 M O TI VE PO WER OF B EA T
'
.

e x ecut e d in an inv e r se s en se and ord er L et us .

i m agin e th at aft er t he sixth p e rio d th at is to say

, ,

t h e pi ston h aving arriv e d at t h e po si tion ef w e ,

c au se it to r eturn to t he po sition ile and th at at

,

t he sam e ti m e w e k ee p t h e air in cont act wi th t he

body A The calor i c furni sh e d by thi s body
.

during t he sixth p erio d wo uld r e turn to it s sourc e ,

th at is to t he body A and t he conditions wo uld

, ,

th en b e co m e pr e ci sely t he sa m e as th ey w e r e at t he
e nd of t h e fifth p e riod If now w e tak e away the
.

body A and if w e c au se t he pi ston to m ov e fro m

,

a}?to ed t he t e m p e r atur e o f t he ai r will di m inish

,

as m any d e gr e es as it incr e a se d during t he fifth

p eriod and will b e co m e that of t he body B We

, .

m ay e vid e ntly continu e a seri e s o f Op e ration s t h e

inv e r se of thos e alr eady d escrib e d It is only

.

n e c essary u nd er t he sam e circu m st anc e s to e xe

cut e for each p eriod a m ov em ent of dilat ation
in st ead o f a m ov e m e nt of co m pr e ssion an d re ,

cip r oc all y .

T he r esult of th ese first op erations h as b een t he

prod u ction o f a c ert ain qu antity o f m otiv e pow e r
an d t h e r em ov al of c aloric fro m t h e bo d y A t o t h e

body B The r esult of t he inv er se op er ation s is

.

th e con su m ption of t he m otiv e pow er produc ed an d

th e r eturn of t he c aloric fro m t h e body B to t h e
body A so that th es e two s eri es of op eration s annul
68 M OTI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

We hav e cho sen at m osph eric air as the inst ru

m ent which should d e v elop t he m oti v e pow er o f

h eat but it is e vid ent th at t he r easoning would

,

h av e b een t he s am e for al l oth er g as eous sub stanc es ,

and ev en for al l oth er bodi es su sc eptibl e of chang e

of t em p er atur e through succ essiv e contractions and

dil at ation s which co m pr eh ends all n atural sub

,

st anc e s or at l east all thos e which are ad apt ed to

,

r ealiz e t he m otiv e pow er of h eat Thus w e are l ed

.

to establish this g en eral propo sition :

The m otiv e p ow er o
f heat is i ndep endent of the
ag ents em p loyed to r ealiz e it its q uant ity is xed fi
s olelyby the tem p er atur es of the bodies betw een
fi
w hich is ej ected, na lly, the tr ans fer of the calor ic.

We m u st und erst and h ere that each of t he

m ethods of d ev eloping m otiv e pow er attains t h e

p erf ection of which it is su sc eptibl e This condi .

tion is found to b e fulfill ed if as w e r em ark ed ,

abov e th er e i s produc ed in t he body no oth er

,

ch ang e of t em p er atur e th an that due to ch ang e of

volu m e or wh at is t he sam e thing in oth er word s
, , ,

if th er e is no contact b etw een bodi es of s ensibly

differ ent t em p er atur es .

D i ff er ent m ethod s of r ealizing m otiv e pow er m ay

princ ipl es o n w hi c h t h e th e ory o f h eat r est s r eq uire t h e
m ost c ar e f ul ex am i nati o n M any e x p eri m ental f ac t s ap
.

p ear al m ost i nex pli c abl e in t h e pr ese nt st ate o f th is t h eory .

 M 0 TI VE PO WER OF HEA T . 69

be t ak en as in t he em ploy m ent of differ ent sub

,

st anc e s or in t h e use o f t h e sam e sub st anc e i n two

,

—
di ff er ent st at es for ex am pl e of a gas at two dif ,

ferent d en siti es .

Thi s l ead s us n aturally to thos e int er est i ng re

s earch es on t he aeriform flu ids— r esearch es wh i ch
l ead us al so to new r esult s in r eg ar d to the m otiv e
pow er of h eat and giv e u s t he m ean s of v erifying
, ,

in so m e p articul ar c ases t he fund am ent al propo si

,

*
t i on abo v e st at e d .

We r ead ily see th at our d em on str ation would

h av e b een si m pl i fi e d b y suppo sing t he t em p eratur es
o f t he b o d i es A and B to di ff er v ery littl e Th en .

t he m ov em ent s of t h e p i ston b eing slight during

t he p eriod s 3 and 5 th ese p eriod s m ight h av e b een
,

suppr esse d w i thout influ enc i ng sen si b ly t h e pro

duction of m otiv e po w er A v ery littl e ch ange of

.

volu m e should suffic e in f act to pro d uc e a v ery

slight ch ang e of t em p eratur e an d thi s sl i ght ch ange
,

of volu m e m ay b e n egl e ct e d in pr esenc e of th at o f

t h e p erio d s 4 and 6 of which t h e ext ent is unl im

,

it ed .

If we suppr ess p eriod s 3 an d 5, in t he se r i es of

W e will supp ose in wh at f oll o w s t h e r ead er to

, , be an

co ur ant with t h e l at e r pr og r ess o f m o d e rn Phy sics in re

g ard t o g aseo u s sub st an c es and h eat .

70 M O TI VE P O WER O F HEA T .

Op eration s abov e d escrib ed it is r e duc ed to the fol

,

lowing
( )
1 Cont act o f t h e g as confin e d in abc d F
( g )
i 2 .

with t he body A p assag e of t he pi ston fro m cd to ef

, .

FI G 2
. . FI G 3
. .

( )
2 Re m oval of t he body A contact of t he gas
,

confin e d in abef with the body B r eturn of t he ,

piston fro m ef to cd .

( )
3 R em oval o f t h e body B ,
contact o f t h e gas

with t he body A p assag e of t he pi ston fro m cd t o

,

e f
, th at is ,
r ep etition of t h e fir st p e riod and s
,
o o n .

The m otiv e pow er r esulting fro m t h e ensem ble

o f op er ation s 1 an d 2 will evid ently b e t h e diff er

e nc e b etw een th at which is produc e d by t h e exp an

sion of t h e g as whil e it is at t h e t em p er atur e of t he

body A a ,
n d th at which is con su m e d to co m pr es s

this gas whil e it is at the t em p erature of t he

bod y B .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 7]

L et us suppo se th at op eration s 1 and 2 b e p er

form ed on two gases of differ ent ch em ic al n atur es
but und er t he sam e pr essur e— und er at m o sph eric
pr essur e for e x am pl e Th ese t w o gas es will b e
, .

h av e ex actly alik e und er the sam e circu m st anc es ,

th at is th eir exp an siv e forc es origin ally equ al

, , ,

will r em ain always e qu al wh at ev er m ay b e the

,

v ari at i on s of volu m e and of t em p er atur e provid e d ,

these v ari ation s are t he sam e in b oth Thi s r esult s

.

obviou sly fro m the l aw s of M ariott e and M M Gay .

—
Lu ssac and D alton l aw s co m m on to all el astic
fl uid s
,
an d in virtu e o f wh i ch t h e sam e r e l ation s

e xi st for al l th ese fluid s b etw ee n t h e volu m e t h e ,

e xp ansiv e forc e an d t he t em p er atur e

, .

Sinc e two d i ffer ent g ases at the sam e t em p era

ture and und er t he sam e pr essur e should b eh av e
al i k e und er t he sam e circu m st anc es i f w e su b j e ct e d
,

t h em both to t he op er ations abov e d escrib e d th ey ,

should g i v e ri se to e qu al qu antiti es of m otiv e pow e r .

Now thi s i m pli es according to t h e fund am ent al

,

p roposition th at w e h a v e es t abli sh e d t h,e e m ploy

m ent of two e qu al qu antiti es of c aloric ; th at is it ,

i m pli es th at t he qu antity of c aloric tran sferr ed fro m

t h e bo d y A to t h e bo d y B is t h e s am e which ev er ‘
,

g a s is u se d .

T he qu antity of c aloric tr an sferr ed fro m t he

body A to t he body B is evid ently that which is
79 M O TI VE P O WER O F HEA T .

ab sorb e d by the gas in it s exp an sion of volu m e or ,

t h at which thi s g as r elinqui sh es during co m pr es

sion We are l ed th en to est abli sh t he following
.
, ,

propo sition
When a g as p asses w ithou t chang e of tem p er a
tu r e fr om one fi nite v olum e
de a nd p r ess u r e to an

other v olu m e and another p r ess ur e eq ual ly de fi nite ,

the q uantity of calor ic absor bed or r el inq uished is

al w ay s the sam e, w hatever m a
y be the natur e o f
the g as chosen as the su bj ect of the exp er im ent .

T ak e for ex am pl e 1 litr e of air at the t em p er a

, ,

°
tur e of 1 00 and und er t he pr essur e of one at m o s
p h ere . If w e doubl e t h e volu m e of thi s air an d

w i sh to m aint ain it at t he t em p eratur e of a

c ert ain qu antity of h eat m u st b e suppli e d to it .

Now thi s qu antity will b e pr e ci sely t he sam e if ,

in st ead of op er ating on t he air w e op erat e upon ,

c arbonic acid gas upon nitrog en upon hydrog en

-
, , ,

u pon v apor of w at er or of alcohol that is if w e , ,

doubl e t he volu m e of 1 litr e of th ese gases tak en at

°
t he t em p e r atur e of 1 00 and und er at m osph eric
pr essur e .

It will b e t h e sam e thing in t he inv er se sens e if ,

inst ead of doubling t he volu m e of g as w e r e duc e ,

it on e h alf by co m pr ession T he quantity of h eat

.

t h at t he el astic fluid s set fr ee or absorb in th eir

chan ges of volu m e has n ev er b een m easur e d by

 M O TI VE P O WER O F H EA T . 73

any dir ect exp eri m ent an d d oubtl ess such an ex

,

r im en t would b e v ery di ffi cult b ut th er e e x i st s a

p e ,

d atu m which is v ery n early it s e quiv al ent Th i s .

has b een furni sh e d by t h e th eory of sound It de .

Serv es m uch confid enc e b ec au se o f t he e x actn ess of

t h e conditions which h av e l ed to its est ablish m ent .

It consi sts in this

At m o sph eric air should ri se one d egr ee Centi
gr ad e wh en by sudd en co m pr ession it exp eri enc es
a r e duction of volu m e o f fi v fi
i

Exp eri m ents on t he v elocity of sound h aving

b een m ad e in air und er t he pr essure of 7 60 m illi
m etr e s of m ercury and at t he t em p er atur e of

it is only to th ese two circu m st anc es th at our

d atu m h as r efer enc e We will how ev er for gr eat er
.
, ,

f acility r efer it to t he t em p er atur e

, which is
n early th e sam e .

Air co m pr esse d T fi and thu s h eat ed one d egr ee

, ,

d iffer s fro m air h eat e d dir e ctly one d egr ee only in

its d en sity The pri m itiv e volu m e b eing suppo se d
.

M Po i sson t o
.
,
w h o m thi s fi g ur e is due h as sh ow n,

t h at it ac co rd s v e ry w ell with th e result of an exp eri m ent

of M M .C l e m en t and D eso rm es o n t h e r e t u r n o f air i nt o a
v ac uum or rath e r i nt o air sli g htly r ar efi e d I t al so ao
, , .

c o r ds v e ry ne arly with r e sult s fo u nd b y M M G ay L ussac

.
-

and We lt e r .
( S e e no t e p , .
74 M O TI VE P O WER OF B EA T .

to be V, t he co m pr ession of ‘

t
‘

r s
‘

r e duc es it to
V fi g V.

Dir e ct h eating und er con st ant pr essur e should ,

according to t h e rul e of M G ay Lu ssac . inc rease -

,

t he volu m e of air 7 5 7 a bov e wh at it would b e at

so t h e air is on t h e on e h and r e duc e d to t he vol

, ,

um e V Tn
i
; V ; on t h e oth e r it is incr ease d to
,

V t xt v V
-

T he diff erenc e b etw een t he qu antiti es of h eat

which t he air po ssesses in both c ases is evid ently
t he qu antity em ploy ed to r ai se it dir e ctly one de
gree ; so th en t he qu antity of h eat th at t he air
would ab sorb in p assing fro m t he volu m e V Til— g V
to th e volu m e V + g 7 e is equ al to th at which
1

is r equired to r ai se it one d egree .

L et u s suppo se now th at in st ead of h eating one

,

d egr ee t he air subj ect ed to a con st ant pr essur e and

abl e to dil at e fr eely w e inclo se it within an in v ari
,

abl e sp ac e an d that in thi s condition w e c au se it

,

to ris e one d egr ee in t em p er atur e The air thu s .

h eat e d one d egr ee will di ffer fro m t he air com

pr esse d T l“ only by it s fi g gr eat er volu m e So
. .

th en t he quantity of h eat th at t he air would set

fr ee by a r e du ction of vol um e o f Th is e qu al to
th at which would b e r equir e d to r ais e it one d egr ee
Centigr ad e und er con st ant volu m e A s t he d iffe r .

onc e s b etw een t h e volu m es V l

Tflg V V a n d , ,
76 M O TI VE P O WER O F HEA T .

for all oth er gases; according to t he th eory d em on

st rat ed on p ag e 8 7 t h e h eat ab sorb e d by th ese e qu al
,

incr eases of volu m e is t he sam e for al l t he el astic

fluid s which l ead s t o t he est abli sh m ent of t he fol
,

lowing propo sition

The dif er ence betw een sp eci fic heat u nder con

s tant p r ess u r e a nd sp ec i fic heat u nder constan t

v ol um e is the s am e
f or al l g as es .

It should b e r em ark ed h er e th at all the gas es

are con sid er e d as t ak en und er t he sam e pr essur e ,

at m o sph eric pr essur e for e x am pl e an d th at t he ,

sp e cific h eats are al so m easur e d with r e f er enc e to

t he volu m es .

It is a v ery easy m att er now for us to pr ep ar e a

t abl e of t he sp e cific h eat o f g ases und er con st ant
volu m e from t h e knowl edge of th eir sp e cific h eats
,

und er const ant pr essur e Her e is t he t abl e : .

TA B L E O F T HE S PE C IFI C HE AT OF GA E S S .

S p ec ifi c H at e S p e c ifi c H e at
NAM ES OF G AS ES .

C
un
o ns
d
t P
.
er
r e ss . C o n st
at
. V ol .

A tm osph e ri c A ir ,

Hydro g e n G as ,

C a1 b o n ic A c id
O xyg en ,
Nitr og e n ,

P1 o t o x 1 de o f Nitr og e n,
O l e fi ant G as
O xid e of C arb o n ,
 M O TI VE P O WER OF B EA T
. 77

The first colu m n is t h e r esult of t he di r e ct

e xp eri m ent s of M M D e l ar o
. ch e and Ber ar d on t he
sp e cific h eat of t h e g as und er at m o sph e r i c pr essur e ,

and t he se cond colu m n is co m po se d of t he nu m b e r s

o f t h e first di m ini sh e d by

T he nu m b ers of t he first colu m n and tho se of

t h e second are h er e r e f err e d to t h e sam e unit to ,

t he sp ec i fic h eat of at m o sph eric air und e r con st ant

pr essur e .

The di ff er enc e b etw een each nu m b er of t he first

colu m n and t he corr espon d ing nu m b er of the sec
on d b eing con st ant t h e r el at i on b et w een th ese
,

nu m b er s should b e v ari abl e Thu s t he r el ation

.

b etw een t he sp ecific h eat of ga ses und er con st ant

pr essur e and the sp ecific h eat at con st ant volu m e ,

v ari es in di ff erent g ases .

We h av e see n th at air wh en it is su b j ect e d to a

sud d en co m pr ession of T3”; o f it s volu m e ri ses one

d eg ree in t em p er atur e T he oth er g ases through

.

a si m il ar co m pr e s sion should al so ri se in t em p er a

ture Th ey should ri se but not e qu ally in inv erse

.
, ,

r atio with th eir sp ecific h eat at con st ant volu m e .

In fact t he r eduction of volu m e b eing b y hyp ot he

,

sis alw ay s t h e sam e t h e qu antity of h eat du e to

,

thi s r e duction should lik e w i se b e alw ay s th e sam e ,

and con se qu ently should pro d uc e an e l e v ation o f

t em p er atur e d ep end ent only on t he sp ecific he at

78 M OTI VE P O WER OF BEA T .

a cquire d by t he g as aft er it s co m pr ession and ,

e vid ently in inv e r se r atio with thi s sp e cific h e at .

Thu s w e c an easily for m the t abl e of th e el ev ations

of t em p eratur e of t he difi erent gas es for a co m pres
sion of r t e
T ABL E O F T HE ELE V A T I O N OE TEM P ERAT URE

Gases through the Eff ect f Com p r ession

o .

t mp
El e v a io n o f T e e ra ture
NAM ES OF GAS ES . d t
f o r a Re uc io n o f
m
V ol u e of fig .

A tm os ph e ric Air,
Hydr og en G as ,

C arb o n i c A c id ,
O x y g en ,

Nitr o g en ,

P r o t oxid e o f Ni trog en,

O l efi ant G as
:
.

C arbo ni c O x id e

A s econd co m pr ession of T l ? ( of t he alt er ed vol

u m e) as w e shall pr e s ently see would also r ais e t h e
, ,

t em p eratur e of th ese g ases n early as m uch as t he

fir st ; but it would not b e t he s am e with a third a ,

fourth a hundre dth such co m pr ession The capac

, .

ity of gas es for h eat chang es with th eir volu m e .

It is not unlik ely that it ch ang es al so with t he

t em p eratur e .

We shall now d educ e fro m t he g en eral proposi

 M O TI VE P0 WER OF BEA T . 79

tion st at ed on p ag e 6 8 a secon d th eory which w i ll ,

s erv e as a coroll ary to th at ju st d em on strat ed .

L et u s suppo se th at t h e g as e nclo se d in t he
cylindric al sp ac e abcd ( Fig 2 ) b e tran sport e d into .

t he sp ac e F i
( g ) 3 of e qu al h.e ight but of ,

difi erent b as e an d wi d er Thi s gas woul d incr ease

.

in volu m e would di m ini sh in d en sity and in el astic

,

forc e in t he inv er se r atio of t he two volu m es abcd

, ,

A s to t h e tot al pr essur e e x ert e d in each

p i ston cd c d it Would b e the sam e fro m all qu ar
,
’ ’
,

t ers for t he surfac e of th ese pi stons is in dir ect

,

ratio to t he volu m es .

L et u s suppo se th at w e p erfor m on t he gas in

' ’ ’ ’
clo se d in a b c d t he op erations d escrib ed on page
7 0 and which w er e t ak e n as having b een p erform e d
,

upon th e gas inclo se d in abcd ; that is l et us sup ,

’ ’
po se th at w e h av e giv en to t he pi ston c d m otion s
e qu al to tho se of t he pi ston c d th at w e h av e m ad e ,

’ ’
it occupy succ essiv ely t he po sition s c d corr espon d
ing to c d and e f corr espond i ng to of and th at at
,
' ’
,

t h e sam e ti m e w e h av e subj e ct e d t h e g as by m eans

of t he two bod i es A an d B to t h e sam e v ari ation s

o f t em p er atur e as wh en it w as inclo se d in abc d

The tot al eff ort e x erci se d on t he p ist on w oul d b e

’

found to b e in the two c ases alw ay s t he sam e at

, ,

t he corr e sponding in st ant s This r esults sol ely fro m

.
80 M OTI VE P O WER OF B EAT.

t h e l aw o f M ariott e *
In fact t he d en siti es of t he
.
,

t w o gases m aint aining alw ay s t he sam e r atio for

S i m il ar po sition s of t he pi ston s and t h e t em p er a ,

tur es b eing always e qu al in both t he tot al pr essu r es ,

e x erci sed on t h e pi ston s will alw ays m aint ain t he

s am e r atio to each oth er If thi s ratio is at any .

,

i nst ant what ev er unity t he pr essur es will always

, ,

b e e qu al .

A s furth er m or e t h e m ov em ent s of t h e two pis

, ,

ton s h av e equ al e xt ent t he m otiv e pow er produc ed ,

by e ach will evid ently b e t he sam e ; wh enc e w e

should conclud e according to t h e proposition on
,

Th e l aw of M ari o tt e
whi c h is h er e m ade t h e f o unda
,

ti on u po n whi ch t o e s t abli sh o ur d em o nstrati on is one o f ,

t h e b e st auth en ti c at e d ph y si cal l aw s I t h as serv ed as a .

basi s to m any th eo ri es v e rifi e d b y ex p e ri e nc e and w h i ch ,

in t u r n v e ri f y al l t h e l aw s o n w hi c h th ey ar e f ou nd ed .

W e can c it e al so as a v al uabl e v e rifi c ati on o f M ari o tt e s

,
’

l aw an d al so of th at o f M M G ay L u ssac and D alt on f or a .

-
,

g r eat di ff e r enc e o f t em p erat u re th e e x p e ri m en t s o f M M ,

.

D ul o ng and Pe tit ( S e e A nnales de Chim ie et de Physique

. ,

Feb 1 8 18 t v ii p
.
, . . .

Th e m o r e r ec ent ex p e ri m ent s of D avy and Far ad ay c an

al so b e c it e d .

T h e th eo ri e s th at w e d e d uc e h e re w ould not p erh ap s b e

e x ac t if appli e d o u t sid e o f c e rt ai n li m it s e ith e r o f d e nsity

o r t em p e r at u r e T h e y sh o u ld b e r eg ard e d as tr ue o nly
.

withi n t h e li m it s in whi c h th e l aw s o f M ari o tt e and o f

M M G ay L ussac and D alt o n are th em selv es pr ov en
.
-
.
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 81

p ag e 68 th at t he qu antit i es of h eat con su m ed b y

,

each are t h e sam e th at is th at th er e p asse s f ro m

, ,

t he body A to t he bo d y B t he s am e qu antity of
h eat in both c ases .

Th e h eat ab stract e d fro m t h e b o d y A and c om

m un icat ed to t he b ody B is S i m ply t he h e at ah
,

sorb e d during t h e r ar e faction o f t h e gas and aft e r ,

w ards lib er at e d by its co m pr ession We are th er efore .

l ed to est ablish t he following th e or em

When an elas tic fl uid p asses w ithout chang e of
tem p er atur e fr om the v ol u m e U t o the v ol u m e V,
and w hen a s im ilar p onder abl e q uant ity of the
sam e ,
a
g p
s as ses at the s a m e tem p er at u r e r om the f
’
v olum e U to the V , if the r a t io o U to
’ '
v ol um e f
V is
’
found to b e the sam e as the r at io o
f U to V
t he q uant it ies of heat absor bed or diseng ag ed i n
the tw o c ases w ill be eq u al .

Thi s th e or em m ight al so b e expr esse d as follows

When a g as v ar ies in v ol u m e w ithou t chan e o
g f
tem p er atu r e, the q uant it ies o f heat abs or bed or

liber ated by th is g as ar e in ar ithm et ica l p r og r es

s ion, if the incr em ents or the decr em ents o

f vol um e

are fou nd to be in g eom et r ica l p r og r ess ion .

Wh en a l i t re o f air m ai nt ai ne d at a t em p e ratur e
of t e n d e gr e e s is co m pr esse d an d w h e n i t is r e ,

duce d t o one h alf a l i tr e a c e rt ain qu ant i ty of

,

h e at is set fr e e Th i s qu antity w ill b e foun d al w ays

.
82 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

t he if t he volu m e is furth e r r e duc e d fro m a

sam e

half litr e to a qu ar te r l i t re fro m a qu art e r litr e to

,

ad e ighth and so on ,
.

If inst ead of co m pr e ssing t he air w e c arry it

, ,

su cc e s siv el y to two l i tr e s four l i tr es e i ght litr es

, , ,

et c . it will b e n e c essary to supply to it al way s e qu al

,

qu antiti e s of h eat in or d e r to m ai nt ain a con st ant

t e m p e r atur e .

Thi s r e adily account s for t he h i gh t e m p er atur e

att ain e d by air wh e n r api d ly co m pr e sse d We .

know th at thi s t e m p e r atur e inflam es tind er an d

e v e n m ak e s ai r lu m i nou s I f for a m o m ent w e
.
, ,

suppo se t h e S p e c i fic h eat o f air to b e con st ant in ,

spit e of t h e ch ang e s o f volu m e an d t e m p e r atur e ,

t h e t e m p e r atur e w ill i ncr e ase in ar i th m e t i c al pro

re ss ion for r e du ction of volu m e in g e o m e tr i c al
g
progr e ssion .

St arti ng fro m thi s d atu m and ad m itting th at

,

o ne d egr e e of e l e v ation in t h e t e m p e r atur e cor

r e pond s to a co pr ion f — h ll r dily

Tlg
s m e ss o i w e s a e a,

co m e to t e conclu si on th t a r e d u c e d to 1 47 o f
h a i r 1

it s pri m itiv e volu m e should ri se in t e m p e r at ur e

ab out 3 00 d egr ee s which is su ffici e nt to infl am e
,

*
tind e r .

W h en the v o l um e is r ed uc e d T 1“ t h at is wh en it
, ,

b e c o m es o f wh at it w as at fir st t h e t e m p e rat u r e ri se s
,

o ne d eg r e e . A no th e r r ed uc ti o n o f fi g c arri es t h e v ol um e
84 M O TI VE PO WER OF B EA T .

th at th ey b e t ak e n and m ai n t ain e d at a c e rt ain in

v ari ab l e t e m p e ratur e But th ese t heorie s furni sh
.

no m e an s of co m p ari ng th e qu ant i ti e s of h e at l i b e r
at e d or absor b e d b y e l ast i c flui d s which ch ang e in

volu m e at d i ffer e nt t em p e rat ur es Thu s w e ar e

.

ignorant what r el ation exist s b etw een t he h e at re

l inq uishe d b y a litr e of air r educ e d on e h alf t he ,

t em p e r ature b eing k ept at z e ro an d t he h eat rel in

,

q uish e d by t h e sa m e litr e of air r e duc e d o ne h alf ,

t h e t em p er atur e being k e pt at T he kno w l

e dg e of this r e l ation is clo sely conn e ct e d wi th th at

o f t h e sp e cific h eat of g ase s at v ariou s t e m pe r atur e s

,

and to so m e oth e r data that Phy sic s as ye t do e s not

supply .

Th e se con d of o ur th e or em s o ffe r s u s a m e ans of

d et e rm ining according to what l aw t he sp e cific
h eat of g ase s v ari e s w ith t he ir d ensity .

L et us suppo se t hat t h e op e r at i on s d e scrib e d on

p 70 in st ead of b e ing p erfor m e d with two bodi e s
.
, ,

A B of t e m p e r atur e s diff e ri ng ind e finit ely sm all

, , ,

w er e carri e d on with two bodi es who se t e m p e ra

tur es diffe r b y a finit e qu antity — one d egre e for ,

e x am pl e In a co m pl et e circl e of op e ration s t he
.

body A fur ni sh e s to t he el astic flui d a c ert ain quan

tity of h eat w hich m ay b e d ivid e d into tw o por
,

tion s : ( 1 ) Th at w h i ch is n e c ess ary t o m ai nt ain t he

t e m p e rat ur e o f t h e flu i d con st ant during dil ata
 M O TI VE P O WER OF B EA T . 85

tion th at wh i ch is n e c essary to r estore t h e t em

( )
2
e rat u re of t h e fl ui d fro m th at of t he b o d y B to
p
that of t he bo d y A w h en aft e r h av i ng b rou g ht
, ,

b ack this flu i d to it s pr i m i tiv e volu m e w e pl ac e i t ,

ag ain in cont act w i th t h e b o d y A L e t u s c all t he

.

fir st of th ese qu ant i ti e s a an d t h e secon d b T he .

total c aloric furni sh e d by the b o d y A w ill b e ex

pr ess e d by a b .

The caloric tran sm itte d b y t h e fluid to t he body

B m ay al so b e divid e d into two p art s : on e b due ,
’
,

to the cooling of t he gas by t he b o d y B ; t he oth er

“

a
’
,
which t he gas ab an d on s as a result of it s re
duction of volu m e The su m O f th e se two qu ant i
.

’ ’
ti es is a b ; it should b e e qu al t o a b for , ,

aft e r a co m pl e te cycl e of op e r atio n s t h e gas is ,

brought b ack e x actly to it s pri m it i v e st at e It has .

b ee n obl i g e d to g i v e up al l t h e cal or i c which has

first b e en furni sh ed to it We h av e th en .

a +
or rather,

a — a
'
Z b ’ —b.

Now ccording to t he th e or em giv en on p ag e 8 1

, a ,

t h e qu ant i ti e s a an d a are in d ep e n d ent of t he den

’

sity of t h e g as provid e d al w av s th at t he pon d e r ab l e

,

qu antity r em ain s t he sam e an d th at t h e v ar i ation s

o f volu m e b e proport i on al t o t h e or i gin al volu m e .
86 M O TI VE P O WE R O F H EA T .

’
T he diffe r e nc e a a shoul d f ulfil t he sam e con di
t i on s and con se qu ently al so t he di ffe r e nc e b
, b
’
,

which is e qu al to it Bu t b is t he c aloric ne ces .

’

sary to r ai se t he g as e nclo se d in a bc d ( Fig 2 o ne de

) .

’
gr ee ; b is t he c aloric su rr e nd e r e d b y t he gas wh en ,

e nclo se d i n abc
f it is cool e,
d o n e d egr e e Th e se .

qu antiti es m ay serv e as a m easur e for sp e cific h eat s .

We are th en l ed to t he e stabli sh m ent of t he follow

ing pr opo s itio n :
The cha ng e i n t he ifi
sp ec c heat f
o a g as ca u sed
by chang e of v ol u m e dep ends ent ir ely on the r atio
betw een the or ig ina l v ol um e a nd the al ter ed v olu m e .

Th at is t h e di ff e r enc e of t h e sp e c i fic h eat s do es not

,

d e p end On t he ab solut e m agnitu d e of t he volu m e s ,

but only o n th eir r atio .

Thi s propo si tion m ight also b e diffe r ently ex

pr essed thu s :
,

When a g as incr eases in v ol um e in geom etr ical

p g
r o r ess ion, i ts sp ec i c fi heat i ncr eases in ar ith

m etica l p r o r ession
g .

Thu s a b e i ng t he sp e cific h eat o f air t ak en at a

,

giv e n d e n si ty an d a h t he sp e c i fic h eat for a

,

d en sity on e h alf l ess i t will b e for a d en si ty e qu al

, “
,

to on e qu art e r a 2 h ; for a d en si t y e qu al to on e
,

e ighth a ,
3 h ; an d so on .

T h e sp e cific h e at s are h e r e t ak e n with r e f er e nc e

to w e i ght Th ey are suppo se d to b e t ak en at an
.
88 M OTI VE P O WER OF B EA T .

S i nc e t he
diffe r e nc e b etw ee n t h e t w o c ap aciti es
for h eat is con st ant if one incr eases in arith m e t i c al
,

progr ession t he oth e r should follow a si m il ar pro

ression : thu s one l aw is applic abl e to sp e cific
g
h eat s at con st ant pr essur e .

We hav e t acitly assu m e d t he increase o f sp e cifi c

h eat with th at of volu m e This incr eas e is indi
.

c at e d b y t h e e xp e r i m e nt s of M M D e l aroch e and
.

Bé rar d : in fact th ese phy sici st s hav e foun d

for th e sp e cific h eat of air u nd e r t h e pr essur e of

t he r ati o b e tw e en th e sp e c ifi c h eat at c onst ant pr essur e and

t h e sp e c ifi c h e at at c onst ant v ol um e v ari es ve ry littl e with

t h e d e nsity o f t h e g as . A c co rdi ng t o wh at w e h av e just

see n t h e di ff e r e nc e sh o uld r em ai n c o nst an t and no t t h e
, ,

r ati o A s f urth e r t h e sp e c ifi c h eat o f g ases fo r a g ive n

.
, ,

w ei g ht vari es v ery littl e with t h e d ensity it is e vid ent th at

,

t h e r ati o it sel f e x p e ri e nc e s b u t sli g ht c h ang es .

T h e r ati o b e tw e en t h e sp ec ifi c h e at of at m o sph e ri c air at

c on st ant pr essu r e an d at c on st ant v o l u m e is ac co rdi ng ,

t o M M G ay -Lu ssac and W e lt e r

. , a n um b e r al m o st

c o nst an t f or all pr essu r e s an d e v en f o r al l t em p e r at u r es

, .

W e h av e c o m e thro ug h o th er consid e rati ons t o th e num b e r

, ,

26 7 1 16

2 67
w h i c h di ff e r s f r o m t h e f o r m r
e $ 6 and w e
1
,

h av e u sed thi s num b e r t o prep ar e a t abl e of t h e sp ec ifi c

h eat s o f g ases at c onstant v ol um e S o w e need not r eg ard
.

thi s t abl e as v e ry e xac t any m or e th an t h e tab l e g ive n o n

,

p 89 T h ese t abl es are m ai nly i nt end ed to d em ons trat e

. .

t h e l aw s g o v e r ning sp e c ifi c h eat s o f ae ri f o r m fl uid s .

 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEAT . 89

1 tr e of m ercury ( se e M é m o i r e alr e ady c i t e d )

m e ,

t aking for t h e unit t he sp e c i fic h eat of t h e sam e

W e ight of air un d e r t he p r e ssur e of 0 7 60 m
. .

A ccord i ng to t h e l aw th at sp e c i fic h eat s follow

with r el ation to pr essur e s it is only n e c essary to ,

h av e ob serv e d th e m i n two part i cul ar c ase s to

d e duc e th e m in all po ssibl e cas e s i t is thu s th at ,

m ak i ng use of t h e e x p eri m ent al r e sult of M M .

D el aroch e and Berard which has ju st b een g i v e n ,

w e h av e pr e p ar e d t h e following t ab l e of t h e sp e cific
h eat of air un d e r d iffe re nt pr essur es
S PEC IFI C HEAT OF AI R .

S p e c ifi c H e at S p e c ifi c Hea t
P res sure in t h at o f d
A ir un e r
,

Pr e s sur e in th at of d
A ir u n e r
,

A tm os ph e re s . At m os ph P
e r ic re s Am t os ph r
e es . At m os ph P
e r ic r es
su r e b e ing 1 . sur e b e ing 1 .

Thefir st colu m n is as w e se e a g eo m e tr i c al , ,

progr essi on and t he se cond an ar i th m etic al pro

,

re ssio n
g .
90 M oTTVE PO WER OF BEA T
’

We hav e c arri e d out t he tabl e to t h e e xtr em es

of co m pr e ssion an d r ar e f action . It m ay b e b e
lie v e d th at air woul d b e liqu e fi e d b e for e acquiring
a d en sity 1 02 4 ti m e s it s nor m al d e n si ty th at is , ,

b e for e b e co m i ng m or e d ens e than wate r T he .

sp e cific h eat would b e co m e z e ro and e v e n n eg ativ e

on e xt e nding t h e t ab l e b eyond t he l ast t e r m We .

think furth e r m or e th at t he figur es of t he s e cond

, ,

colu m n h er e d e cr ease too rapidly T he ex p eri .

m e nt s which serv e as a b asis for o ur c alcul at i on

hav e b een m ad e within too contr act e d li m its for us

to exp e ct gr eat e x actn e ss in t he figur es which w e
hav e obtain e d e sp e ci ally in t he outsid e nu m b er s
, .

Sinc e w e know on t h e one hand t he law ao

, ,

cording to which h eat is di se ngag e d in the com

pr ession of g as es an d on th e oth e r t h e law accord
, ,

ing to which sp e cific h eat v ari es with volu m e it ,

will b e easy for us to calculat e t h e incr e ase of t e m

r at ure of a as th at has b ee n co m pr e sse d with
p e g
o ut b eing allow e d to lo se h eat . In fact t he c om,

pr e ssion m ay b e con sid er e d as co m po se d of t wo

succ e ssiv e Op e r ation s :
( )
1 co m pr e s sion at a con

of t h e c aloric
st ant t e m p e r atur e ;
( )
2 r e stor ation
e m itt e d. T he t em p er atur e will ri se through t h e
s e con d op e r ation in inv e r se ratio with t h e sp e cific

h eat acquir e d by t he gas aft e r t he r e duction of

volu m e —sp e c ifi c h e at th at w e are a b l e to calculat e
,
92 M 0 TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

s am e ti m e t 0 l og v
,
0 wh e nc e A
2
,
0 t will
th e n e xpr ess not only t he incr e ase of t e m p e ratur e ,

b ut t h e t e m p e r atur e it se lf abov e t he th e r m o m etric

z e ro
.

We n ee d not consid e r t h e for m ula that w e hav e

ju st giv en as applic abl e to v e ry gr e at ch ang es in
t he volu m e of gase s We h av e r eg ard e d t he el e
.

v ation of t e m p eratur e as b eing in inv e r se ratio to

t h e S p e cific h e at ; which t ac i tly sup po se s t h e sp e cific
h eat to b e con stant at al l t em p e r atur es Gr eat .

ch ang es of volu m e l ead to gr eat ch ang es of t em

er at ur e in th e n d nothing prov s t h C n
p g as a , e e o

st ancy of sp e cific h e at at difi e r e nt t e m p e r atur es ,

e sp e cially at t em p e r atur e s wid e ly se p arat e d Thi s .

con stancy is only an hypoth e s i s a d m itt e d for gases

by analogy to a c e rt ain e xt ent v erifi e d for solid
,

bodi es and liqu i d s throughou t a part of t h e th e r

m o m e t ric sc al e but o f which t h e e xp e ri m e nts of
,

M M Dulong and Pe tit h av e shown t he in accuracy

.

wh en it is d esirabl e to e xt e n d it to t e m p eratur e s
°
far abov e 1 00
A ccording to a l aw of M M Cl e m ent and D e .

sorm e s a l aw e st abl i sh e d by dir e ct e xp e ri m ent the

, ,

v apor of w at e r un d e r wh at e v e r pr essur e it m ay
,

b e for m e d cont ains alway s at e qu al w e ights t h e

, , ,

No t e C , A pp endix B .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 93

sam e qu anti ty of h e at w h i ch l e ad s to t h e asse rtion

th at ste am co m pr e sse d o r e xpan d e d m e ch an i c ally
,

without lo ss o f h e at wi ll al w ay s b e found i n a
,

saturat e d stat e if i t w as so pro d uc e d in t he fir st

plac e Th e v apor of wat e r so m ad e m ay th en b e
.

r egar d e d as a p e r m an ent g as and should o b se rv e

,

all t he l aw s of on e Con sequ ently t h e for m ul a

.

A + B l og v

A + B l og
’ ’
v

s hould b e applic abl e to it and b e found to accord

,

wi th t he t ab l e of t en sions d e riv e d fro m t he d i r e ct

e xp e ri m e nt s of M .D alton .

We m ay b e as sur e d in fact th at our for m ul a

, , ,

with a conv e n i e nt d et e r m in ation of ar b itrary con

st ant s r e pr ese nt s v e ry clo sely t h e r esult s of e x e r i
, p
m e nt . T he sl i ght i rr egul ariti e s w hich w e find
th er e in d o not exc e e d wh at w e m ight r eason abl y
*
attr i but e to e rror s of o b se rv ation .

We wi ll r eturn how e v er to our princip al sub

, ,

fro hich h v w nd r too f — h

jec t
,
m w w e a e a e e d ar t e

m oti v e po w e r of h e at .

We h av e shown th at t he qu ant i ty of m oti v e

’

powe r d e v elop e d b y t h e transfe r of c alo ric f ro m

o n e bo d y to anoth e r d e p end s e s se nti ally u pon t h e

t e m p e r atur e of t h e t w o bo d i es but w e h av e not ,

Not e D ,
A p pe ndi x B .
94 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

sho wn t he r el ation b e twee n th e se t em p er atur es and

t he qu antiti es of m otiv e pow e r produ c ed It woul d .

at fir st seem n atur al enough to su ppo se th at for

e q ual di ff e r e nc e s of t em p e ratur e t h e qu antiti e s o f

m otiv e pow e r produ c e d ar e e q u al th at is for ex ,

a m pl e t h e p assag e of a giv e n qu antity of c aloric

,

fro m a body A m aint ain e d at

, , to a body B , ,

m ai ntain e d at should giv e ris e to a u anti ty of

q
m otiv e pow e r e qu al to th at which would b e d e v el

op e d by t h e tran sfe r of t he sam e c aloric fro m a

body B at
, , to a body 0 at z e ro Such a l aw
, , .

would doubtl e ss b e v ery r em arkabl e but w e do not ,

se e su ffi ci e nt r e a son for ad m itti ng it ap r ior i We .

will inv estigate it s r eality b y e xact r easoning .

L e t u s i m agin e th at t h e op e r ation s d e scrib e d on

p 7 0 b e conduct e d succ e ssiv ely on two q uantiti e s
.

o f at m o sph e ric air e qu al in w e ight an d vol um e ,

but t ak en at di ff e r ent t em p e ratur e s L et us sup .

po se furth er t he diffe r e nc es of t em p eratur e b e

, ,

tw e en t he bodi es A and B e qu al so th e se bodi es ,

woul d h av e for e x am pl e in one of th ese c as es t he

, ,

° °
t e m p eratur e s 1 00 and 1 00 h ( h b e ing in defi
° °
nit el y sm all ) an d in t he oth e r 1 an d 1
, h T he .

qu antity of m otiv e pow e r produ c e d is in each case , ,

t h e diff e r e nc e b e tw e en th at w hich t he g as supp l i e s

b y it s dil at ation an d th at w h ich m u st b e e xp end e d
t o r estor e its pri m itiv e volu m e Now this d iffer
.
96 M OT] VE P O WER OF B EA T .

L et a an d b b e th e
qu antiti e s of h e at e m ploy e d
succ e ssively in t he first o f t he t w o Op er ation s an d ,

’ ’
l e t b an d a b e t he qu ant i ti es of h eat e m ploy e d
succ essiv ely in t h e se cond A s t he final r e sult of .

th e se t w o Op e ration s is t h e s am e t he qu antiti e s of ,

h eat e m ploye d in both should b e e qual We hav e .

th en
’ ’
a b r
: a b ,

wh enc e
a b —b '
.

a
’
is t he qu antity of h eat r e quir e d t o cau se t he
° °

g as to r i se fro m 1 to 1 00 wh en it occup i e s t he
sp ac e abe f .

a is t h equ antity of h eat r e quir e d to c au se the

° °

g as to ri se fro m 1 t o 1 00 wh e n it occupi es t he
sp ac e abcd .

T he d e n sity of t h e air is l e ss in t he first th an in

t h e se con d c ase and according t o t he e xp e ri m e nt s
,

of M M D el aroch e an d Berard alr eady cit e d on

.
,

p ag e 8 7 it s c ap acity for h eat should b e a littl e

,

gr e at e r .

T he qu antity a b e ing foun d to b e gr e at e r th an

’

t h e qu ant i ty a b sh oul d b e g re at e r t han b

’
,
Co n .

s e qu e ntly g e n e r aliz i ng t he propo si tion w e should

, ,

sa
y
The q uantity of heat due to the chang e of v olum e

f g
o a as is g r eat er as t he t em p er at u r e is hig her .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 97

Thu s for e x am pl e m or e c aloric is n e c e ssary to

, ,

°
m aintain at 1 00 t he t e m p e ratur e of a c e rt ain
quantity of air t he volu m e of which is doubl e d ,
°
t han t o m aintain at 1 t he t e m p e ratur e of this
sam e air during a dil atation e x actly e qu al .

Th ese un e qu al qu antit i e s of h eat would produc e ,

how e v e r as w e h av e se e n e qu al qu ant i ti es of
, ,

m ot i v e pow e r f or e qu al fall of c aloric t ak e n at d if

fe re nt h e i ght s on t he th e r m o m etric sc al e ; wh e nc e
w e draw t he following conclu sion
The fall of calor ic p r odu ces m or e m otiv e
p ow er at
inf er ior than at sup er ior tem p er atu r es .

Th u s a giv e n qu antity of h eat w i ll d e v elop m or e

m otiv e pow e r in pa ssing fro m a body k e pt at 1

d eg r e e to anoth e r m aintain ed at z ero th an if th ese ,

°
two b odi e s w e r e at t he t em p e ratur e of 1 01 an d

T he diffe re nc e how ev e r should b e v e ry slight

, , .

It would b e nothing if t h e c ap acity of t he air for

h e at r em ain e d con st ant in sp i t e of ch anges of
,

d en si ty Accord i ng t o t he e xp e r im ent s of M M
'

. .

D el aroch e and Ber ard th i s c ap acity v ar i es littl e

,

so littl e e v e n th at t h e di ffe r e nc e s not i c e d m i g ht

,

strictly h av e b e e n attribut e d to e rror s of o b s e rv a

tion or to so m e circu m stanc e s of which w e h av e

fail e d to t ak e account .

We are not pr e p ar e d to d e t e r m in e pre cis ely

“

,
98 M O TI VE P O WER OF B EA T .

w ith no or e e xp e ri m ent al d at a t han w e now pos

m

se ss t he l aw according to which t h e m otiv e pow e r

,

of h eat vari e s at differ ent po i nt s on t h e th e r m o

m e tr i c sc al e Thi s l aw is i nti m at ely conn e ct e d
.

w ith that of t he v ari at i ons of t he sp e c i fic h eat o f

e m s—
g ase s at diff er ent t p e r atur e a l aw which e x
e r im ent has not ye t m ad e known to us with suffi
p
*
c i e nt e x actn e ss .

We will e nd e avor n ow to e sti m at e e xactly th e

m otiv e pow e r of h e at an d in ord e r to v e rify our
,

fund am e ntal proposition in ord er to d et e r m in e

,

wh e th e r t he agent u se d to r eali z e t he m otiv e pow e r

is r e ally uni m port ant r el ativ ely to t h e quantity of
thi s pow e r w e will sel e ct s e v eral of th em succ es
,

siv el
y : a t m o sph e r i c air vapor o
, f w at e r vapor o f ,

alcohol .

L et u s suppos e th at w e tak e fir st at m o sph e ric

air . Th e op e ra tion will proc ee d accord i ng to t he
m e thod in d ic at e d on p ag e 7 0 We w i ll m ak e t he
.

following h y poth e s e s : T he air is t ak en u nd er

at m o sph e ric pr e ssur e T he t e m p e ratur e of t he
.

body A is fi m of a d egr e e ab ov e z ero th at of t he

l
,

body B is z e ro T he di ff er enc e is as w e see ve ry

.
, ,

slight— a n e c e ssary condition h e r e .

T he incr ea se of volu m e giv en t o t he air in our

No t e E ,
A pp endix B .
1 00 M OT] VE P O WER OF B EA T .

If we c arry out t he indic at e d m ultiplication s w e ,

fin d t he v alu e of t h e product to b e
L et u s e nd e avor now to e st i m at e t h e quantity of
he at e m ploy e d to giv e thi s r e sult that is t he ,

u antity of h e at p as se d fro m t h e body A to th e

q
body B .

The body A f urni sh e s

( )
1 Th e h e at r e quir e d to carry t h e t em p e r atur e

of o n e k i logr am o f air fro m z e ro to

T h e qu antity n e c e ssary to m ai nt ain at thi s

( )
2
t em p eratur e t he t e m p er atur e of the air wh en it
e xp eri e nc e s a dilatation of

T he fir st of th e se qu antiti e s of h eat b e ing v e ry

sm all in co m p ari son with t h e s e cond w e m a di
, y s

r e gard it T he se con d is according to t he r ea

.
,

son i ng o n p ag e 7 4 e qu al to th at which would b e

,
/

n e c ess ary to incr ease o ne d e gr e e t he t e m p e ratur e

of on e kilo g ram of air subj e ct e d to at m osph e ric
pr essur e .

A ccording to t h e e xp eri m e nt s o f M M D el aroch e .

an d Berard on t he sp e cific h eat o f gas e s th at of ,

air is for e q u al w e ight s

,
th at of wat e r If
, .
,

th en w e t ak e for t h e unit of h e at t he qu antity

,

n e c es sary to rai se 1 k i logram of w ate r 1 d e gr e e ,

 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 1 01

th at which will b e r e quir e d to rai se 1 kilogram of

air 1 d e gr e e would h av e for it s v alu e Thu s
t he qu ant i ty of h eat furni sh e d by t h e b o d y A is

0 2 67
. unit s .

Thi s is t he h eat c ap ab l e o f producing

un i ts of m otiv e pow e r b y it s fall fro m to
z e ro
.

For a fall a thou sand ti m e s gre at er for a fall of ,

one d egr e e t he m otiv e pow e r will b e v e ry n early a

,

thou sand ti m e s t he for m er or ,

2 .

If ,
in st ead of
now , un i t s of h eat w e e m ploy
1 000 unit s t h e m otive pow e r pro duc e d will b e
,

e xpr esse d by t h e proportion

1 000
wh enc e x
3 72 —L 3 9 5
“

0 0003 7 2 x 2 67

Th us 1 000 unit s of h e at p as si ng fro m a body

m ai nt ai n e d at t h e t e m p er atur e o f 1 d egr ee to
anoth e r b ody m aint ain e d at z e ro would produc e in ,

acting upon t h e air ,

unit s of m otiv e pow er .

We w ill n ow co m p ar e thi s r esult with th at fur

nish e d by the action of h eat o n th e v apor of w at e r .
1 02 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

L et uppos e one kilogram of l i quid wat e r en

us s

clo se d in t h e cylindric al v esse l abcd ( Fig be .

tw ee n t he botto m ab and t he pi sto n

cd L et us suppos e also t he t wo
.
, ,

bodi es A B m aintain e d each at a

,

const ant t e m p e ratur e th at of A b e ing ,

a v e ry littl e abov e th at of B L et u s .

i m agin e no w t he following op eration s

( )
1 Cont act o f t h e wat e r with t h e

body A m ov em ent of t he piston fro m

,

t h e position c d to t he po sition ef for ,

m ation of st e a m at t h e t e m p e ratur e
FG 4
I
of th e b ody A to fill t he v acuu m pro
. .

duce d by t h e e xt e n sion of volu m e We will sup .

po se t he spac e abef larg e e nough to cont ain all t he

w at er in a st at e of v apor .

( 2 ) Re m ov a l of t h e body A contact o f t h e
, vapor
with t he body B pr e cipit at i on of a p art of this
,

vapor di m inution of its el astic forc e r eturn of

, ,

t he piston fro m ef to ab liqu efaction o f t he r e st o f

,

t h e v apor through t h e e fi ect of t h e pr e s sur e co in

b ine d with t he cont act of t he body B .

( )
3 Re m ov al o f t he body B fr esh cont act
, o f
t he w at e r with t he body A r e turn of t he w at e r ,

t o t h e t em p eratur e of this body r e n ewal of t he ,

for m er p e riod an d so on
, .

The q uantity of m otiv e pow e r d e v e lop e d in a

1 04 M OTI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

hav e found it e qu al to or to sp eak m or e

,

e x actly to 550 of ou r units o f h eat

, .

Th u s units of m otiv e pow er r e sult fro m

t h e e m ploy m e nt of 550 unit s of h eat Th e q uan .

tity of m otiv e pow e r r e sulting fro m 1 000 uni ts of

heat will b e giv e n b y t he proportion

550 1 000
wh enc e x
0 61 1 x

Thus 1 000 unit s of h e at tran sport e d fro m one

body k e pt at 1 00 d e gr ees to anoth e r k ept at 9 9
d egr e e s will produ c e acting upon vapor o f wat er
, ,

unit s of m otiv e pow e r .

The nu m b e r diffe rs by about 2} fr o m the

nu m b e r pr e viously foun d for t he v alu e of t he
m otiv e pow e r d e v e lop e d by 1 000 units of h eat acti n g

u pon t he air ; b ut it should b e o b se rv e d th at in thi s

c ase t he t em p e ratur e s of t he bodi e s A an d B w e r e
1 d e gr e e and z e ro whil e h e r e th ey ar e 1 00 d egr e es
,

an d 9 9 d egr e e s
. T he diffe r e nc e is m uch t h e sa m e
bu t it is no t foun d at t h e sa m e h eight in t he th er
m om e t r ic sc al e . To m ak e an exact co m parison it ,

would h av e b een n ec essary to e sti m at e the m otiv e

pow er d e v elop ed by the ste am for m e d at 1 d egree
and cond e n se d at z e ro .It would al so h av e b ee n
n e c e ssary to know t he q u ant i ty of h eat contain e d
in t he st eam form e d at o ne d egr e e .
 M O TI VE PO WER OF B EA T . 1 05

The l aw of M M Cl e m ent an d Desorm e s r e

.

fe rr e d to o n p ag e 9 2 giv es us t h i s d atu m T he .

const i tu e nt h eat of v apor of w at e r b ei ng al way s t he

s am e at any t e m p e ratur e at wh i ch v apor i z atio n
t ak e s p l ac e if 550 d e gr e es of h eat are r equ i r e d to
,

v aporiz e w at e r alr eady brought up to 1 00 d egr ee s ,

550 1 00 o r 6 50 wi ll b e r e quir e d to v apor i z e t he

sam e w e ight o f w at e r t ak e n at z e ro .

M aking u se of th i s d atu m and r e asoning e x actly

as w e d i d f or w at e r at 1 00 d e gre e s w e fin d as is
, ,

ea si ly se e n,

for t he m otiv e pow e r d e v elop e d by 1 000 uni ts of

h eat act i ng upon the vapor of wate r b e t w ee n one
d egr e e and z ero Thi s nu m b er approxi m at es m or e
.

clo sely than t he firs t t o

It diff er s fro m it only 113 an e rror which do es not

,

e xc ee d probabl e li m it s con si d e ring t he gr eat nu m

,

b e r of d at a of diff e re nt sort s o f which w e h av e

b e e n obl i g e d to m ak e u se i n ord e r t o arriv e at th i s
approxi m ation . Thu s is our fun d a m ental l aw v eri
*
fi e d in a sp e ci al c ase .

We fi nd ( A nna l es de Chim ie et de Phy siq ue, J uly , 1 8 18 ,

p 2 94) in a m e m o ir o f M Pe tit an esti m at e o f t h e m o tiv e
. .

pow e r of h eat appl ied t o air and t o vap o r of w at er T hi s .

1 06 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

We w ill e xam in e anoth e r c ase in which vapor of

alcohol is act e d u pon b y h eat T he r e asoning i s .

pr e cis ely t he sam e as for t he v apor of w at e r T he .

d at a alon e are ch ang e d Pur e alcohol boil s und e r.

or d inary pr e ssur e at 7 C ent i grad e On e kilo .

gram ab sorbs according to M M D el aroch e an d

, .

Ber ard 2 07 u nit s of h e at in und ergoing t ransfor

,

m ation into vapor at this sa m e t e m p e ratur e ,

Th e t ension o f t he vapor of alcohol at one de

gr ee b elow t he boiling point is foun d to b e di m in -

ish e d 2 31 It is 9 5 l ess t han t he at m o sph eri c

.
1

pr e ssure at l east this is t he r esult of t he exp eri

,

m ent of M Bé t anc o ur r e port e d in t he s e cond part

Z
.

of A r chitectur e hydr au liq u e of M Prony pp

’
.
.
,

1 8 0,
If th e s e data w e find th at in acting upon
w e use , ,

o ne kilogra m of alcohol at t he t e m p e ratur e s of

an d 7 t he m otiv e pow er d ev elop e d will

,

be u nits .

This r esults fro m t he em ploym ent of 2 07 units

of h eat For 1 000 units t he proportion m ust b e
.

2 07 1 000
wh enc e l . 230
.

es ti m at e l ead s u s t o attribu t e a g reat advant ag e to at m os

p h e ric air b ut it is d e riv ed b y a m e th o d o f c o nsideri ng t h e
,

ac ti on o f h e at whi c h is q u it e i m p e r f ec t .

No t e F A pp endi x B
, .
1 08 M O TI VE P 0 WER OF B EA T .

a bove r eg arding th em as e x act t o t he exa m in ation

, ,

o f t h e diff e r ent m e t hods propo se d up t o dat e for ,

t he r ealization of t he m otiv e pow e r of h eat .

It has so m eti m e s b ee n propo sed to d ev elop m o

tiv e power by t he action of h eat on solid bodi es .

Th e m od e of proc e d ur e which naturally first occu r s

t o t h e m ind is t o fast e n i m m ovably a solid body
a m et allic b ar for e x am pl e— b y one of its e x t re m i
,

ti e s ; to att ach t he oth er e xtr em ity t o a m ovabl e

p art of t he m achin e ; th en by su cc essiv e h eating
,

and cooling to c au s e t he l ength of the b ar t o v ary

, ,

and so to produc e m otion L et u s try t o d ecid e

.

wh eth e r this m ethod of d ev eloping m otiv e pow er

can b e advant ag e ou s . We hav e shown that t he
condition of t he m o st effe ctiv e em ploy m ent of h eat
in t h e production of m otion is that all chang e s ,

of t e m p e ratur e occurring in t he b odi es should b e

due to chang e s of volu m e T he n ear er w e co m e

.

t o f ulfilling this condition t h e m or e fully will t h e

h e at b e u t iliz e d . No w working in t he m an ne r
,

j ust describ ed w e are v ery far fro m ful fi lling thi s

,

condition chang e o f t em p er atur e is no t due h er e

to chang e o f vol um e ; al l t h e chang e s are due to
—
contact of bodi es di ff er ently h eat e d t o t he con
tact oi t he m et allic b ar e ith er with t he bo dy
,

charg ed with furni shing h eat to it or with t he

l
,

body ch arg ed with carrying it off .

 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

T he only m eans of fulfill i ng the prescrib ed con

di tion w ould b e t o act upon t h e sol i d b o d y e x ac tly
as w e did on th e air i n t h e op e r ation s d e scrib e d o n

p age 9 2 But for thi s we m u st b e abl e t o p ro

.

d uc e by a singl e chang e of volu m e of t he solid

,

body consid e rabl e ch ange s of t e m p eratur e that is

, , ,

i f w e should want to u tiliz e cons i d erabl e falls of

caloric Now th i s app ear s i m pract i ca bl e
. In .

short m any con sid erations l ead t o t he conclu sion

,

that the chang es pro d uc e d in t he t em p eratur e of

solid o r liquid bodi e s through t he effe ct of c o m

pr e ssion and rar efaction would b e but slight .

( )
1 W e oft en o b s e rv e in m achin e s
( p articularly
in st ea m e ngin es) solid pi ec es which endur e c on
-

siderab l e strain i n one way o r anoth er an d ,

although th e s e efi or t s m ay he so m eti m e s as gr e at

as t h e n atur e of t h e sub st anc e s e m ploy ed p er m it s ,

t he variations of t e m p eratur e are scarc ely p er

c ep t ibl e .

( )
2 In t he action of striking m edal s in that of t he
,

roll i ng m ill of t he dr aw pl at e t he m et al s und ergo

-
,
-
,

t h e g reat est co m pr es si on t o which w e c an s ub m i t

t h e m e m ploying t h e h ar d est an d strong est tool s
,
.

Nev e rth el e ss t he el ev ation o f t e m p e r atur e is no t

gr eat If it w er e t he pi e c es of st e el u se d i n th ese
.
,

op erations would soon los e th eir t e m p er .

( )
3 W e know that i t would b e n e c e ssary to e x e rt
1 10 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

on solid s and liquid s a v ery great str ain in ord er t o

produc e in th em a r edu ction of volu m e co m p arabl e
.

t o that which th ey e xp e ri enc e in cooling ( cooling

fro m 1 00 to z ero for exa m pl e ) No w t he cooling
°
, .

r e quires a gr eat e r ab straction of caloric than would

si m pl e r e du ction of v olu m e If thi s r e du ction
.

w er e produc ed by m e chanical m eans t he h eat se t ,

fr ee would not th en b e abl e t o m ak e t he t e m p era

tur e of t he body vary as m any d egr ee s as t he cool
ing m ak e s it v ary I t would how ev er n ec e s sitat e
.
, ,

t h e e m ploy m e n t of a forc e undoubt e dly v e ry con

siderab l e .

Sinc e solid bodi es are susc eptibl e of littl e chang e

o f t e m p e ratur e through chang es o f volu m e and ,

sinc e t he condition o f t he m o st eff e ctiv e em ploy

m e nt of h eat f or t h e d e v e lop m e nt o f m otiv e pow e r

is pr eci sely th at all ch ang e of t em p er atur e should b e

due to a ch ang e of volu m e solid bodi e s app ear bu t
,

ill fi tt e d to r ealiz e thi s power .

The sam e r em ark s apply to liqui ds T he sa m e.

r easons m ay b e giv e n for r ej e c ting th e m *

.

We are not sp eaking no w o f practic al diffi culti e s .

The r ece nt ex p e ri m ent s o f M O e rst e dt o n t h e c om

pressib il ity o f w at e r h av e sh o w n th at f o r a pr e ssu r e o f
,

fi v e at m osph e r es th e t em p e rat ur e o f thi s li q uid ex hibit s

,

no appr e c i abl e c h ang e ( S ee A nnales de Ohim ie e t de

.

Physiq ue Fe b 1 8 2 3 p
, .
, .
1 12 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

( )
1 Th e t em p era t ur e of t he fl uid should b e m ad e
as high as po ssibl e in ord e r to ob tain a gre at f all
,

of caloric and con se u ently a larg e production o f

, q
m otiv e po w e r .

( 2 ) For t he sa m e r ea son t he cool i ng sh ould b e

c arri ed as f ar as po ssibl e .

( )
3 It should b e so arrang e d that t h e pass ag e

o f t h e el astic fluid fro m t h e high est t o t h e low e st

t em p erature should b e due t o increa se of volu m e

th at is it should b e so arrang ed that t he cooling of
,

t he g as should occur spont an e ou sly as t he eff e ct of

rar e faction .T he li m its of the t e m p er atur e to
which it is po ssibl e to bring t he fluid pri m arily ,

are si m ply t h e li m i t s of t he t e m p er atur e obtainabl e

by co m bu stion th ey are v ery high .

T he li m its of cooling are foun d in t h e t em p e ra

ture of t he col dest body of which w e can easily and
fr eely m ak e use thi s body is usually t he wat er of
t he locality .

A s t o t h e third condition it involv e s diffi culti es

,

in t he r ealization of t he m o tiv e pow er of h eat

wh en t he att e m pt is m ad e to t ak e adv ant ag e of
gr eat differ enc e s of t em p eratu re t o u tili z e g reat
,

falls of h eat In shor t it is n e c essary th en that

.
,

t he g as by r ea son of its rar efaction should pa ss

, ,

fro m a v ery high t e m p e ratur e to a v ery l o w one ,

which r e quir es a great chang e of volu m e and of

 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 113

d ensity which r e q uir e s al so th at t he g as b e fir st

,

tak en und e r a v e ry h eavy pr essur e or that it ,

acqu i r e by its d il at ation an e nor m ou s volu m e

condi tions both difficult to fulfil The first n eces .

sit at e s t he e m ploy m e nt o f v ery strong v essels to

contain t he gas at a v ery hi g h t e m p er atur e and

.

und er v ery h eavy pr e s sur e T he se con d n ec essi

.

t at es t h e use of v e ss el s of l arg e di m en sions Th ese .

are in a word t he princip al ob st acl es which

, , p r e

v ent t he utilization in st ea m engin es of a gre at

-

p ar t of t he m otiv e pow e r of t he h eat We are .

oblige d to li m it ourselves to t he use of a slight fall

o f caloric whil e t he co m bu stion of t he co al fur
,

nish es t he m ean s of procuring a v ery gre at one .

It is s eldo m that in st ea m engin e s t he el astic

-

fluid is produc ed und er a h i gh e r pr essur e than six

—
at m o sph e r es a pr e ssur e corr esponding to about
°
1 60 C entigr ad e and it is seldo m th at cond en sa
,

tion t ak es pl ac e at a t em p er atur e m uch un de r

° °
T he fall of c aloric fro m 1 6 0 to 4 0 is whil e
by co m bu stion we c an procur e a fall of 1 000 to °

°
2 000
In ord e r to co m pr eh end this m or e cl early l et us ,

r ec all wh at w e h av e t er m e d t he fall Of c aloric .

Thi s is t he p assag e of the h eat fro m one body A , ,

h aving an el evat e d tem p eratur e to anoth er B , , ,

wh er e it is lowe r We say th at t he fall of t he

.
 ° °
c aloric is 1 00 or 1 000 wh en t h e di ff er enc e of
°
t em p e ratur e b et ween t he bodi e s A and B is 1 00
or

In t a e ngin e which works u nd e r a pr essure

a s e m -

of six at m osph e r es t he t e m p er atur e of t h e boil e r is

This is t h e body A It is k e pt by cont act

.
,

w i th t he furn ac e at the con st an t t em p er atu r e of

,

and continu ally furni sh e s t h e h eat n ec essary

for t he for m at ion of st eam T he cond e n ser is t h e
.

body B By m eans of a curr ent of cold w at e r it

.

is k ept at a n early con stant t em p er atur e of It

absorbs continu ally t he caloric brough t fro m t he
body A by t he st eam The differ enc e o f t em p era
.

°
tur e b etw een th es e t wo bodi e s is 1 60 or
Henc e w e say th at t he fall o f c aloric is h e r e
Coal b e ing c ap abl e of produ cing by its c om b us
,

tion a t e m p eratur e high er than

, and t he
cold wat e r w hich is g en er ally use d in our cli m at e
, ,

b eing at about w e c an e a sily procu re a f all of

°
c aloric of and of thi s only 12 0 are utiliz ed
by st eam engin es Ev en th ese 1 2 0 are not whol ly
-
.
°

utiliz e d Th er e is alw ays consid e rabl e lo ss due

.

t o us el e ss re e stablish m ents of e quilibri um in t he

-

c aloric .

It is ea sy t o see t he advant ag es po ss e ss e d by
high pr e s sur e m achin es ov e r tho se of lo w e r pre s
-

s ur e This s up er ior ity l ies essent ial ly i n the p ower

.
1 16 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

fin ally to produc e it s r esult s in a m ann e r with

which w e wil l not conc e rn ou rselv e s .

L e t u s suppo se th at t h e pi ston h aving m ov e d to cd

is forc e d downw ard to ef without t he st eam b eing ,

allow e d to e sc ap e or any port i on of it s c aloric to b e

,

lo st I t wil l b e d riv e n b ack into t he sp ac e abef an d

.
,

will incr eas e at t h e sam e ti m e in d e n si ty el asti c ,

forc e an d t e m p e r atur e If t he st eam in ste ad of

, .
,

b eing produc e d u nd e r at m o sph e ric pr e ssur e had ,

b ee n produc e d j u st wh en it w as b eing forc e d back

into abef and so that aft e r it s introdu ction into t he
,

cylind e r i t had m ad e t h e piston m ov e fro m ab to

of, an d had m ov e d it s i m ply by it s e xt e n sion of

volu m e fro m ef to ed t h e m otiv e pow e r produc e d

, ,

wo uld h av e b e e n m or e consid e r abl e th an in t he fir st

c ase In fact t h e m ov e m ent of t he pi ston wh i l e
.
, ,

e qu al in e xt e nt would h av e t ak e n pl ac e und e r t h e
,

action of a gr eat e r pr e ssur e though v ari abl e , ,

an d though progr e ssiv e ly d e cr e a sing .

The st e am how e v e r would hav e r e quir e d for its

, ,

for m ation e x actly t he sam e qu ant i ty of c aloric only ,

t h e c aloric would hav e b e e n e m ploy e d at a high e r

t em p er atur e .

It is consid eration s of this n atur e wh i ch h av e l ed

t o t h e m aking of doubl e cylind e r e ngin e s — e ngin es -

inv ent e d by M r Horn b low e r i m prov e d by M r

.
,
.

Woolf and which as r egard s e cono m y of t he c om

, ,
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 117

b ust ib l e, con si d e r e d t he b e st Th ey con si st of

ar e .

a sm all cylind e r w h i ch at e ach pul sat i o n is fill e d

,

m or e o r l e ss ( oft e n ent i r ely ) with st e am

. an d o f a ,

se cond cylin d e r h aving u su ally a c ap ac i ty qu adrupl e

th at of t he fir st and which r e c e ives no st eam e x

,

c ept that which h as al r ead y op er at e d in t he fir st

cyl i nd e r Thu s t he st eam wh en it c e ases to act
.

has at l east qu adrupl e d in volu m e Fro m t h e .

s e con d cyl i nd e r it is c arr i e d dir e ctly into t he con ~

d en se r b ut it is conc e i vabl e th at it m ight b e carri e d

,

into a th i rd cyl i nd e r qu adrupl e t he se cond and in ,

which it s volu m e would h av e b e co m e S ixt een ti m e s

th e origin al volu m e T he princip al obst acl e to t h e
.

use of a third cylind e r of thi s sort is t he c ap acity

wh i ch it would b e n e c essary t o giv e i t an d t he l arg e ,

di m e nsi on s wh i ch t he op eni ng s for t h e pas sage of

t he st eam m ust h av e We will say no m or e on this
.

su b j e ct as w e do n ot propo se h e r e to ent e r into t he

,

d e tail s of con struct i on of st e am engin e s Th es e -

.

d et ai l s c all for a work d e vot e d sp e c i ally to th em ,

an d which do es no t yet exis t at least in Fr anc e ,

*
.

W e fi nd in t h e w o rk c all ed D e l a Richesse Jil iner a le b y

’

M He r o n de Vil l e fo sse v o l iii p 50 and f o ll owi ng a

. , . . .
,

g o o d d esc ripti o n o f t he s te am e ng i nes ac t ually in use in

-

m ini ng . I n Eng l and t h e st eam e ng i ne h as bee n ve ry f ully

-

di sc ussed in t h e Encyclop edia Br ita nnica S o m e of t h e .

dat a h e r e e m pl oyed are draw n f ro m t h e l att e r w o rk .

118 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

If t he e xpan sion of t he st eam is m ainly li m it e d

by t he di m en sion s of t he v essel s in which t h e dila
t at ion m u st t ak e pl ac e t h e d egr e e of cond e n sation
,

at which it is po ssib l e to u se it at first is li m it e d

only b y t he r e si st anc e o f t h e v e s sel s in which it is

pro duc e d th at is o f t he boil e r s
, , .

In thi s r esp ect w e h av e by no m eans att ain e d

t h e b e st po ssibl e r esult s T h e arr ang e m ent of t h e
.

boil e r s g en er ally in u se is entir ely faulty although ,

t he t en sion o f t h e st eam rar ely e xc e e d s fro m four

to six at m o sph er e s Th ey oft en bur st an d c au se
.

se v e r e accid ent s It will undoubt e dly b e po ssibl e

.

to avoid such accid ent s an d m eanti m e to rai se t he

,

st eam to m uch gr e at er pr essur e s th an is u su ally

don e .

Be si de s t he high pr e ssur e dou b l e cylind e r e n

- -

gin e s of which w e h av e spok e n th e r e are al so high ,

pr essur e e ngin e s o f one cylind e r T he gr e at er part .

o f th e se l att e r h av e b e e n constru c te d b two in

y
n i u E ngli h e ngin e e r s M e ssr s Tr e vithick an d
g e o s s , .

Vivi an . Th ey e m ploy t h e st eam un d e r a v ery high

pr essu r e so m eti m e s e ight to t e n at m o sph er es b ut
, ,

th ey h av e no con den se r T he st eam aft e r it has.

,

b ee n introduc e d into t h e cylind e r und ergo es ,

th e r ein a c ert ain incr ease of volu m e but pr e se rve s ,

al w ay s a pr e ssur e h igh e r th an at m osph eric Wh e n .

it has fulfill e d it s o ffic e it is thrown out into t he

12 0 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T.

( Thi s f act is prov e d b y wh at has al ready b ee n

st at e d
.
) N ow w e h av e see n how i m port ant it is to

produc e by ch ang e of volu m e t he gr eat est po ssibl e

ch ang es of t e m p eratur e .

( )
2 V a por s o f w at e r can b e for m e d only thro ugh

t he int e rv e nt i on of a boil e r whil e at m o sph e ric air

,

co uld b e h e at e d dir e ctly by co m bu st i on c arri e d on

within it s ow n m ass Consid e rabl e los s could thu s
.

b e pr ev e nt ed not only in th e qu antity of h e at b ut

, ,

al so in it s t e m p e r atur e This advant ag e b elongs

.

e xclu siv ely t o at m o sph e ric air Oth e r gases do .

not po ss ess it Th ey would b e e v e n m or e di fficult

.

to h e at th an vapor of w at er .

e r to giv e to air gr eat incr e as e of

( )
3 In ord
volu m e and by th at e xp an sion to prod uc e a great
,

ch ang e of t em p e ratur e it m u st fir st b e tak en und e r

,

a su ffi ci e ntly high pr e ssur e ; th e n it m u st b e c o m

pr esse d w i th a pu m p or by so m e oth e r m ean s b e

for e h eating it Thi s Op e r ation would r e quire a
.

sp e ci al appar atu s an app aratu s not foun d in st eam

,

e ngin es . In t he latt e r w at e r is in a liqui d stat e

,

wh e n i nj e ct e d into t he b oil e r an d to introdu c e it

,

r e quir es b ut a sm all pu m p .

h cond en si ng of t he vapor by cont act with

( )
4 T e

t he r e frig e rant bo dy is m uch m or e pro m pt and

m uch e asi e r th an is t h e cooling o f air Th er e .

m ight of co u rs e b e t h e e x e d i e nt o f throwin t h
, , p g e
 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

l att er out into t he at m o sph er e and th er e woul d b e

,

al so t h e adv ant ag e o f avoiding t h e u se o f a r e frig

e rant which is not always avail ab l e b ut it would b e

, ,

r e qui sit e th at the incr ease of t he volu m e of t he air

should not r e duc e its pr e s sur e b e low th at of t he

at m o sph e re .

( )
5 O n e of t he gr av es t inconv e ni e nc e s o f st eam

is th at it c annot b e u se d at hi g h t e m p e r atur e s w ith

o ut n e c essit at i ng t he u se of v e ssel s of e xtr aordin ary

str ength It is not so with air for which th e r e e x

.

ist s no n e c e s sary r e l at i on b etw ee n t he el ast i c forc e

and t he t em p e ratur e Air th en would s ee m m ore
.
, ,

suit abl e th an st e a m t o r e aliz e t he m otiv e pow e r of

fall s of caloric fro m h i gh t em p eratur e s Pe rh ap s .

in l ow t e m p e r atur es st eam m ay b e m or e conv en

ie nt. We m ight conc e iv e ev e n t he pos si b ility of
m aking t h e sam e h eat ac t succ e ssiv e ly upon air an d

v apor of wat er It would b e o nly n e c ess ary that

.

t h e air should h av e aft e r its use an e l e v at e d t em

, ,

e rat ure an d in st e ad of throwing it o ut im m edi

p ,

at ely into t he at m o sph e r e to m ak e it e nv elop a

,

st eam b oil e r
-
as if it i ssu e d dir e ctly fro m a
,

furn ac e .

Th e use of at m o sph e ric air for t he d ev elop m ent

o f t he m otiv e pow e r of h e at pr ese nt s in practic e

v ery gr eat b ut p e rh ap s not in sur m ount abl e diffi

, ,

c ul t ie s If w e should succ ee d in ov e rco m ing th em

.
,
122 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T .

it would do ubtl ess o ffer a not abl e advant age ov er

*
vapor of w ate r .

A s to t h e oth e r p er m an ent g ase s th ey should b e ,

ab solut ely re j e ct e d Th ey hav e al l t h e inconv en

.

ienc e s of at m o sph e ric a i r w i th non e of it s adv an

,

t ag e s T he sa m e c an b e sa i d of oth e r v apor s than

.

th at of wat e r as co m p ar e d with t he l att e r

, .

If w e coul d find an ab und ant liqui d body which

would vaporiz e at a h i gh e r t e m p eratur e th an wat e r ,

o f which t h e v apor w ould h av e for t he sam e vol ,

um e a l e s s sp e c i fic h e at which would not att ack

, ,

t h e m et als e m ploy e d in t h e con struction of m a

chin es it would undoubt e dly m e rit t he pr efer enc e
, .

But n atur e provid es no such body .

T he u se of t h e vapor of alcohol has b e e n p ro

po se d M achin es hav e e v e n b ee n con struct e d for t he
.

purpos e of u sing it by avoiding t h e m ixtur e o f it s

,

v apor with the w at e r of cond e n sat i on th at is by , ,

applying t h e cold body e xt e rn ally in st e ad o f intro

d a cing it into t he m ach i n e It has b een thought .

th at a r e m ark ab l e adv ant ag e m ight b e secur e d by

u sing t he v apor o f alcohol in th at it po ssesse s a
strong e r t en s ion than t he v apor of w at e r at t he
sa m e t em p e ratur e We c an see in thi s only a fr esh
.

ob stacl e to b e ov e rco m e The princip al d e fe ct of

.

Not e I ,
A pp endi x B .
124 M O TI VE P O WER
'
OF B EA T .

°
e v e r that 1 000 m ay b e thi s li m it and w e shall
, ,

c e rtainl y b e b elow t he truth A s to t he t em p era .

tur e of t he r efr i g e rant l e t u s suppo se it, We

e sti m at e d approxi m at ely ( p ag e 1 04 ) t he qu antity of

m otiv e pow e r th at 1 000 unit s of h eat d e v elop b e

tw een 1 00 and °
We found it to b e 1 1 1 2 unit s .

o f pow e r e ach e qu al t o 1 m e tr e of wat e r rai se d to

,

a h e ight of 1 m e tr e .

If t he m otiv e pow er w e r e proportional t o t he

fall of c aloric if it w e r e t he sa m e for each th e r
,

m o m e t ric d e gr e e nothing would b e easi e r than to

,
°
e sti m at e it fro m 1 000 to Its valu e would be

X 1 000 1 1 12 .

But as thi s l aw is only approxi m at e and as p os ,

sib l y it d e viat e s m uch fro m t he truth at high t e m

e r at ur es w e c an only m ak e a v e ry ro u gh esti m at e
p , .

We will suppo se t he nu m b er 1 1 1 2 r e duc e d one h alf -

that is to 56 0
,
.

S inc e a k i log ram of c arbon produc es 7 000 unit s

o f h e at an d sinc e t h e nu m b e r 560 is r el ativ ely
,

1 000 units it m u st b e m ultipli e d by 7 which giv es

, ,

7 X 56 0 3 92 0 .

This is t he m otiv e pow e r of 1 kilogra m of carbon .

In ord e r t o co m par e thi s th eo re ti cal r esult with

 M O TI VE PO WER OF BEA T .
125

th at of exp e ri m ent l e t us asc ert ain h ow m uch m o

,

tiv e pow er a kilogram of c ar b on actu ally d e v e lop s

in t h e b e st known st eam e ng i n e s
- -
.

T h e eng i n e s which up to th i s ti m e h av e shown

, ,

t h e b e st r e sult s are t h e l arg e doubl e cylind e r e n -

gin e s u se d i n t he dr ain ag e of t he tin and copp e r

m in e s of Cornw all . Th e b e st r esults th at hav e
b e en o b t ain e d w ith th em are as follo w s
6 5 m illion s of lbs of wat e r h av e b e e n r ais e d on e
.

Engli sh foot b y t he bu sh el of co al burn e d ( the

bu sh e l w e i gh i ng 8 8 Thi s is e quiv al ent to
r ai sing b y a kilogr am of co al 1 9 5 cubic m etr es o f
, ,

w at e r to a h e i ght of 1 m etr e producing th er eby

,

1 9 5 unit s o f m otiv e pow e r p e r k i logr am of coal

b urn e d.

1 9 5 unit s ar e only t h e tw e nti e th of 3 92 0 t h e

th e or e tic al m axi m u m ; cons equ ently 9 13 only of the
m otiv e pow e r o f t h e co m b u stibl e has b e e n util

iz e d
.

We h av e n ev e rth el ess se l e ct ed our ex am pl e fro m

, ,

am ong t he b e st st eam engin e s known

-
.

M ost e ngin es ar e gr e atly inf er i or to th e se The .

Old e ng i n e of Ch aillot for e xa m pl e rais e d tw e nty

, ,
'

cu bi c m etr e s of w at e r thirty thr ee m etr e s for

-
,

thirty kilogr am s of co al con su m e d wh i ch am ount s ,

to tw e nty two unit s of m otiv e pow e r p er k i logram

-
,

-
a r e sult nin e ti m e s l e ss th an that giv e n abov e ,
126 M O TI VE P O WER OF B EA T .

an d on e hundr e d and e i ghty ti m es l e ss than t he

th e or e tic al m axi m u m .

We shoul d not e xp ect ev er to utiliz e in practic e

al l t h e m otiv e pow e r of co m bu sti bl e s The at .

t e m pts m ad e to att ain this r e sult would b e far m or e

hurtful th an us e ful if th ey c au se d oth er i m portant
con sid erations to b e n egl ect e d The e cono m y of.

t h e co m b u st i bl e is only o ne of t h e con dition s to b e

fu l fill e d in h eat engin e s In m any c ases it is only
-
.

se cond ary . It should oft en giv e pr e c e d enc e to

s af e ty to str ength to th e durability of t he engin e
, , ,

to t he sm all sp ac e which it m ust occu py to s m all ,

cost of in st all ation e tc To know how t o appr e ciat e

, .

in each ca se at th eir tru e v alu e t he con sid e rations

, ,

of conv e n i e nc e an d e cono m y which m a pr esent

y
th e m s elv e s to kno w how to di sc e rn th e m or e im
portant of tho se whic h are only acc essori e s to b al
anc e t h e m prop e rly ag ain st e ach oth e r in or d e r to,

att ain t he b est r e sult s by t he si m pl e st m ean s such

should b e t he l ead i ng c h ar act e ri stic s of t h e m an
c all e d to dir e ct to c o ordin ate am ong th em selv es t he
-

la b or s of his co m rad e s to m ak e th e m co op er at e
,
-

tow ards one useful end of whatso e ver sort it m ay

‘

be .
CA RNOT S T HEO RY O F T HE M O TIVE PO WER
’

O F HEA T f

W TH I NU MER IC A L RE S UL T S D E D UCE D FR O M RE GNAUL T S ’

E XPER IMEN T S O N S TEAM 1 .

BY S I R W I LL IAM TH OM S O N [L OR D K E LV I N ]
.

1 . pr esenc e of h eat m ay b e r e cogni z e d in

T HE
e v e ry n atur al o b j e ct ; an d th e r e is sc arc ely an

op e ration in n atur e which is not m or e or l e ss

*
Fro m Tr ansactio ns of the Edinburg h Roy al S ociety , x iv .

1 849 ; A nnales de Chim ie , x xxv . 1 8 52 .

“
{ Publi sh ed in 1 8 24 in , a w o rk en titl ed Reflexions sur

la Puissance M otr ice da Feu , et sur les M achines Prop res d

D evelop er ce tte Puissance . Par 8 . Car not .
”
[No t e o f Nov .

5, 1 88 1 . r ig inal w o rk h as now b een r ep ubli sh ed

T he o ,

with a bi og raphi c al noti c e Pari s , ,

f A n ac c ou nt of t h e fir st p art o f a se ri es o f r esear c h es
undert ak e n b y M ons Reg nault b y ord e r o f t h e l at e
.
,

Fr e nc h Go v ernm e nt f or asce rtai ni ng th e v ar ious phy si c al

,

dat a of im p o rt anc e in t h e th eory o f t h e st eam eng i ne h as -

,

OF TH E

V ER S I T Y
1 28 THO MS O N ON CA RNO T S
’

afi e ct e d all p ervading influ enc e An ev ol u

by it s -
.

tion an d sub se q uent absorption of h e at g en e rally

giv e ri se to a vari e ty of efi ect s am ong which m ay
b e e nu m e rat e d ch e m ic al co m bin ation s or decom
,

po sition s ; t he fu sion of sol i d sub stanc e s ; the

v aporiz ation of solid s or liquid s alt eration s in t he
di m ensions of bodi es or in t he st atical pr e ssur e ,

by whic h th eir di m e n sions m ay b e m odifi e d m e

ch anical r e si st anc e ov e rco m e ; el e ctric al curr e nts

g en e rat e d In m any of t h e actu al ph eno m ena of

.

n at ur e sev eral or all of th e s e e ff e cts are produ c e d

tog e th e r and th eir co m plication will if w e ,

att e m pt to tr ac e t h e ag e ncy o f h eat in producing

any individual e ff e ct giv e ri se to m uch p erpl e x,

ity It will th er e for e b e d e si rabl e in laying t he

.
, , ,

foundation of a phy sic al th e ory of an y of t he

e fi e c t s of h e at t o discov e r or to i m agin e h
, p e

n om en a fr e e fr o m all su ch co m plic ation and de ,

p ending on a d e finit e th e r m al ag ency ; in which

t he r el ation b etw ee n t he caus e an d e ffe ct tr ac e d ,

been r ec ently p ubli sh ed ( und er th e titl e Rel a tion des

) in th e Mem oir es de l I nsl itu t
”
Exp er iences w h ic h
’
’
, e tc .
, of

it c onstit ut es t h e tw enty fi rst v o l um e Th e sec ond

-

p art of th ese resear ch es h as n ot y e t b een p ubli sh ed [Not e .

of No v 5 1 8 8 1
.
, T h e co nti nu ati o n o f th ese r esear ch es h as
.

now b e en p ubli sh ed th us w e h av e f or th e w h o l e seri es ,

v ol . i in 1 847 ;
. v ol . 11 . in 1 8 62 and v ol . iii in .
130 TH O M S O N ON CA RNO T S ’

m e ntal sci enc e enabl e s us t o do a co m pl et e solu

,

tion of t he qu e stion .

I O n t he n atur e of Th er m al ag e ncy consid e r e d

.
,

as a m otiv e pow e r

4 Th er e ar e [at pr e s e nt kno w n ]two an d only

.
,

t w o di stinct w ays i n w h ich m e ch anic al e fi e ct can

,

b e Obt ain e d fro m h e at On e of th e se is b y m ean s

.

o f t h e alt e r ations o f volu m e which b od ies m a ex

, y
rie n c e through t h e action o f h e at ; t h e oth e r is
p e

through t h e m e diu m of el e ctric age ncy S e eb e ck s .

’

di scov e ry of t he r m o el e ctr i c curr ent s e n abl es u s at

-

pr esent to conc eiv e of an el e ctro m agn e tic e ngin e

-

suppli e d fro m a th e r m al origin b e ing use d as a

,

m otiv e pow e r ; but thi s di scov e ry w as not m ad e

until 1 8 2 1 and t h e su b j e ct of th e r m o el e ctric i ty

,
-

c an only ha ve b ee n g e n e r ally kno w n in a f e w iso

l at e d fact s w i th r e fe r enc e to t h e el e ctric al eff e ct s

,

o f h eat upon c ert ai n cry stals at t h e ti m e wh e n

,

Carnot wrot e He m ak e s no allusion to it but

.
,

confin e s hi m s elf to t he m ethod for r e nd e ring

th er m al ag ency av ai l abl e as a sou rc e of m e ch an i cal
e ffe ct ,
b y m e ans of t h e e xp ansions and contrae
tions of b od i e s .

5 A body e xp anding or contracti ng und e r t h e

.

act i on of forc e m a in g e n e ral e ith e r produc e

y , ,

m e chanic al e ff e ct b y ov e rco m ing r e si stanc e or r e ,

ceiv e m e ch anical e ff e ct by yi e lding to t he action

 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 131

of forc e T he a m ount of m e ch anical eff ect thu s

.

d ev elop e d wil l d ep e nd not only on t he calorific

ag e ncy conc e rn e d b u t al so on t h e alt e r ation in t h e
,

physi c al condition of t he body Henc e aft e r al .

,

lowing t he volu m e an d t em p e r atur e of t he body t o

ch ange w e m u st r estor e it to it s orig i n al t em p e ra
,

tur e and volu m e ; and th en w e m ay e sti m at e t he

aggr eg at e am ount of m e ch anic al efi e ct d e v e lop e d

as du e sol e ly to t h e th e r m al origin .

6 Now t h e ordin arily r e c e iv e d an d al m ost uni

.
-
,

v e rsally acknowl e dg e d
-
principl e s w i th r e fe r enc e
,

“
to qu ant i ti e s of c aloric and l at e nt h eat l e ad
u s to conc e iv e th at at t he e nd of a cycl e of Op e r a
,

tion s wh e n a body is l e ft in pr e cis ely it s pri m it i v e

,

physic al condition if it has ab sorbe d any h eat dur

,

ing one p art of t he op e r ation s it m u st h av e giv e n,

o ut ag ain e x actly t h e sa m e am ount during t h e re

m ain de r of t h e cycl e Th e truth of thi s principl e

.

is con si d e r e d as axio m atic by C arnot w ho ad m it s ,

it as t he found ation of his th e ory ; and e xpr es ses

hi m self in t h e following t er m s r egarding it: in a
not e on o ne of t he p assag e s of his tr eati se
In o ur d em on stration s w e tac i tly assu m e th at
aft e r a b o d y has e xp e r i e nc e d a c e rt ain nu m b e r of
’

tran sfor m ation s i f i t b e brought id entically to its

,

C ar no t , p . 67 .
1 82 THO M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

pri m itiv e physic al stat e as to d en sity t e m p eratur e , ,

an d m ol e cul ar constitution it m u st co nt ain t he

,

sam e quantity of h e at as th at which it initi ally p os

s ess ed ; or in oth er word s w e suppos e th at t h e

, ,

qu antiti e s of h e at lo st by t he body und e r o ne se t

of op e r ations ar e pr e ci sely co m p en sat e d by tho se

which are absorb e d in t he oth er s Thi s fact has .

n e v e r b e en dou b t e d ; it has at first b een ad m itt e d

without r e fl e ction and aft e rward s v e rifi e d in m any
, ,

c ase s by c alori m etric al e xp e ri m e nt s T o d eny it

, .

woul d b e to ov ertu rn t h e whol e th e ory Of h eat in ,

wh i ch it is t h e fund am e nt al principl e It m u s t b e .

ad m itt e d how e v e r th at t h e chi e f found ation s on

, ,

which t h e th e ory of h eat r e sts wo uld r e quir e a

,

m o st att e ntiv e e x am ination S e v e ral e xp e r i m ental

.

facts app ear n e arly in e xplic abl e in t h e actual stat e

”
o f this th e ory .

7 Sinc e t he ti m e w h en Carnot thu s e xpr e sse d

.

hi m self t h e n e c e ssity of a m ost c ar e ful e x am in a

,

tion of t h e entir e e xp eri m ental b asi s of t he th e ory

o f h e at h as b e co m e m or e an d m or e urg ent Es .

p ec ia ll y all tho se as su m ptions d e p en ding on t he

i d ea th at h e at is a s ubstance inv ari abl e in qu an

,

tity ; not conv erti b l e into any oth e r el e m ent and ,

incap abl e of b e ing g ener ated by any phy sical

ag ency ; in f act t h e acknowl e dg e d principl e s of

l at ent h e at would r e qu ir e t o b e t est e d by a m ost

,
-
134 TH O M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

th at h e at is gener ated by t h e friction of fluid s in

m ot i on se e m
, to ov e rturn t he Opinion co m m only
h el d th at h eat cannot b e g ener ated b u t only pro ,

du ce d fro m a sourc e w h er e it h as pr e vious l y e x

,

ist e d e ith e r in a sen sibl e o r in a l at e nt con d ition .

In t h e pr esent st at e of sci enc e how ev er no op er a

, ,

tion is known by which h eat c an b e ab sorb ed into

a body without eith er el ev ating its t em p er atur e or
b e co m ing l at ent an d produc i ng so m e alt er ation in
,

its phy sical condition ; and t he fund am ent al axio m

adopt e d by Carnot m ay b e con sid er e d as still t he

m ost prob abl e basi s for an inv e stigation o f t he m o

tiv e pow er of h eat ; although thi s and with it ,

e v ery oth er br anch of t he th eory of h eat m ay ,

ulti m at ely r eq uir e to b e re con struct ed upon anoth er

found ation wh en our exp eri m ent al d at a are m or e
,

co m pl et e On this und er st anding and to avoid a

.
,

t em p e rat u re and th us c om p e nsat e for t he h e at e vo lv ed in

,

t h e c ond uc t o r I am n o t aw ar e th at any ex am i nati o n with

.

r ef e renc e to t h e tr uth O f thi s c o nje c t ure h as been i nstit ut ed ;

b ut in t h e c ase wh e r e t h e i ndu c i ng body is a p u r e el e c tro
,

m ag ne t ( with ou t any ir o n) t h e e x p e ri m e nt s ac t ually p e r

,

f o r m ed b y M r J o ul e r end e r t h e c o nc l u si o n pr ob abl e th at
.

t h e h eat e v o lv e d in t h e w ir e o f t h e e l ec tr o m ag ne t is no t
-

aff e c t e d b y t h e i nd u c tiv e ac ti o n o th e rwi se th an t h r o ug h

,

t h e r e fl e c t e d i n fl ue nc e whi c h i nc r e ases t h e str e n g th o f it s

o w n c u rr ent .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 135

r ep etition of d oubt s I sh all refer to Carnot s fund a

,
’

m e nt al principl e i n al l th at follow s as if it s trut h

, ,

w er e thorou ghly est ab li sh ed .

.9 We are now l ed to t h e conclu sion th at t he

origin of m otiv e pow er d ev elop e d b y the alt ernat e
,

e xp an sion s and contr action s of a body m u st b e ,

found in t he ag ency of h eat ent ering the bo d y and

l eaving it ; sinc e th er e c annot at t h e end o f a c om ,

p l et e cycl e wh en t h e b o d y is r estor e d t o it s pri m i

,

tiv e phy sic al con d ition h av e b een any ab solut e ah

,

sorpt i on of h eat an d con se qu ently no conv er sion

,

o f h eat or c aloric into m ech anic al eff e ct ; an d it

, ,

r em ai n s for us to tr ac e t he pr e ci se n ature of t he
circu m st anc es und er w h i ch h eat m u st ent e r t he
body an d aft erw ar d s l eav e it so th at m ech anic al
, ,

e ffe ct m ay b e produc e d A s an ex am pl e w e m ay
.
,

con si d er t hat m achin e for obtaining m otiv e pow er

fro m h eat with which w e are m ost fam ili ar t he —
st eam — e ngin e .

1 0 Her e w e ob serv e th at h eat ent er s t he m a

.
, ,

chi ne fro m t he furn ac e through t h e sid e s o f t he

,

boil e r an d th at h eat is continu ally ab str act ed b y

,

t he w at er em ploy e d f or k eeping t he con d en ser 0 0 0 1 .

A ccording to Carn ot s fun d am ent al principl e t he

’
,

q u antity of h eat thu s d i sch arg e d d uring a co m pl et e ,

revolution ( or doubl e strok e) of t he eng i n e m u st b e ,

preci sely equal to that which ent ers t he wat er of

13 6 TH O M S O N ON OA RNO T S
’

t he boil er provid e d the tot al m ass of wat er and

st e am b e inv ari ab l e an d b e r e stor e d to it s pri m itiv e
,

phy sic al con d ition ( w hich will b e t he c ase rigorou sly ,

if t he cond en ser b e k ept cool b y t he ext ern al appli

c ation O f cold w at er in st ead of b y inj e ction as is ,

m or e u su al i n pr act i c e ) an d if t he cond en se d
,

w at er b e r estor e d to t he b o i l er at t he en d of each
co m pl et e r evolution Thu s w e p erc eiv e that a cer
.

t ain qu antity of h eat is l et dow n fro m a hot body ,

t he m et al of t he boil e r to anoth er body at a low er

.

t em p er atur e t h e m et al of t he cond ens er ; an d th at

,

th er e r esult s fro m thi s tran sfer enc e of h eat a c ertain

d ev elop m ent of m ech anic al effe ct .

1 1 If w e e x am in e any oth er c ase in which

.

m e ch anic al effe ct is Obt ai n e d fro m a th er m al origin ,

by m ean s of t he alt ern at e exp an sion s and c ont rac

tion s of any su b st anc e w h at ev er in st ead of t he ,

w at er of a st eam e ngin e w e find th at a si m il ar

-
,

tr an sfer enc e of h eat is eff ect ed an d w e m ay th ere ,

for e an sw er t he first qu estion propo sed in t he fol ,

lowing m ann er
The ther m al ag ency by w hich m echanical fi
e ec t

m ay be obtained is f
the t r ans er enc e of heat f r om

one body to a nother at a l ow er tem p er a tu r e .

S O g e ne rally is C arno t s pri nc ipl e t ac itly ad m itt ed as an

’

ax i om th at its appli c ati o n in thi s c ase h as n ev e r so far as

, ,

I am a w ar e b e en q uesti o ne d b y prac ti cal e ng i ne e r s

, .
1 38 THO M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

m e chanic al effect ; and cons equ ently engin es m ay

, ,

b e construct ed in which t he whol e or any portion

t iv el y idem an ds an answ e r t o thi s q u est ion ; y e t no answ e r

c an b e g iv e n in t h e pr ese nt st at e o f sc i e nc e A f e w y e ar s
.

ag o a S i m il ar c o nf e ssi o n m u st h av e b een m ad e with r e f e r

,

e nc e t o t h e m e c h an i cal e ff e c t l ost in a fl u id set in m o ti o n in

t h e i nt e r io r o f a ri g id c l ose d v e ss e l and all o w e d to c o m e t o

,

r est b y its o w n i nte r nal f ri c ti on ; b ut in thi s c ase t he

f o undati o n o f a so l uti o n o f t h e di ffi c ulty h as b ee n ao
t uall y f ou n d in M r J o u l e s di sc o v e ry o f t h e g e ne r ati o n
’
.

o f h eat b y t h e i nt e rnal f ri c ti o n O f a fl u id in m o ti o n
, Eu .

c ourag e d b y thi s e x am pl e w e m ay h o p e t h at t h e v e ry p e r
,

p l ex ing q uesti o n in t h e th eo ry of h eat b y whi c h w e ar e ,

at pr e sen t arr est e d , will befo re l ong b e c l ear ed up .

[N o t e o f S e p,t 1 88 1 . T h e T h eo ry o f t h e D i ssip ati o n o f

Ene rg y com pl e t ely answ e rs t h i s q ue st i on and r em o v es t h e
di ffi c ulty ]
I t m i g ht app ear th at t h e difli c ul ty w ould b e e ntir e ly
av o id ed b y abandoni ng C arno t s f undam en t al ax i o m ; a
’

vi e w whi c h is stro ng ly u rg e d b y M r Joul e ( at t h e c on c l u

.

si o n o f h is p ap e r O n t h e C h ang es o f T e m p e rat ur e p ro
duc e d b y t h e Rar efac ti o n and C ond e nsati o n o f A ir
”
Phil . .

M ag . M ay 1 845 v o l xx vi ) I f w e do so h o w ev e r w e
, , . .
, ,

m ee t w ith i nn um e rabl e o th e r difli c ul t ie S —i nsup e r abl e

w ith out f arth e r e x p e ri m ent al i nv e sti g ati o n and an e n tir e ,

r e co nstr uc ti o n of t h e th eo ry o f h eat f ro m its f o und ati o n .

I t is in r eality t o ex p e ri m ent th at w e m u st l o o k —e ith e r

f o r a v e rifi c ati on o f Car no t s axi o m an d an ex pl anati on o f
’

t h e difii c ul ty w e h av e b een c o n sid e ri ng ; or f o r an e ntir e ly

‘

new basi s o f t h e T h e o ry of Heat .

 M OTI VE P O WER OE HEA T .

of t heth er m al ag ency is w ast e d Henc e i t is of .

pri m ary i m port anc e to d i scov er t he crit erion of a

p erfect engin e Thi s has b een don e by Carnot who
.
,

proves the following propo sition

13 . f
A p er ect t her m ody nam ic eng ine is s uc h
that, w hatev er am ou nt of m echan ical efi ect it c an
der ive f r om a cer tai n ther m al ag en cy, if an eq u al

am ount be sp ent in w or k ing it backw ar ds, an eq ual

*
r ev er se ther m al ej ect w il l be p r oduced .

14 Thi s propo sit i on will b e m ad e cl ear er by the

.

application s of it which are g i v en l at e r in

t he c ases of t he air engin e an d t he st eam eng i n e
- -
,

than it coul d b e by any g en eral expl an at i on ; and it

W ill al so app ear fro m t he n atur e of t he Op er a
,

tion s d escrib ed in tho se c ase s and t he principl es of

,

Carn ot s r easoning th at a p erfect eng i n e m ay b e

’
,

construct ed with any sub st anc e of an ind estructibl e

t extur e as t he altern at ely e xp anding an d contract
ing m ediu m Thus w e m ight conc eiv e th er m o
.

dyn am ic engin es found e d upon t he exp an sion s and

contract i on s of a p erfectly el astic soli d or Of a ,

l i quid ; or upon t he alt eration s of volu m e e xp eri

en ced by sub st anc es in p assing fro m t he liqui d to
t he soli d st at e i each of which b eing p er fect would
, ,

Fo r ad em onstrati on see 2 9 , .

{ A c as e m i nu t e ly ex am ine d in ano th e r p ap e r t o b e l aid,

b e for e th e So c i ety at t h e pr esen t m e e ti n g T h eo r e ti c al

.
1 40 TH O MS O N ON CA RNO T S
’

produc e t he sam e am ount of m e ch anic al effect fro m

a giv en th er m al agency ; but th er e are two c ases
which Carnot has sel ect ed as m o st worthy O f m inut e
att ention b ec au se of th eir p eculi ar appropri at en ess
,

for illu str ating t he g en er al principl es of his th eory ,

no l ess than on account of th eir v ery great p rac t i

c al i m port anc e : t he st ea m e ngin e in which the
-
,

sub stanc e em ploy e d as t he tr an sf erring m e d iu m is

wat er alt ern at ely in t he l i quid st at e an d in t he
,

st at e of v apor ; an d t h e air engin e in which t he

-
,

tran sfer enc e is eff ect ed by m ean s of t he alt ern at e

e xp an sion s an d contr action s of a m e di u m al w ay s

in t he g aseou s st at e T he detail s Of an actu ally

.

practicabl e engin e of eith er kind are not con

t em pl at ed by C arnot in h is g en er al th eor etic al rea
soning s but h e confin es hi m self to t h e id eal con
,

struction in t he si m pl est po ssibl e w ay in each c ase

, ,

o f an engin e in w hich t h e e cono m y is p erf e ct He .

thu s d et er m in es t he d egr ee of p erf ect i bility which

c annot b e surp assed ; and b y d escri b ing a con ceiv
abl e m ethod of att aining to thi s p e rf e ction by an

air e ngin e or a st eam e ngin e h e point s out t h e

- -
,

prop er Obj ects to b e k ept in v i e w in t he practical

con struction and working of such m achin e s I now .

proc ee d to giv e an outlin e of th e se inv est i g ations .

C o nsid e r ati ons on th e Eff ec t of Pr e ssu r e in L o w e ri ng t h e

Freezi ng p o i nt
-
of Wat e r , b y P ro f . J am es T h om so n .
1 42 TH O M S O N ON OA RNO T S
’

t he co m m e nc e m e nt o f t h e Op e rations
, wh ich ar e

cond u ct e d in t he following m ann er

Th cylind e r b e ing plac e d on the b ody A

( )
1 e ,
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 143

heig ht EEj , to a p osi t ion El Fl , p er or f

m ing wor k
by the p r essur e o f the v ap or below it dur ing i ts

ascen t .

[D uri ng thi s pe rat ion a c e rtain q uantity H o f heat

O , , ,

t h e am o u nt o f l at en t h eat in t h e f r esh v ap o r wh ic h is

f o r m ed is abstrac t ed f r o m the body A ]

,
.

( )
2 T h e cylind e r b eing r e m ov e d an d plac e d on ,

t he i m p e r m e abl e st an d K l et the p is ton r ise g r ad

,

ual ly, t ill, w hen it r eaches a p os i t ion E2 17 2 , the

tem p er atu r e f
o the w at er and v ap or is T, the sam e

as that o
f the body B .

[D u ri ng thi s o p erati on t h e f r esh v ap o r conti nually

fo r m ed r e q uir es h eat t o b ec o m e l at en t and th e r e f o re as , ,

t h e c o nt e nt s O f t h e c yli nd e r are pro t ec t ed f rom any ac ces

Si o n o f b eat t h e ir t em p e rat u r e Si nk s ]
,

( )
3 Th e cyl i nd e r b eing r em ov e d fro m If , and

pl ac e d onB , let the p is ton be p ushed dow n, t il l,

w hen it r eaches t phe os i ti on E3
17
3 , t he
q u an t ity f
o

heat ev olv ed and abstr acted by B am ou nts to that

w hich, du r ing the fi r s t Op er at ion, w as tak en f r om A .

Not e of Nov p e c i fic ation of thi s

5, 1 8 8 1 The
[ . . s

op eration with a Vi e w to t he r e turn to t he pri m i

,

tiv e condit i on int e nd e d as t h e co n clu sion to t he

,

four Op e rations is t h e only it e m in w hich Carnot s

,
’

t e m por ary an d provi si on al assu m pt i on Of t he m at e

r ial it of h eat has e fi e c t To e xclud e th i s hyp o t h e
y .

sis Prof J am es Tho m son has su e st e d t h e fol

,
.
gg
1 44 TH O M S ON ON OA RNOT S
’

lowing corr e ct e d sp e cific ation for t he third op era

t i on : L et the p iston be p ushed dow n til l it r eaches ,

a p osition EaFa , deter m ined so as to u l l the con f fi

dit ion, that at the end of the f our th Op er at ion the

p r im it iv e t em p er a t u r e S s ha l l be r eached

[D uri ng thi s o p e rati o n t em p erat ure o fth e t h e c o nt ent s

o f t h e c yli nd e r is r e t ai ned c o nst an tly at T
°
, an d al l t h e

l at en t h e at of t h e v ap o r whi c h is c o nd ensed int o w at e r at

t h e sam e t e m p e r at u r e is g iv en o ut t o B ] .

( )
4 T h e cylinde r b e i ng r e m ov e d fro m B and ,

pl ac e d on t h e i m p e r m eab l e st and let the p iston be ,

p u shed dow n f r om E3 1”
,
t o it s or ig inal p osition EF .

[D uri ng thi s o p erati on t h e i m p erm eabl e stand pr ev ent

,

ing an y l o ss o f h eat t h e t e m p e r at ur e o f th e w at e r and air

,

m u st ri se c o nti n ually till ( si nc e t h e q uantity of h eat

,

e v o l v ed duri ng t h e third O p e r ati o n w as pr e c i se ly e q ual t o

N
[ te
o Of Nov . 5, 1 8 8 1 . M ax w e ll h as i plifi ed
s m th e
co rre c ti o n by beg i nni ng t h e c y c l e with Car no t s se co nd ’

o p e r ati o n an d c o m pl e ti ng it thr o ug h h is third

, f o u rth , ,

an d fir st O p e r ati o ns w it h h is third O p e r ati on ne arly as fo l

,

l o ws :
let the p iston be p ushed dow n to a ny p osition E3 173
t hen f ou rth p eratio n alt er ed ll o wi ng
‘

Carno t t o th e f o
’
s O

l et the p iston be p ushed dow n f r om E3 173 u n til the tem

per a tur e rea ches its p r im itive v al ue S

an d l astly , Car no t
’
s firs t o p erati o n alt er ed t o t h e f o ll ow
ing
let the p is to n r ise to its p r im itive p osition ]
1 46 TH OM S ON ON CA RNOT S ’

ing graphic al m ethod of r e pr esenting t he m e ch an

ical effe ct d ev elop e d in t h e s ev e r al op e ration s tak e n ,

fro m M ons Cl ap eyron s p ap e r is e xtr em el y con

.
’
,

v e n ien t .

17 . L et OX an d O Y b e two lin e s at right angl es

t o one anoth er A long OX m e asur e Off di st anc e s
.

ON M N N N N 0 r e sp e ctiv ely proportional

, , , 3 3 ,

to t he sp ac e s d escrib e d by t he p i ston during the

four succ essive op er ation s d e scr i b e d abov e ; an d ,

with r e fe r e nc e to th e s e four op er ation s r esp e ctiv e

l y l et t h e follo w ing con str u ction s b e m ad e
,

( )
1 A long O Y m ea s ur e a l e ngth 0 A to r e re
p ,

sent t he pr essur e of t h e satur at e d v apor at t he

t em p eratur e S ; and draw A A p arall el to OX and l ,

l et it m eet an ordinat e through N in A , I

e A PA S U Ch th at if ON re r e
( )
2 D raw a curv I
.

' p ,

s ent at any in stant dur i ng t he s e cond op er ation

, ,

t h e dist anc e of t h e pi ston fro m its pri m itiv e po si

tion NP sh all r e pr esent t he pr e s sur e of the v apor
,

at t he sa m e inst ant .

( )
3 Through A draw 2
A A p ar all e,
l to
s
03 7 a n d ,

l et it m e e t an ordin at e through / V in A .
3 3

( )
4 Draw t h e curv e 4 A such
1
3
th a t t h e ab sci ssa

and ordin at e o f any po i nt in it m ay r epr e se nt r e

spe c tiv e ly t h e dist an c e s o f th e pi ston fro m it s

pri m itiv e position and th e pr e ssur e of t h e v apor
, ,

at each instant during t h e fourth op e ration Th e .

 M 0 TI VE P O WER OE HEA T . 1 47

l ast point of th i s curv e m u st according to Carnot s

,
’

fun d am e ntal principl e coincid e with A sinc e t he

, ,

pi ston is at t he end of t he cycle of op erations

, ,

N2
g in iii its pr i m it i v e po sit i on an d t he pr essur e of
a a ,

t he v apor is t he sa m e as it w as at t he b e g inning .

1 8 L e t us no w suppo se th at t h e l e ngth s ON
.
, } ,

NN1 2 ,
NN 2 3 ,
an d N 0
3 ,
r ep r esen t num er ica lly t h e

volu m e s of t h e sp ac e s m ov e d through by the pi ston

during t h e su cc essiv e op eration s It follo w s th at .

t he m e ch anic al e ffe ct obt ain e d during t h e fir st

op er ation w i ll b e n um er ica lly r ep r esented by t he
ar e a A A N O ; t h at is t h e nu m b e r o f sup e rfici al
l l ,

unit s in thi s ar ea wi ll b e eq u al to t he nu m b e r of
“ ”
foot poun d s o f w ork p e rfor m e d by t h e asc en d
-

ing pi ston d uring the fir st op er ation T he work .

p e rfor m e d b y t h e pi ston during t he se cond op e ra

tion will b e si m ilarly r epr ese nt e d by t he ar ea
1 48 TH O M S ON ON OA RNOT S
'

A l A Q M Nl . Again,
during the third op e ration a
c e rtain am ount of work is sp e nt on t he pi ston ,

which will b e r epr es ent e d by t he ar ea

an d la stly during t he fourth op e rat i on work is
, ,

S p e nt in pu shing t he pi ston to an am ount re r e

p
s ent ed b y t he ar ea A A ON 3 3

1 9 Henc e t he m e chanical e fl ect ( r epr esent e d

.

by t he ar ea OA A A N ) which w as obt ain e d dur2 2

ing the fi rst an d second op erations e xc ee ds t he ,

work ( r epr e sen te d by N A A A O) sp e nt during 2 2 3

t h e third an d fourth by an am ount r epr e sent e d ,

by the ar ea of t he qu adril at er al figur e A A A A 1 2 3

and ,
con sequ ently it only r em ain s for us t o
,

e v alu at e th i s ar ea th at w e m ay d e t e r m in e t he
,

tot al m e ch anic al e ffe ct g ai ne d in a co m pl et e

cycl e of op e ration s No w fro m e xp e r i m e nt al d ata,
.
,

at pr e se nt n early co m pl e t e as w i ll b e e xpl ain e d ,

b elow w e m ay d e t e r m in e t he l e ngth of t he lin e

,

A A for t he giv e n t e m p e r at u r e S and a giv en ab

1 ,

sorption H o f h eat , during t h e fir st Op e r at i on ;

,

an d t h e l e ngth of A A f o r t h e giv e n lo w e r t e m
2 3

rat ure T and t h e e volution o f t h e sam e qu antity

p e ,

o f h eat dur i ng t he fourth Op eration : an d t he

’
curve s A P A “ A P A m ay b e dr awn as graphic al
I ,
S

r e pr e s ent at i on s Of actu al O b s e rvations T he figur e .

b e ing thus con struct e d its ar ea m ay b e m easur e d , ,

and We ar e th er efor e in po sse s sion of a graphic al

, ,
1 50 TH O MS O N ON CA RNO T S
’

t he saturat e d st eam and t he w at e r in t he cylind er

hav e t he sam e pr e s sur e p and con se qu e ntly t h e,

s am e t em p e ratur e which w e m ay denot e by t

,
‘
.

Ag ain throughout t he se con d op e r ation t he e ntir e

,
)

cont e nts o f t h e cylind e r poss es s a gr e at er a m ount

of h eat by H unit s th an during t h e fourth ; and ,

th er e fore at any instant of t h e s econ d Op er ation

,

th e r e is as m u ch m or e st eam as cont ains H units

o f lat e nt h eat th an at t he corr e sponding inst ant

o f t he fourth Op e r ation He nc e if k d enot e t he

.

lat e nt h eat in a unit of saturat e d st eam at t he

t em p er atur e t t h e volu m e of t h e st ea m at t h e two
,

I
corr esponding in st ant s m u st difi er by Now if
;
,

d enot e the r atio of the d ensity of t he st ea m to

'

that of t he wat er , t he volu m e 5 of st ea m will be

k
H
for m e d fro m t he volu m e O
‘

of wat er ; an d c on
k
s equ ently w e h av e for t he diffe r e nc e o f vol um e s of
,

th e entir e cont ent s at t h e corr e sponding instant s ,

5: ( 1

Henc e t he xpr e ssion for

e the ar ea of t he q uadri
late ral figur e b e co m es
 M O TI VE P O WER OE HEA T . 1 51

Now , k an d p b eing qu ant i t i e s w h i ch d e p end

, ,

upon t h e t em p er atur e m ay b e con si d e r e d as func

,

tion s of t ; and it will b e conv e ni ent to m odify t he

int egral so as to m ak e t t he ind e p end e nt v ariabl e .

The li m it s wi ll b e fro m t T to t S an d if we
z
, ,

d eno te by M t he valu e of t he int egral w e hav e t he ,

e xpr es sion

dp

—
M : H
]; ( 1 a ) g
-
ez .
( )
1

for t he tot al am ount of m e chanical effe ct gain e d

by t he op eration s d escri b e d ab ove .

2 1 If t he int erv al of t em p e ratur es b e e xtr em ely

.

dr
q
sm all —so s m all th at ( 1 ) g w ill not sen si b ly vary
"

,
O
l
f or valu e s of t b etw ee n T and S ,
—
t he pr ec e ding
e xpr ession b e co m es si m ply

dp

Thi s m ight of cour se hav e b e en Obt ai n e d at onc e

, ,

by su ppo sing t he br eadth of t h e qu adril at er al

figur e A A A A t o b e e xtr e m e ly sm all co m p ar e d
1 2

with it s l ength and th e n t aking for it s ar ea as an

, ,

approxi m at e valu e t he product of t he b r eadth into

,
1 52 THO M S ON ON CA RNO T S
’

the lin e AA , or t he lin e A3 A2 or any lin e of in

te r m e diat e m a gnitu d e .

T he e xpr e ssion ( 2
) is rigorously corr e ct fo r any

int erval S T, if t he m ea n v alu e of ( 1 for

that int erval be em ploy e d as t he co effi ci ent of

H(S —T ) .

CA RNOT
’
S TH E ORY OF T H E AI R E N G I N E
-
.

2 2 In t he id eal air engin e i m agin e d by Carnot

.
-

four op eration s p erfor m e d upon a m as s of air or

g a s e nclo se d in a clo se d v e ss el o f vari ab l e volu m e

con stitut e a co m pl et e cycl e at t h e en d of which ,

t h e m e diu m is l e ft in it s pri m itiv e phy sic al condi

t i on ; t h e con stru ction b eing t he sam e as that which
w as d es crib e d abov e for t h e st e am engin e a body -
,

A p er m an e ntly r e t ain e d at t he t em p eratur e S an d

, ,

B at t h e t em p e r atur e T; an i m p er m eabl e st an d X;
and a cylin d e r and pi ston w h ich in thi s c ase con ,

tain s a m a ss o f air at t h e t e m p e ratur e S in stead ,

O f w at e r in t h e liquid stat e at t h e b e ginni ng and ,

e nd o f a cycl e of Op e r ation s T he four succ essiv e

.

Op e ration s are conduct e d in t he fol l ow ing m anner

( )
1 T h e cylin de r is l ai d o n t h e body A so t h at ,

t h e air in it is k e pt at the t e m p e ratur e S ; an d t he

pi ston is allow e d to ri se p e rfor m ing work , .
1 54 TH O M S ON ON OA RNO T S
’

and se cond on account of t he t em p eratur e b eing

,

low e r Thu s at th e e nd of a co m pl e te cycl e Of

.
,

op e ration s m e ch anic al e ff e ct has b ee n O b t ain e d

,

an d th e th e r m al ag e ncy fro m which it is dr awn is

t he t aking of a c ert ain qu antity of h eat fro m A ,

an d l etting it dow n through t h e m e diu m of t h e

,

e ngin e to t he body B at a low e r t em p e r atur e

, .

2 5 To e sti m at e t he actual a m ount of eff e ct thu s

.

obt ain e d it will b e conv e ni e nt to consi d er t h e alt er a

,

tion s of volu m e of t h e m ass o f air in t he sev eral

op e r ations as e xtr e m ely s m all We m ay aft e rwards
.

p ass by t he int egral c alculus or practic ally b y , , ,

su m m ation to d e t er m in e t he m e chanical eff e ct

wh at ev er b e t he a m plitu d e s of t he di ffe r ent m otions
of t he piston .

2 6 L et dg b e t he q uantity of h eat ab sorb e d

.

during t he fir st op e ration which is e volv e d again

,

during t he third ; and l et dv b e t he corr esponding

aug m ent ation of volu m e which tak es pl ac e whil e

t he t e m p er atur e r e m ain s constant as it do e s during ,

*
t he fir st Op e ration T he di m inution of volu m e

Z
.

i
T h u s,
E
— will
l
b e th e parti al di ff erenti al i
c oeffi c e n t ,

with resp ec t to v Of th at f unc ti on o f v and t w h i ch ex pr esses

t h e q uan tity o f h eat th at m ust b e add ed t o a m ass o f air

wh en in a st and ard s tat e (such as at t h e t em p erat ur e z ero ,

and und e r t h e atm osph e ri c pr essu r e) t o bri ng it t o t h e

,

t em p erat ur e t and th e v ol um e v T h at th e r e is such a

.
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 1 55

in t he third Op eration m u st b e al so e qu al to dv or ,

only d iff er fro m it b y an infin i t ely sm all qu antity of

t he s e cond ord e r During t he second op e r ation w e
.

m ay suppo se t h e volu m e to b e i ncr ease d b y an in

finitely sm all qu antity (b ; which will occasion a

d i m i nution of pr e s sur e an d a di m inution of t em
rat u r e d e not e d r esp e ctiv e ly by n o an d 1 During
p e ,
.

t h e fourth Op er ation th er e w i ll b e a di m inution of

volu m e and an incr ease of pr essur e and te m p eratur e ,

wh i ch can only d i ff e r b y infinit ely s m all qu antiti es

,

of t h e se cond or d e r fro m t h e ch ang e s i n t he oth e r

,

dir e ction w hich took pl ac e in t he se cond Op e r ation

, ,

and th ey al so m a t h r e for e b e d e not e d b y g

b
y e , ,
co , ,

and 7 r esp ectiv ely T he alt eration of pr essur e

, .

func ti o n, of tw oi nde p end e nt vari abl es v and t is m e r ely ,

an analyt i cal ex pr ess i on o f Car no t s f u ndam ent al ax i o m

’
as ,

appli e d t o a m ass o f air T he g e ne ral pri nc ipl e m ay b e

.

analyti c ally st at e d in th e f oll o wi n

g t e r m s — If M dv d eno t e
t he ac cessi on O f h eat r ec e iv e d b y a m ass o f any ki n d not ,

p ossessi ng a d estruc tibl e t ex ture wh en t h e v ol u m e is in

,

c r eased b y dv t h e t em p e rat u r e b e i ng k e pt c o nst ant and if

, ,

t d eno t e t h e am o un t o f h eat whi c h m ust b e suppli ed t o

rai se t h e t e m p erat u re b y dt with o u t any alt e rati o n o f v ol
,

um e th en M dv + t m u st b e th e diff e r eii t ial o f a f unc

t ion o f v and t [No t e O f Nov 5 1 88 1 I n t h e c o rr ec t e d

. .
, .

th eo ry it is ( M Jp ) dv + t that is a c om pl e t e di ff e r en ti al
, ,

n ot M dv t S ee D y nam ical Theor y of Heat ( A rt XL V III

. . .
,

be l ow) g
,
1 56 TH O MS ON ON CA RNOT S
’

during t h e fir st an d third op eration s m ay at onc e

b e d et e r m in e d b y m e an s of M ar i ott e s l aw si n c e
’
,

in th e m t he t e m p eratur e r em ain s con st ant Thu s .

,

if at t he co m m e nc e m e nt of t he cycl e t he volu m e
, ,

and pr e ssur e b e v and p th ey will hav e b e co m e

——
,

v l dv and
p /(
v v + d v
) a t t h e e n d o f t h e fir s t
op e ration Henc e the di m inution o f pr e ssur e
.

during t he first op e r ation is p or

p d v /( v dv ) and th e r e for e if ,w e n egl e ct infinit e l y

s m all qu ant i ti e s of the se cond ord e r we h av e p dv / v
,

for t he d i m inu tion of pr e ssur e during the fir st

Op e r ation w hich to t he sam e d egr ee of ap p ro xim a
tion will b e e qu al to th e i ncr ease of pr essure during
,

t he third . If t + r and t b e t ak en to d enot e t he

sup e r i or and inf e rior l i m it s of t e m p er atur e w e ,

sh all thus h av e for the volu m e t h e t e m p er atur e, ,

an d t he pr e ssur e at t h e co m m e nc e m ent s of t h e

fo u r succ essiv e op er ation s an d at t he e nd of the

,

cycl e t h e following v alu es r e sp ectiv ely

,

t +
'
1 ,

v d
+ ,
v t + 1
'

, p 1
1 58 THO M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

for t he am ount s gain e d during t he fir st and se con d ,

an d sp ent during t h e thir d an d four th op e r ation s

and h enc e by addition and subtraction w e find

, ,

Go d”
‘
OI

for t he aggr egat e am ount of m e ch anical eff e ct

g ain e d during t h e cycl e of op eration s It only re .

m ain s for u s to e xpr e ss thi s r e sult in t er m s o f d

g
an d r on w h i ch t h e giv e n th e r m al ag ency d e p e nd s
, .

For thi s purpo se w e r e m ark th at ab and as are al

t erat ion s of volu m e and pr e s sur e wh i ch t ak e pl ac e
along wit h a ch ang e of t e m p e ratur e 7 an d h enc e , ,

by t he l aw s of co m pr essibility and e xp ansion w e ,

*
m ay est ablish a r el ation b e tw een th em in t he fol
lowing m ann e r
L et p b e t he pr e ssur e of t he m ass of air wh en
0

r educ e d to t he t em p e ratur e z ero and confin e d ,

in a volu m e v ; th en wh at ev er b e v t h e product
, ,

p o
v o
will by
,
t h e l aw of co m pr essi bility r e m ain con ,

st an t and if t h e t em p er atur e b e el ev at ed fro m O

,

to t 1 and t he g as b e allow e d to e xp an d f r eely

,

without any ch ang e Of pr essur e it s volu m e w i ll b e

,

W e m i g ht al so i nv esti g at e ano th e r r el ati o n to e xpress

,

t h e f ac t th at th e r e is n o ac c essi o n o r r em o v al o f h eat d uri ng

e it h e r t h e se c o nd o r t h e f o u rth o p e rati o n ; b ut it will b e

seen th at thi s will no t aff e c t t h e r esu lt in t h e t ex t alth oug h

,

it w o u ld e nabl e us t o de t e r m i ne b o th cb and co in t e r m s o f z '

.
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

incr ease d in t he r at i o of 1 to 1 E(t 1

) wh e r e

E is v ery n early e qu al t o 003 6 6 ( t he C e ntigr ad e .

sc al e of t he air th er m o m e ter b eing r e ferr e d to )

-
,

wh atev e r b e the gas em ploy e d accord i ng t o the ,

r esearch es of Regn ault and of M agnus on t he e x

ansion of gases b y h eat If n ow t h e volu m e b e
p .
, ,

alt e r e d arb itrarily with t he t em p eratur e continu ally

at t r t he product of t h e pr e s sur e an d volu m e
,

will r em ain con st ant ; an d th er efor e w e hav e

fi v ”
To . { 1 E “ T
)t
Si m ilarly ,

(v ) ( Ge v T) = p o ol
v 1 Et i
Henc e , b y subtraction , we h av e
v ac — p¢ w eb z
p v
o o
Er,

or, n egl ecting t he product co p,

v ac p gb = p0 0
v E r .

He nc e t he
prec eding e xpr ession for m echanical
eff e ct g ain e d i n t he cycl e of op er ations b e co m e s
, ,

p v
o o
Er dv/ v .

Or, as w e m ay oth erwi se e xpr ess it ,

Em .

Henc e if w e d enot e by M t h e m e ch anic al eff ect du e

,

to H units of h eat d e sc e nd i ng through t he sam e

int erval 1 w hich m i gh t b e O b t ain e d b y r e p eat i ng
,
 Z
1 60 THO M S O N ON CA RNOT S
’

t he cycl e of op erations d escrib ed bov e

a ,
t im e s,

Em
we h av e M ,
'

v dg/ dv

27 . If t he am p op e r at i ons had b een

l itu des of the
fin i t e so as to giv e ri se to an ab sorption of H units
,

o f h eat d uring t he fir st op e r ation and a low e ring ,

o f t e m p e r atur e fro m S to T du r ing t h e s e cond t he ,

am ount of work obt ain e d w ould h av e b e en found

to b e e xpr esse d by m eans of a d oubl e d e finit e in

*
t eg ral thu s :
H S
Em .
M
j dg
fi dt ‘

v d / dv
g
’

H S
l dv
‘

M z Ev
j Aq
o
aq ,

thi s se con d for m b eing so m et i m es m or e conv eni ent .

T hi s r e sul t m ig ht h av e b e e n obt ai ne d b y applyi ng t h e

usu al no t ati o n o f t h e i nt e g ral c al c ul u s t o ex pr ess t h e
i

ar e a o f t h e c u rvili n ear q uadril at e r al whi c h acc o rdi n g to

, ,

C l ap eyro n s g raphi c al c o n str uc ti o n w o u ld b e f o und to

’
,

r epr esent t h e e ntire m e c h ani cal e ff ec t g ai ned in t h e cy cl e

o f O p e r ati o n s O f t h e air e ng i ne -
I t is no t n ec essary h ow
.
,

e v e r t o e nt e r i nt o t h e d e t ail s o f thi s i nv e sti g ati o n as t h e

,

f o r m ul a and t h e c o nse q u enc e s d e riv ed f ro m it I nc l ud e ,

t h e wh o l e th eo ry o f t h e air e ng i ne in t h e be st prac ti c al
-
,

f o r m ; and t h e i nv esti g ati o n o f it whi c h I h av e g iv e n in t h e

t ex t w ill prob ably g iv e as c l ear a vi e w o f t h e r e aso ni ng on
whi c h it is f o u nd e d as c ould b e O bt ai ned b y t h e g raphi cal
m e th o d whi c h in thi s c ase is no t so v al u abl e as it is f rom
,

its si m pl ic ity in t h e c ase o f t h e s t eam e ng i ne -

.
1 62 TH O M S ON oN OA RNO T S ’

it is
cl ear th at in e ith er ca se t he op eration s m ay
b e p e rfor m e d in t he r ev e rs e ord e r with e v ery ,

th e r m al an d m e ch anical eff e ct r ev ers e d Thu s i n .

,

t he st eam engin e w e m ay co m m enc e by pl acing

-
,

t he cylin d e r on t he i m p er m eabl e st and allow t he ,

piston to ri se p erfor m i ng work to t he po si tion

, ,

E F ; w e m ay th e n pl ac e it on th e body B an d
, , ,

allow it to ri se p erfor m ing work till it r each es

, ,

H IW; aft er that t he cylind e r m ay b e pl ac e d ag ain

2 2

on t h e i m p er m eabl e st and an d t h e pi ston m ay b e

,

p ush e d down to E F ; and l astly t he cylind e r

, , , ,

b e ing r e m ov e d to t he body A t he pi ston m ay b e -

pu sh e d down to it s pri m itive position In thi s .

inv er se cycl e Of Op er ation s a c e rt ain a m o unt of

work h as b een sp ent pr e c i se ly e qu al as w e r eadily
, ,

see to t h e a m ount o f m e ch anic al e ff e ct g ain e d in

,

t h e dir e ct cycl e d e scr i b e d abov e ; an d h e at has b e e n

ab str act e d fro m B an d d e po sit e d in t h e body A
, ,

at a high e r t e m p e ratur e to an amount pr e ci se ly

,

e qu al t o that which in t he dir e ct styl e w as l et

dow n fro m A to B Henc e it is i m po ssibl e to

.

h av e an engin e wh i ch w i l l d e riv e m or e m e chan ic al

e ff e ct fro m t h e sam e t h er m al ag e ncy t han is oh
t aine d by t h e arr ang e m e nt d e scri b e d abo v e ; sinc e ,

if th e r e could b e su ch an e ngin e it m i ght b e em ,

ploy e d to p e rfor m as a p art of it s whol e work t he

, ,

inv e r se cycl e Of Op e r at i on s u pon an engin e of t he ,

 M OTI VE P O WER OF HEA T 1 63

kind w e hav e consid e r e d an d thus to continu ally ,

r e stor e t h e h eat fro m B to A wh i ch has d esc e n d e d ,

fro m A to B for working it sel f ; so th at w e shoul d

h ave a co m pl e x e ng i n e giving a r esi du al am ount ,

of m e ch anic al e ff e ct without any th e r m al ag e ncy ,

or alt e ration of m at e ri al s which is an i m po ssi b ility,

in n atur e T he sam e r e asoning is appl i c ab l e to

.

t h e air e ngin e ; and w e conclud e g en e r ally th at

-
, ,

any two e ngin e s con struct e d on th e pr i ncipl es l ai d

,

down abov e wh e th er st e am eng i n e s with diff er en t

,
-

liquids an air engin e and a st eam engin e or two

,
- -
,

air engin es with difi e r e nt g ase s m u st d eriv e t he

-
,

sam e am ount of m e ch anic al e ff e ct fro m t h e sam e

th e r m al ag ency .

3 0 He nc e b y co m p aring t h e am ount s of m e
.
,

c h ani cal e fi e c t Obt ain e d by t h e st e am e n g in e an d -

t h e air e ngin e fro m t h e l ett i ng down of t h e H

-

unit s of h eat fro m A at t he t em p eratur e ( t r ) to

B at t accor d ing to t h e e xpr essi ons ( 2 ) an d
,

w e hav e
Ep v
o .
. Hr .
( )
5
k dt v dg / dv

If w e d enot e t he co effici ent of H T i n th ese e qu al

"“
Carnot s
’
e xpr ession s b y M which m ay b e call e d ,

”
co effi c i ent w e h av e
,

Ep ot ’o
’

M ( 1 )
.

O ’
k dt v dg / dv
 TH O M S ON ON OA RNO T S
’

and we d e duc e t he following v ery r em arkabl e eo n

c l u sionS
°

( )
1 For t h e s aturat e d v apor s of all diff e r e nt
liquid s at ,
t he s am e t em p e ratur e , t he valu e of

( 1
if; t
m ust b e t he sam e .

( )
2 For any difi erent g aseous m a sses at,
t he

Em
a t em p er atur e t he valu e Of ust be
.
s m e , m
v dg dv
t he a
s m e .

( )
3 Th e valu es of th es e expr ession s for s aturat e d
vapors an d for gas es at t he s am e t em p er atur e
, ,

m u st b e t h e sa m e .

3 1 No conclu sion c an b e drawn a p r ior i r e

.

g arding t h e v al u es Of th i s co effici e nt u for d i ff er ent ,

t em p er atur e s which can only b e d et e r m i ne d or

, ,

co m par e d by e xp e ri m e nt The r esult s of a gr e at

, .

v ari ety of e xp e r im ent s in diff er ent b ranc hes of

,

physic al sci e nc e ( Pn e u m atic s and A cou stics ) cit e d ,

by Carnot and by Cl ap e yron indicat e that t he ,

v alu es o f 14 for low t em p eratur e s e xc e e d t he valu es

for h i gh e r t em p e r atur es ; a r e sult am ply v er i fi ed
by t he cont i nuou s seri e s of e xp e ri m ents p e rfor m e d
by Regn ault on t he saturat e d v apor of w at e r for all
t em p era t ur e s fro m 0 to °
which as w e shall ,

se e l at e r giv e v alu e s for u gr adu ally di m ini shing

,

fro m t he inf e rior li m i t to t hr sup erior li m it of

 TH O M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

fin d a valu e of u for e v e ry t e m p eratur e within

,

pr act i c al l i m it s T he S p e c i al ch aract e r of t he e x
.

erim ent al r ese arch e s wh e th e r with r ef e r e nc e to

p ,

gases or with r e fe r enc e to v apor s n e c essary an d ,

suffici e nt for thi s O b j ect is d e fin e d and r e strict e d

,

i n t he m o st pr e ci se m ann e r by t he expr es sions ( 6 ) ,

f or y giv e n abov e
,

3 3 T h e o b j e ct of Regn ault s gr eat work r e fe rr e d

’
.
,

to in t he titl e of thi s p ap e r is t he exp e ri m ental de ,

t er m in ation O f th e v ariou s phy si c al el e m ent s of t he

st e am e ng i n e ;
-
an d wh e n it is co m pl et e it will ,

furni sh al l t he data n e c e ssary for t he c alcu l at i on

of p .T h e v alu ab l e r e se arch e s al re ady pu b li sh e d
in a fir st p art o f t hat work m ak e known t he
l at e nt h eat of a g i v e n w e i ght and t he pr essur e of , ,

°
s atu rat e d st eam for al l t e m p eratur e s b e tw e en 0
Ce nt o f t h e air th e r m o m e t e r Be sid e s
°
an d 2 3 0
-
. .

th e se d at a ho w ev er t he d e n sity of saturat e d v a
, ,

por m u st b e known in ord e r th at k t he l at e nt

, ,

h e at of a unit of volu m e m ay b e c alculate d fro m ,

Regn au l t s d e t e r m inat i on o f t h e l at e nt h e at o f a
’

g iv e n w eight B e tw e e n t h e li m it s o f 0 and
.

I t is, c omp arativ ely sp e aki ng o f littl e c o nsequ enc e to

,

k no w ac c urat e ly t h e v al ue of O f o r t h e fac t o r ( 1 —0 ) o f
'

t h e e x pr e ssi o n f o r u S i nc e it is S O sm all ( b e i ng l ess th an

,

l
fi m;
f o r a l l t e m p e r at u r e s b e tw een 0 and th at u nl ess
°

al l th e d at a ar e k no w n with m o r e ac c ur ac y th an w e c an
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 1 67

it is pro b ab l e fro m var i ou s e xp e ri m ent s wh i ch

,

h ave b e e n m ad e th at t h e d en sity of v apor follo w s

,

v e ry clo se ly t h e si m pl e l aw s which are so accur at e ly

v e r i fi e d b y t he ord i n ary g ases and thu s it m ay
b e c alcul at e d fro m Regn ault s t ab l e giving t h e
’

pr essur e at any t em p e r atur e within tho se li m its .

Noth i n g as ye t is kno w n with accuracy as to th e

d en si ty o f saturat e d st e am b e tw e en 1 00 and
and w e m u st b e cont e nt e d at pr e se nt t o e st i m at e it

by calcul at i on fro m Re gn au l t s t ab l e of pr e ssur e s ;

’

although wh e n accur at e e xp e ri m e nt al r e search e s

,

h
on t e su b j e ct sh all h av e b e e n m ad e con sid e r ab l e ,

d e v i at i on s fro m t h e l aw s of Boyl e and D alton on ,

whic h th i s c alcul ation is found e d m ay b e dis ,

cov e r ed .

3 4 S uch are t he e xp e ri m ent al d at a on which

.

t h e m ean v alu e s of p for t h e succ e ssiv e d e gr e e s o f

t he a i r th e r m o m et e r fro m 0 t o
-
,
at pr e s e nt

l aid b efor e t h e Royal Soci ety is found e d The , .

unit of l en g th ad opt e d is th e Engli sh foot ; t he

unit Of w e ight t h e poun d ; t he unit of work a
, ,

c o un t u p on at pr esent w e m i g ht neg l ec t it altoge th e r and

, ,

t ak e dp / lrdt si m ply as th e exp r essi o n f or u with out c om

, , ,

m itti ng any e rr o r o f i m p o rtan t m ag nit ud e .

Th i s is w e ll est abli sh e d withi n th e o rdi nary at m o s

,

p h eric li m it s in Reg nault s Et ud es M é t é o ro l o g iq u e s in t h e

’

, ,

A nna les de Chim ie v o l x v 1 8 46

, . .
16 8 TH O M S ON ON CA RNO T S
’

foot poun d an d t h e unit of h eat th at qu an tity

-

wh i ch wh e n ad d e d t o a pound of wat e r at
, w i ll
°
produ c e an el ev ation of 1 i n t em p e ratu r e The .

m e an v alu e of p for an d e gr e e is f oun d to a suffi

y
ci ent d e gr ee of approxi m at i on b y t aking in plac e ,

of O dp/ dt and k ; in t h e e xpr e s sion

'

dp
( 1
k dt
,

t he n v alu es of thos e el em ents ; or what is

m ea ,

e quiv al ent to t he corr esponding accur acy o f ap

proxi m at i on by t aking in pl ac e of 0 an d k resp e c

, ,
'

t iv el y t h e m ean of t h e v alu es of tho se el em ent s for

,

t he li m it s of t em p eratur e an d in pl ac e of dp / dt
, ,

t he d i ffe r e nc e of t he v alu es of p at t he sam e li m its , .

3 5 In Regnault s work ( at t h e en d of t h e eighth

’
.

m e m oir ) a t abl e of t h e pr essur es of satur at e d st e am

,

for t h e succ e s siv e t em p eratur es

e xpr esse d in m illi m etr es of m ercury is giv en On , .

account of t he unit s adopt e d in thi s p ap er th ese ,

pr essur es m u st b e esti m at e d in pounds on t he

s uar e foo t w hich w e m a do by m ultiplying each
q , y
nu m b er Of m illi m etr es by t he w eight in
pounds of a S h eet of m ercury one m illi m etre thick , ,

an d a s uar e foo t in ar ea
q .

3 6 The v alu e of k t he l at ent h eat of a cubic

.
,

foot for any t em p er atur e t is found fro m ll t he

, , ,
1 70 TH O M S ON ON OA RNO T S
’

extr em e li m it s of his ob serv ation s ,

th e l at ent h eat
of a unit w eight of satur at e d st eam .

EXPL ANA T I O N OF T A BL E I .

37 . The n v alu es Of u for t h e first for t he

m ea , ,
"

el ev enth for t h e tw enty fi rst an d so on up to t h e

,
-
, ,

*
2 3 1 st d egr ee of t he air th er m o m et er h av e b een
-
,

c alcul at ed in t he m ann er expl ain ed in t he pr e c e d

ing p arag raph s Th ese and int erpol at e d r esult s
.
, ,

which m u st agree with wh at would h av e b een ob

t ained by dir e ct c alcul ation fro m Re gn ault s d at a
’
, ,

to thr ee signific ant pl ac es of figur es ( and ev en for

°
t he t em p e r atur es b etw een 0 and t h e e x p eri
m ent al d at a do not ju st i fy u s in r elying on any of

t he r esult s to a gr eat e r d egr ee of accur acy ) are ,

e xhibit e d in T abl e I .

To fi nd the fi
'

m echanical e due to
am ou nt o f ect a

u nit o f heat, descendi ng f r om a body at a t em p er

atu r e S to a body at T, if thes e n um bers be i n
t eg er s, w e hav e m er ely to add the v al u es of M i n

Table I . cor r esp onding t o the s u ccess iv e n um ber s .

T + 1, T + 2, —2 , S —1 .

In tri c t ness t h e 2 3 0t h is th e l ast d eg ree f o r whi c h t h e

s ,

ex p e ri m e nt al dat a ar e c o m pl e t e b u t t h e dat a f o r t h e 2 3 1st

m ay r eadily b e ass um e d in a suffi c i e n tl sati sf ac t o r
y y
m ann e r .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 171

EXPL A NAT I O N OF T A BL E II .

38 . c alcul ation of t he m ech anic al effect in

The ,

any c ase w hich m ight alw ays b e eff e ct e d in t h e

,

m ann e r d escrib e d in 3 7 ( w ith t h e prop e r m odifi

c ation for fraction s of d egr ees wh e n n ec essary ) is , ,

m uch si m plifi e d b y t he u se of T abl e II wh e r e t he .

,

first nu m b e r Of T abl e I t he sum of the first and .

,

se cond t h e su m of t h e fir st thr ee t he su m of t he
, ,

fir st four and so on are succ essiv ely exhibite d

, , .

Th e su m s thu s t abul at ed are t h e v alu es of t he in

t egral s

i i

f ner,
f nal ,

i
and if
, we d enot e
f ner by t h e l ett er M, Tabl e 11 .

m ay be r eg ard e d as a t ab l e of t he v alu e of M
m echanic al
To fi nd the am ou n t o f j
e ect due to a

unit o f heat desce nding f r om a body at a t em p er a

t u r e S to a body at T, if these nu m ber s be integ er s,
w e hav e m er ely t o s ubtr act the v al ue of M , f or t he

nu m ber T, fr om the v al ue f or t he number S , giv en

172 THO M S ON ON CA RNO T S
’

TA BL E I .
*

M EA N VAL UE S O F ,a FO R T HE S UCC E S S I VE D E G REE S OF

A I R T H ERM O M E T E R FR O M 0
°
T HE TO

Th e nu m b e rs h e re t abul ate d l
m ay a so be r eg ard e d as

the actua l v al ues o

f u
, f or t 2 J
” z : t t et c .
1 74 THOMS ON ON CA RNO T S
’

TA BL E II .

I FF I
M E C HA N C AL E E C T N FO O T PO UND S D U E T o A THE R -

I I I
M C UN T C E N T G RA D E P A S S N G R O M A BO D Y A T A NY
, I F ,

TEM P ER AT U RE L E S S THAN A AT
°
2 30 To BO D Y

Su p e rio r Su p er io r p
S u e io r r
Lim it of M h ec anic al Lim it of M h
ec anic al m
L i it o f M ec h anic al
T mp
e er E ff ect . T mp
e er Eff ec t . Te mp r e Eff ec t .

a t u re . at ur e . t
a ure .
 T ABL E II .

Su p ri f
e or Su p
e rio r
Li mit oM h ec anic al M fhf
ec an ic al L im it of M h anic al
mp p ec
Te er Eff ec t . E ect . Te m er Eff ec t .

at ur e .
176 THO M S ON ON CA RNOT S ’

Note on the c u r v es descr i bed i n Clap ey r on s ’

hical m et hod o exhibiting Oar not s Theor

f y of
’
g p
r a

the S team E ng ine -

.

3 9 A t any ins t ant

. wh en t he t em p eratur e Of t he
water and vapor is t du ring t he fourth op er ation ,

se for t h e sak e of S im
( se e abov e 1 6 and , suppo , ,

p l ic ity th a
,t at t h e b e ginning o f t h e first and at
t he en d of t he fou rth Op er ation t h e piston is ah
sol ut el y in cont act with t h e surfac e o f t he wat e r ) ,

th e lat ent h eat of t he v apor m u st b e pr e cis ely eq ual

to t he a m ount o f h eat that would b e n ec essary to
r ais e t he t em p er atur e of t he whol e m as s if in t he ,

liquid stat e fro m t to S ,

*
Henc e if v d enot e t h e .
,
’

volu m e of t he vapor c t he m e an c apacity for h eat

,

of a pound of wat e r b etw een t he t em p e ratur e s S

For at th e e n d o f th e f ou rth
p e rati o n t h e wh ol e m ass
o

is liq uid and at t h e t em p e rat u r e S

, No w thi s st at e m i g ht
.
,

h e arriv ed at b y first co m pr e ssi ng t h e vap o r i n t o w at e r at

t h e t e m p e rat u r e t an d th en r ai si ng t h e t e m p e r at u r e o f th e
,

li quid to S and h o w e v e r thi s st at e m ay he arriv ed at th er e ,

c an no t o n t h e w h ol e b e any h e at add ed t o or subtr ac t ed

, ,

f r om t h e c o n t e nt s o f t h e c yli nd e r si nc e d uri ng th e f ourth

, ,

o p er ati o n th e r e is neith er g ai n nor l oss o f h eat T hi s

, .

r easo ni ng is o f co urse f o und ed o n C arno t s f und am ent al

, ,
’

pri nc ipl e w h i c h is t ac itly assum ed in t h e c o m m only re

,
-

c e iv ed id e as co nnec t ed with
“
W att s l aw ”
th e
“
l at ent
’

”
h eat o f st eam and , t h e t o t al h e at of s t e am .
1 78 TH O M S ON ON OARNOT S
’

en abl e us to c alcul at e fro m t he dat a suppl i ed by

,

Regnault t he ab sci ssa and ordin at e f or each of t h e

,

curv e s d escrib e d abov e 1 7 ) corr esponding to any

assu m e d t e m p e r atur e t A ft er t h e expl anation s of
.

3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 it is only n e c essary to add that c

, , , ,

is a qu antity of whi ch t he v alu e is v e ry n early

unity and would b e e x actly so w er e t he c ap aci ty
,

of wat e r f or h eat t h e sam e at e v e ry t e m p e ratur e

°
as it is b etw ee n 0 and and that the v alu e of

c( S t ) for any as sign e d v al ue s of S and t is

, ,

found by subtrac t ing t he nu m b er corr e sponding

,

to t fro m t he n um b er corr esponding to s in t h e

‘

colu m n h ead e d Nom br e des u nites de chaleur

“ ’

abandonnees k il og r am
’

p ar u n m e d eau en descen
°
da nt de T t
a la st t abl e ( at t he end of
of t he
t he t e nth m e m oir ) of Regnault s work By ’
.

giving S t he v alu e an d by sub stituting su c

cessivel y 2 2 0 2 1 0 2 00 et c,
for t v alu e s for ac y
, , .
, , , ,

"
a y
,
’
h av
, e b e e n found w hich a r e e xh ibi te d in t h
,e

tabl e opp osit e .

 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 1 79

Z
igiggiffifi figSi
e
‘

iggf gfi z gp ;
’
f
p m
p
p
v
c
d
p
t p le
"

,
Vo lu
ri
the
o c c u ie
m es f ro
it i e o sit io n o f
h
m th e
P
r e s su re s o f s at
ist o n t o t o s e ur a t e d s t e a
t p
at inst an s o un s o n t h e d
in m ,

rt
t io n
el
o f t h e se c o n
t io n .
d pr
o e a sq ua re f oo t .

u = w= p

+ 1 57 I H
’
sv . .

9 O6 2 H .

5442 H
. .

. 2 1 88 H .

fi . 1 456 H .

c
c . 09 962 H

—
.

. 06 994 H .

fi . 0502 6 H .

- g
Q
08 68 8 H

—
. .

wH d O2 758 H
A

t
. .

wh fi 02 09 8 H

n
. .

-cx
t
f 01 62 5 H
u
. .

-o fi
v . 01 2 7 1 H .

c? s 01 010 H
:

q
o 5 . .

o g 9 s . 008 1 1 6 H .

o fi c9 s 006 59 2 H
r

. .

o wc 7 s 005406 H
b
0 4
l . .

o w o9 s OO44 7 2 H
t 5 .

o o- o9 s
o
. 003 7 2 9 H .

o w 0H 9 s 003 1 30 H
0
. .

0 . 002 643 H .

(Re ad A pril 3 0 ,

41 In p 3 0 so m e conclu sions d rawn by Carnot

. .

fro m his g en e ral r easoning w er e notic ed ; accord

ing to which it app ear s th at if t h e v alu e of u for ,
1 80 THO M S O N ON CA RNOT S
’

any t em p er atur e is known c er tain infor m ation

,

m ay b e d eriv e d with r e f e r enc e to t he s aturat ed

v apor of any liquid wh at e v e r and with r efer enc e
, ,

to any g ase ou s m ass w ithout t he n e c e ssity o f e x

,

rim ent ing upon t h e sp e cific m e diu m con si d e r e d

p e .

Nothing in t he whol e r ang e of Natural Philo sophy

is m or e r em ark abl e th an t he est ablish m e nt of g en
e ral l aw s by su ch a proc e ss of r e asoning We h av e.

seen ho w e v e r that doubt m ay e xist with r e f e r enc e

, ,

to t h e truth of t he axio m on which t he e ntir e t he

ory is found e d and it th e r e for e b e co m e s m or e th an
,

a m att er of m er e curio sity t o put t he infe r enc es

d e du c e d fro m it to t he t est of e xp eri enc e The .

i m portanc e of doing so w as cl early appr e ci at e d by

Carnot ; and with such d at a as he had fro m t h e
,

r esearch es Of v ariou s e xp e ri m ent er s he tri ed h is

,

concl usions So m e v ery r em arkabl e propo si tion s

.

w hich he d e riv e s fro m his th e ory coincid e wi th

Dulong and Pe tit s sub se qu ently di scov er e d exp eri
’

m ent al l aws with r e f er e nc e to t he h eat d e v elop e d

by t he co m pr ession of a g as and th e e xp erim en

t al v e rific ation is th er efor e in this c ase ( so f ar as
its accu r acy could b e d ep e nd ed upon ) d e ci siv e .

In oth e r r esp e ct s t h e d at a fro m exp eri m e nt w er e

,

in suffici ent although so far as th ey w er e av ail abl e

, ,

as t ests th ey w e r e confir m atory Of th e th e ory

, .

4 2 Th e r e c ent r esearch es of Regnault add im

.
182 TH O M S ON ON OA RNOT S
’

e xp eri m ent s of D el aroch e and Berard on t he sp e

c ifi c h eat of g as es by a proc ess approxi m at ely
,

e qu ival ent to t he c alcul ation of t h e val ue of

Error .
f or t he t e m p eratur e } 0
Th e r e are also In
d;
1
,
v dg

the s am e work d e t er m in ations of t h e v alu es of [A

fro m obs ervation s on t he v apors of alcohol and
wat er but a t abl e giv en in M Clap eyron s p ap e r .
’
,

of t h e v alu e s of u d e riv e d fro m t he dat a suppli e d

by variou s e xp eri m ent s with r e fer enc e to t he v a

pors of eth er alcohol w at e r and oil of turp en
, , ,

tin e at t he r e sp e ctiv e boiling point s Of th es e

,
-

liqu id s affords us t he m eans of co m p arison through

,

a m or e e xt ensiv e rang e of t em p eratur e In t he .

c ases of alcohol and w at er t h ese r e sult s ought of ,

cour se to agree with tho se of Carnot Th er e are .

,

how ev e r slight di scr ep an ci es which m ust b e owi ng

,

*
to t h e unc ert ai nty o f t he e xp eri m ent al d at a In .

t he opposit e t abl e Carnot s r esults wi th r ef e r enc e

’
,

to air and Cl ap eyron s r esult s with r ef er enc e to

,
’

t he four di ff e r ent liquids are e xhibit e d and c om, ,

par e d with t he v alu es Of [1 which h av e b een giv en

T h us, f rom Car not l l ti ons w e fi nd, in th e

’
s ca c u a ,
c ase

l
of a c oh o l and in t h e c ase o f w at er i nst ead
of and whi c h ar e C l ap eyr on s result s in t he
’

sam e c ase s .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 183

V l l zs (
éé g
a n .

i uc i
Nam e s Of t he
t m D iff e r
Md e ia .
T e m p e r a ur e s . Val ue s of n . f ro Re g
n au l t s
’
Oh e nc e s .

s e r v at io ns .

( C arno t)
4 377
.

( C l ap eyr o n)
pt )
.

78 8 . 3 9 63
.

100 3 658
.

3 530
.

abov e ( T abl e I ) for t he sam e t em p eratur e s as de

.
,

riv ed fro m Regn ault s obs ervations on t he v apor ’

of w ate r .

44 It m ay b e Obs erv e d th at t he discr ep anci es

.

b etween t he r esult s found e d on t he exp eri m ent al

d at a suppli ed by t he d i ff er ent Ob serv er s with ref
e r e nc e to w at e r at t he b oiling point ar e gr e at e r -
,

than tho se which ar e pr e se nt ed b e t wee n t he r esult s

d educ ed fro m any of t he oth er liquids and w at er ,

at t he oth er t e m p eratur es and w e m ay th e refore

f eel p erf ectly confid ent th at t he v erificat i on is
co m pl et e to t he e xt ent of accur acy of t h e ob ser
*
v at ions The con si d er abl e d i scr ep ancy pr e sent e d
.

A till c l o ser ag r e em ent m ust b e ex p ec t ed wh en m o re

s

ac c u rat e ex p e ri m e nt al dat a ar e aff o rd e d wit h r e f e r en c e t o

t h e o th e r m ed ia M o ns Reg nau lt i nf o r m s m e th at h e is
. .
 TH O M S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

Car not
’
by r esult d e d uc e d fro m e xp e ri m ents on
s

air is n o t to b e wond e r e d at wh e nw e con sid e r t he

,

v e ry u nc ert ain n atu r e of his d at a .

4 5 T he f act of t h e gr ad u al de cr ease o f u
.
,

through a v e ry e xt ensiv e r ang e o f t em p e r atur e ,

b e ing ind ic at e d both by Reg nault s continuou s ’

se ri e s o f e xp e ri m e nts and by t he v e ry v ari e d e x

p e rim e nt on diff e r e n t m e di a an d in di ff e r e n,t

br anch es of Phy sic al Sci e nc e m u st b e consid er e d ,

as a striking v e rification o f t he th e ory .

II . On the Heat dev elop ed by the Com p r ession f

o

A ir .

46 . L et Of air occupyi ng initi ally a

a m ass ,

giv en volu m e V u n d er a pressu r e P at a t e m

, ,

V
’
p e rat ure t b e co m pr esse d to a l ess vol um e
, ,

and al low e d t o p art with h eat until it si nk s t o its

pri m itiv e t e m p er atur e t Th e q uantity o f h eat
.

which is e volv ed m ay b e d e t e r m in ed according t o ,

Carnot s th eory wh en t he p articula r v al ue of u

’
, ,

en gag e d in c o m p l e ti ng so m e r ese ar ch es f rom w h ic h w e ,

m ay e x p ec t p ossibly b e fo r e t h e e n d O f t h e pr e se n t y e ar
, ,

t o b e f u r ni sh e d with al l t h e d at a f o r fi v e o r S ix di ff e r ent

liquid s w h i ch w e p ossess at pr e se nt f or w at e r I t is t h ere .

f o r e t o b e h o p ed th at b efo r e l o ng a m ost im po rt ant t est o f

, ,

t h e v alidity o f C arno t s th e o ry will b e aff o rded

’
.
 Fro m this r esult we draw t he follo wing conc l u
sion
47 . Eq ual v ol u m es o f a ll e las t ic
fl u ids, ta k e n at

the sam e tem p er atu r e an d p r ess u r e, w hen com

r essed to s m al l er eq u al v ol u m es, dis eng ag e egu al

p
q u an t i t i f
es o heat .

Thi s e xtr em ely r em arkabl e th eor em of Car not s ’

w as ind ep e nd ently l aid down as a prob abl e exp eri

“
m ental l aw by D ulong in h is R echer ches s ur l a ,

Chaleu r Sp écifi gue des Fl u ides Elastigues and it

”
,

th er efor e afi ords a m o st pow erful confi rm ation of

*
t h e th e ory .

C ar no t v ari es t h e st at em ent of h is th eo r em and ill us ,

trat es it in a p assag e pp 8 1 8 2 o f whi ch t h e f o ll o wi ng is

, .
, ,

tran sl ati o n
When a g as v ar ies in vol um e w ithout any cha ng e o f tem
er a tur e , the q ua n tities f hea t absor bed or evol ved by this g as
p ,
o

ar e in ar ithm e ti cal p r og r essio n , if the a ug m enta tion or dim i

nu tions o f vol um e ar e in g eom etr ica l p r ogr ession .

“
W h en w e pr e ss a litr e of air m ai nt ai ned at t h e t em
c om

p e rat ur e and r e d u c e it t o h al f a litr e it di se ng ag es a ,

c e rt ai n q u an tity O f h e at I f ag ai n th e v o l um e b e r ed u c ed
.
, ,

f r o m h al f a litr e t o a q uart e r o f a litr e f ro m a q u art e r t o ,

an e i g hth and so o n t h e q uantiti es o f h e at su c c e ssiv ely

,

e vo lv e d will b e t h e sam e .

If in pl ac e o f c om pr essi n g t h e air w e al l o w it t o e x
, ,

pand t o t w o litr e s f o ur litr es e i g ht litr es e t c it will b e

, , ,
.
,

ne c essary t o su pply e q ual q uantiti es o f h e at t o m ai ntai n t h e

t em p e rat u re alw ays at t h e sam e d eg r ee ”

.
 M O TI VE P O WER OE HEA T . 18 7

48 . In
o v ery r e m ark abl e r esearch es m ad e
s m e

by M r Joul e upon t he h eat d ev elop ed by t h e

.

co m pr ession of air t he qu antity of h eat produc e d

,

in differ ent e xp eri m ents has b een asc ert ain ed wi th

r efe re nc e to t he am ount of work sp ent in t h e
op eration To co m p ar e t he r esult s wh i ch he has
.

Obt ain e d with the indic ation s of th e ory l e t u s de ,

t er m in e t he am ount o f work ne c ess ary actu ally to

produc e t he co m pr ession con si d e r ed abov e .

49 In t he fir st plac e to co m pr e ss t h e gas fro m

.
,

t he volu m e v dv t o v t he work r e quir e d is p dv, ,

o r S inc e
,

p v ( 1 E t ) z
o o ’

dv
r. .
v ( 1 El )

Henc e if , d enot e by W t h e tot al am ount of

we

work n e c essary to produc e t he co m pr ession fro m

’
V t o V w e o b t ain by int egr ation
, , ,

I
s v
( 1 + Et) log
I ;
Co m p aring thi s with t he e xpr ession abov e w e find ,

W M1 El )
E
( 1 1 )
Q
50 Henc e w e i nf e r th at
.

h m ount of work n e c e ssary to produc e

( )
1 T e a

a unit Of h eat by t h e co m pr ession of a g as is t he

s am e for al l g ases at the sam e t e m p er atur e ;
1 88 TH O M S O N ON CA RNO T S
’

( )
2 A n d that the q u antity o f h eat e vol v ed in
all circu m st anc es wh e n t he t e m p eratur e of t he
,

a s is giv e n is proportion al to t h e am ount o f work

g ,

sp e nt in t he co m pr e s sion .

51 T he e xpressi on f or t he am oun t of work n e c

.

e s sary t o pro d uc e a unit of h e at is

M 1 E )
E
and th er efor e Regn ault s e xp eri m e nts on st eam ’

are ava i l abl e to e n abl e u s to c alcul a

t e its v alu e for
any t e m p e ratur e By finding t he val u es of p at
.

etc fro m T abl e I an d by sub st i

.
, .
,

tuting su cc essiv ely t he v alu e s 0 1 0 2 0 et c for t , , , .

, ,

t h e following r e sults hav e b een Obt ain ed :

—E0
T A B L E O F T H E V A LUE S O F

Wo rk re q uis it e to W o rk r e q u is it e
to
p d ro uc e a u nit
Tem p e ra t ur e
p d
r o u c e a u n it
T em p e r at ur e
ofH e at b y t h e o f H e at b y t h e
p
c om r e s sio n o f
Of t h e G as .

mp
co r e s sio n O f
Of t h e G as .

a G as . 8 G as
. .
190 TH OM S ON ON CA RNOT S
’

III . On the Sp ecifi c Heats f

o Gases .

52 . following proposition is prov e d by

The
C arno t as a d e d u ction fro m his g en e ral th eor em
r e garding t he sp e cific h eat s of g ases .

The ex cess
f fi o sp eci c heat *
u nder a const ant

r essu r e abov e the p e ifi s c c heat a t a constan t v olum e,

p
is the sam e f or all g ases a t the s am e t em p er atu r e
and p r es su r e .

53 To prov e thi s propo sition and to d e t er m in e

.
,

“ ”
an e xpr e ssion for t he e xc ess m e nt i on e d in it s

e nunci ation l e t u s s uppo se a unit of volu m e of a

,

as to b e e l e vat ed in t e m p er atur e b y a sm all

g
am ount 1 ,
T h e qu antity of h e at r e quir e d to do
.

this w i ll b e A r if A d enot e t he sp ec i fic h eat at a

,

con st ant volu m e L et us n e xt allow t he g as to

.

e xp an d without going d own i n t em p er atur e unt i l ,

its pr essur e b e co m e s r ed uc e d to it s pr i m itiv e v alu e .

E1
T he e xp an sion which will t ak e pl ac e will b e ’
1 Et
if t he t em p e ratur e b e d enot ed by t ; and h e nc e ,

by t h e qu ant i ty of h eat th at m u st b e suppli e d ,

to pr ev ent any low ering of t e m p e r atur e will b e ,

Ep ov o Er E p
’

u
.

1 + Et
’
”( H E 6)
“
—
T

O r t he p ity
c a ac of a u ni t of volum e f or h eat .
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T . 191

Henc e t he tot al qu antity add e d is e qual t o

Ar i

But , inc e B d enot es t he sp ecific h eat und e r con

s

st ant pr e ssur e t h e qu antity of h eat r e qui sit e to

,

br i ng t he g as into th i s st at e fro m it s pri m itiv e

,

condi tion is e qu al to B r ; and h e nc e w e h av e

,

IV . Com p ar ison O
f the Relativ e A dv antag es f
o the
A ir -
eng ine and S team -
eng ine
.

54 .In t he use of w at er wh e el s for m otiv e pow er

-
,

t he e cono m y of t h e e ng i n e d e p end s not only upon

t h e e xc ell enc e of its ad apt ation for actu ally tran s
m i tt i ng an g i v e n qu an t i ty of w at e r through it
y ,

and pro d uc i ng t he e quiv al ent of work but upon ,

turning to account t he ent i r e av ai labl e fall ; so as ,

w e are t aug ht by Carnot t h e o b j e ct of a th e r m o

,

d yn am i c e ngin e is to e cono m iz e in t h e b e st po ssibl e

w ay t h e tr an sfe r e nc e of all t h e h e at e volv e d fro m ,

bo d i es at t h e t em p er atur e of t h e sourc e to b od i es ,

at t h e lo w e st t em p e r atur e at which t h e h eat can b e

di sch arg e d W i th r e fer enc e th en to any e ng i n e o f

.
, ,

t h e kind th er e w i ll b e two point s to b e con si d e r e d

,

Th e e xt ent of t he f a l l ut i liz e d
( )
1 .
1 92 TH O M S ON ON OA RNO T S
’

( )
2 T h e cono m y o f t h e engin e with t he f all
e ,

which it actu ally u ses .

55 In t he fir st r esp e ct t h e air engin e as Carnot

.
,
-
,

hi m self point s out has a v ast adv ant ag e ov er t h e

,

st eam engin e ; sinc e t h e t e m p er atur e o f t h e hot

-

p art of th e m achin e m ay b e m ad e v ery m uch

high e r in t he air engin e th an would b e po ssi bl e in
-

t he st eam e ngin e on accou n t of t h e v e ry h i gh

-
,

pr essur e produc e d in t he b oil e r by el ev ating t h e ,

t em p er atur e of t he w at er which it cont ain s to any

con si d erabl e e xt e nt abov e t he at m o sph eric bo i ling
“ ”
point O n thi s account a
. p e rfe ct ai r e ngin e -

woul d b e a m u ch m or e v alu abl e in stru m e nt th an a

”
p erfe ct st eam eng i n e
-
.

C ar no t t
sug g e s s a c o m b i nati o npri nc ipl es
of th e tw o ,

with air as t h e m edi um f o r r e c e ivi ng t h e h eat at a v e ry

hi g h t em p e rat ur e f ro m t h e f ur n ac e ; a nd a se c o nd m edi um ,

alt e rnat e ly in t h e st at e o f sat u r at ed v ap o r an d liq u id w at e r ,

t o r ec e iv e t h e h eat di sc h arg ed at an i nt e r m e di at e t e m p e r
,

at ur e f r om t h e air and tr ansm it it t o t h e c o ld est part o f

,

t h e app arat u s .I t is p o ssibl e th at a c o m pl e x arrang em e nt

o f thi s ki nd m i g ht b e i nv e nt e d whi c h w o uld e nabl e u s t o

t ak e t h e h eat at a hi g h e r t e m p er at u r e and di sc h ar g e it at a
,
.

l o w er t e m p e rat u r e th an w ould b e pr ac ti c abl e in any si m pl e

air e n g i n e o r si m pl e st e am e ng i ne
- I f so it w o uld no
-
.
,

doubt b e e q ually p o ssi b l e and p e r h ap s m o r e c o n v eni e n t

, ,

t o e m pl o y st eam al o ne b u t t o u se it at a v e ry hi g h t e m
,

p e rat ur e no t in c o nt ac t with w at e r in t h e h o t t est p art o f

194 TH O M S O N ON OA RNO T S
’

“
pl ac e w e r e m ark that out of t he e ntir e fall
,

fro m t he t em p er atur e of t he co al s to th at o f the

a t m o sph r
e e it is only p art — that fro m t he t em
rat u re of t he b oil e r to t h e t e m p er atur e of t he
p e

cond e n se r — th at is m ad e av ailabl e ; whil e the v e ry

re at f all fro m t h e t e m p e r atur e o f t h e b urn i ng
g
co al s to th at of t h e boil e r and t he co m p ar ativ ely
,

sm all fall fro m t h e t e m p er atur e of t he cond e n se r

to th at of t h e at m o sph e r e are entir ely lo st as ,

far as r eg ard s t h e m e ch anic al effe ct which it is

d e si re d to obt ain We infe r fro m thi s that t he
.
,

t em p er atur e of t he boil e r ought to b e k ept as

high as according to t he str e ngth is con si st ent
, ,

with saf ety whil e that of t he cond ens e r ought

,

to b e k e pt as n e arl y do w n at the at m o sph e ric

t e m p e ratur e as po ssib l e To t ak e t he e ntir e b en
.

e fi t of t h e actu al f all Carnot show e d that t he

,

“
princ i pl e of e xp an sion m u st b e pu sh e d to t he
*
utm o st .

Fr o m thi s p o i nt of vi e w w e see v ery c l early h ow im

,

p e r fec t is th e st e am e ng i ne ev e n af t e r al l W att s im pro v e

-
,
’

m e nt s . Fo r t o “
p ush t h e pri nc ipl e o f ex pansi on to t h e
u t m ost w e m u st all o w t h e st e am b e f o r e l e avi ng t h e cy l
, ,

i nd e r t o e x pand u ntil it s pr e ssur e is t he sam e as th at o f

,

t h e v ap or in t h e c o nd e nse r A c co rdi ng t o
. W att s l aw ’

it s t e m p e rat ur e w o uld th e n b e t h e sam e as ( ac t u ally a littl e

abo v e as Re g nault h as sh o w n) th at o f t h e c o nd e nse r and
, ,
 M O TI VE PO WER OF HEA T
. 1 95

57 To ob tain so m e notion of t he e cono m y which

.

has actu ally b e e n obt ai n e d w e m ay t ak e t he al ,

l eg e d p e rfor m anc es of t he b e st C orni sh e ng i n e s ,

and so m e oth e r int e r e sting practic al c ase s as e x ,

*
am pl es .

( )
1 Th e e ngin e of t he Fow e y Cons ol s m ine was

r e port ed i n 1 8 45 to h av e g i v e n
, ,
foot
po und s of e ffe ct for the con su m pt i on of one ,

bu sh el or 9 4 lb s of co al s No w t he av e r age am ount
. .

e v apor at e d fro m Corni sh bo i l e r s by o ne pound of ,

co al is 8 } lbs o f st e am and h enc e for each

, 7 .

pound of st eam e vapor at e d foot poun d s of -

W ork are produ c e d .

The pr e ssur e of t he satur at e d st eam in t h e boil e r

m ay b e t ak e n as 3 } at m osp h er e s ”an d cou se
L
7
,

h en c e t h e t eng i ne w o rk ed in thi s m o st adv an tag eo us

s e am -

w ay has in r eality t h e v e ry f ault t h at W att f o und in Ne w

co m e n s e ng i ne T hi s d e fe c t is p arti ally r e m edi e d b y

’
.

Hornbl ow e r s sy st e m of usi ng a sep ar at e ex p ansio n c y lin

’
~

der an arr ang e m ent th e advant ag es o f whi c h did no t

,

esc ap e Car n ot s no t ic e alth o ug h th e y h av e no t b e e n r e co g

’
,

niz e d ex t e nsiv e ly am o ng pr ac t ic al e ng i nee r until withi n

s ,

t h e l as t f e w y e ar s .

I am i nd ebt ed to t h e ki nd ness o f P ro f e sso r Go rdo n of

Gl asgo w f or th e i nform ati on r eg ardi ng th e vari ous c ase s
g iv e n i n t h e t ex t .

n diffe r e nt C o r ni sh e n i nes th e pressu r e in t h e b o il e r

f I g ,
196 TH O M S ON ON CA RNO T S ’

q u e n tly , the
t e m p e ratur e o f t he wat e r will b e
Now ( Regn ault e n d of M é m oir e X ) t he l at ent
, .

h eat of a poun d of saturate d steam at 1 40 is 508 °

,

and sinc e to co m p en sat e for each pound of steam

,

r e m ov e d fro m t he b o i l er in t he working o f t he
e ngin e a pound o f w at er
, at t he t e m p e r atur e o f
,

th e cond e n se r which m ay b e e sti m at e d at

, is
introduc e d fro m t he hot w ell ; it follo w s th at 6 18 -

u n it s of h eat ar e introduc e d to t he boil e r for each

poun d of w at e r e v aporat e d Bu t t h e w ork pro .

duc ed for e ach pound o f w at er e v apor at ed w as

, ,

found ab ov e to b e foot poun d s Henc e -

.

J5 5* or 2 5 3 foot pound s is t he am ount of work

-
g ,

pro d u c ed for each unit of h eat tran sm itt e d through

t he Fow e y Con sol s engin e Now in T abl e II w e . .

fi nd as t he th eor etic al e ff e ct due to a unit de

°
sc ending fro m 1 40 to an d 1 4 3 as t h e eff e ct due
°
to a unit d esc ending fro m 3 0 to Th e diffe r e nc e
of th e se nu m b e r s or is t h e nu m b er of foot
,

is f r o m 2} to 5
7 t
a m os p h e re s ;
th er ef o r e as w e fi nd
an d, ,

f ro m Reg nault s t abl e o f t h e pr essur e o f sat u rat e d st e am

’
,

t h e t e m p e r at u r e o f th e w at e r in t h e b o il e r m us t in al l o f ,

th e m l ie betw ee n 1 28 and For t h e b ett e r c l ass o f

°
,

e ng i nes t h e av e rag e t e m p e r at ur e o f t h e w at e r in t h e bo il e r
,

m ay b e esti m at e d at t h e co rr esp ondi ng pr ess ur e o f

st e am b e i ng 3 4 at m osph e r e s .

*
T h is num b er ag r ees v ery c l osely wit h t h e nu m b er
198 TH O M S O N ON CA RNO T S
’

w e divid e thi s by 6 1 8 w e find 1 59 foot pounds for ,

-

t h e work produc e d by e ach uni t o f h eat Thi s is .

*
e r c ent of 4 4 0 t he th e or etic al duty
p , .

( )
4 E ngli sh e ngin ee r s hav e contract e d to m ak e

e ng i n e s an d boil e rs which will r e q ui re only 3 4 lbs .

o f t h e b est co al p e r hors e pow e r p er hour Henc e -

.

in such engin es each pound of co al ought to pro

du c e foot pound s of work and if 7 l b s of
-
,
.

w at er b e ev aporat ed by each pound of coal th er e ,

woul d r esult foot pound s of work for each -

po und of w at er evaporat ed If t he pr essur e in t h e .

It b ei ng assum ed th at t h e t em p e rat ur es o f t h e boil e r

and c ond e nse r are t h e sam e as th ose o f t h e C o r n i sh e n

g i ne s. I f h o w ev e r t h e pr essur e b e l o w e r t w o at m o s
, , ,

p h er e s f or inst anc e t h e nu m b e r s w o uld st and t h us : Th e

, ,

t em p e rat ur e in t h e b o il er w o uld b e only 1 2 1 Co nse .

q uently f o r eac h p ound of steam evap orat ed only 6 14

, ,

u nit s o f h eat w o uld b e r eq uir e d an d th e re fo r e t h e w o rk

p e rf o rm ed f or e ac h u nit of h eat transm itt ed w o uld b e

f o o t p ou nd s whi c h is m ore th an acco rdi ng t o t h e
-
,

esti m at e in t h e t ex t O n t h e o th e r h and t h e r ang e o f t em

.
,

p e r a t ur e s o r ,t h e f all u tiliz ed is only f ro m 1 3 1 to 3 0 ih

, ,

st ead o f f r o m 140 t o an d co nseq u ently ( T abl e

. t he
th eo r e ti c al d uty f o r e ac h u nit o f h e at is only 3 7 1 f oo t
p ou nds Henc e if th e e ng i ne t o w o rk ac co rdi ng t o t h e
.
, ,

sp e c ifi c ati on r e q u ir e s a pr essur e o f o nly 1 5 l b s on t h e

, .

s q u ar e i nc h a t o t al st e am pre ssu r e o f t w o at m os
-

p h e r es) it
, s p e r f o r m a n c e is A
ss o r p er c e nt o f its

t h e or eti c al d u ty .
 M OTI VE PO WER OF HEA T . 199

boil e r b e 3 1} t o sph er es (t e m p e r atur e

a m t he
am ount of w o r k for e ach un i t o f h eat will b e

found by d ividing th i s by 6 1 8 to b e
, ,
foot
pound s which is 1 1 153 or
,
1 3 4
p e r c e nt o f t h e th e o

*
re t ic al duty .

( )
5 T h ctual v r g of work p rfor d by
‘

e a a e a e e m e

good Corni sh engin es and b o i l e r s is

foot pounds for each bu sh el of co al or l ess th an
-
,

half t he e xp eri m ent al p erfor m anc e of t h e Fow e y

Con sol s eng i n e m or e th an h alf t he actu al duty
,

p erfor m e d b y t he U n i t e d M i n es en g in e in 1 840 ;
i n fact about 2 5 p er c ent of t he th e or et i c al d uty
, .

( )
6 T h e a v e r ag e p e r f or m anc es of a nu m b e r of
L ancash i re engin es and b o i l er s h av e b e en r ec ently
found t o b e such as to r e quir e 1 2 lb s of Lanc a .

shir e co al p e r hor se pow e r p e r hour

-
for p er
form i ng 60 X foot pou n d s) an d of a n u m
-
,

b e r of G l asgow e ng i n e s su ch as to r e quir e 1 5 l b s .

so m e w h at in f e rior co al ) for t h e sam e effe ct

( o f a .

Th e r e ar e how e v e r m or e th an t w e nty larg e e n

, ,

g i n e s in Glasgo w at pr e se nt } wh i ch w ork With a

*
I f in
,
thi s c as e ag ai n t h e pressu re r equired in th e bo il e r
,

t o m ak e th e e ng i ne w o rk ac c o r ding t o t h e c o n tr ac t w e r e

o n ly 1 5 l b s o n t h e sq uar e i nc h w e sh o uld h av e a di ff e r e n t
.
,

e sti m at e of t h e e cono m y f or whi c h se e T abl e B at t h e

, ,

e nd o f thi s p ap e r .

h e ng i nes ar e pr o v id e d with se p ar at e ex p ansi on

f T e se
2 00 TH O M S ON ON CA RNOT S ’

con su m ption of only 6 4 l b s of dro ss e qu iv al ent .

,

to 5 l b s of t he b e st Scotch or 4 lb s of t h e b e st
. .

W el sh co al p er hors e pow e r p er ho ur
,
- The .

e cono m y m a b s ti m at e d fro m th ese d at a as in

y e e ,

t he oth e r c ase s on t h e assu m ption wh ic h with

, ,

r e fer e nc e to th e se is t he m ost pro b abl e w e c an

,

m ak e th at t he e v apor ation produc e d b y a pound

,

of b e st co al is 7 l b s of st ea m
. .

58 T he following t abl es a ff ord a synoptic vi e w

.

of t h e p erfor m anc e s an d t h e or e t i c al duti e s in t he

v ariou s c ase s di scu ss e d ab ov e .

In T ab l e A t he nu m b ers in t h e se cond colu m n

ar e found by dividing t h e nu m b e r s in t he fir st by

8 4 in c ase s an d an d b y 7 in c as es

an d t h e e sti m at e d nu m b e r s o f pounds o f
st eam actu ally prod uc e d in t h e difi e rent boil er s by

t h e burning of 1 1b of co al . .

T he nu m b ers in t h e th i rd colu m n ar e found

fro m tho se in t he s econd b y div i d ing b y 6 1 8 in
,

T abl e A an d 6 1 4 i n T abl e B w hich are re sp ec

, ,

t iv e ly t h e qu antit i e s o f h e at r e quir e d to conv ert a

poun d of w at er t ak e n fro m t h e hot w ell at -

°
into saturat e d st ea m i n t he boil e r at 1 40 or at
, ,

cyli nd ers whi c h h av e b e en r ec ently adde d

, to t h em by
M r M Naug h t of G l asg o w
.
‘
.
 THO M S ON ON OA RNO T S
'

2 02

TABLE A .

V AR I U
O S EN G IN E I N W H IC H
S T HE T EM P ERA T URE O F T HE

BO I LER 1s 140 C
°
. A ND T H AT O F T HE C O ND E N S ER 30 C
°
.

f Hea t
*
Theor etic al D u ty f or each Unit o tr ansm itted, 440

f w t pOu fl ds
'
/ .

W or k W ork W or k p ro Pe rc e n t
p ro p ro du c ed f or
du c e a f o r d uc e d f o r e of
CAS ES "h
’

‘ ‘ t
. e ac h l b o f
c o al con
. e ac h 1h o f
w a t e r e v af
.

ii? fiééc
{
l w t “

sum e d . p o rate d d ut y .

ed
.

Ft 1b s -
Ft l b s -
lit lb s
- .

( 1) Fo w e y C o nsol s
. . . .

e x p e ri
m nt r
e , e p di
or t e n 1 845
253
Tas l r at t h e
’
(2) s e ng ine
Uh
o
it d ines ,
e M wo k r
ing in 1 8 40
( 3 ) Fr e nc h e ng ine s , acc o rd
ing t o c o n rac t t
E
( 4) ng l ish e ng ine s, ao
co rd
ing t o c o n r ac t t
Av
. .

( 5) e r ag e ac t ual p er
f o r m ance o f C o r nis h 1 11 3 . 25 3 .

e ng ine s
( 6) C o m m on en ine s c on
s um ing 12 l s 0
c o al p er h ors e
.

-
p ow e r

( 7) Im pr v d o e e ng in e s w it h
exp an sion c y l in d ers ,
c o n su m ing an e ui a v 26
len t t o 4 lb s 0 b e st
c o al p er h o rse -
.

p ow e r
p er h o ur

[N o te a dd d M h 1
e arc 5, 1 88 1 . T o tal wo k r f or th e rmal unit , 1 390

( Joul e) , r db
c or ec te y t he d y na mi c al t h e o ry , M arc h 15, 1 851 .

. 27 13 x 1 3 90,

253 : . 1820 X 13 90 X
 M O TI VE P O WER OF HEA T .

TABLE B .

VARI U EN IN E IN W H IC H H TEMPERAT URE F HE

O S G S T E O T

B I L ER N T HA T F H C N E N ER 3 0 C * °
12 1 C
°
O Is . A D O T E O D S .

Th ti l Du ty f
eor e ca h U it f H t t n itt d 3 7 1 or eac n O ea ra sm e ,

f oot-p ou nds .

W k Pe r
3 593 5 3
~

v l‘ p ’ v ’l
g fit ed f fi gfiééd 5 3? e h 11
p 3
a
G n
g ,
(1

CAS ES e ac l i l b o f ea l 1h
c f
gg 133 5o
N t :3
1 eo
. . .

03 l 0 0 11 a
s
V
3 ev
p o af ed
r

223
1
.

3 15 7 111 1 ”

um ed . r .

Ft l b s -
Ft -l b s Ft l b s
h d
-
. . . . . .

( 3 ) Fre nc e ng i ne s , ac c o r
ing t o c o nt r ac t
( 4) Eng l s i h e ng ine s ac
d
c o r ing t o c o n t ac
,

r t gag x ; 35
m
C o m o n e ng ine s , c o n
.

( 6)
s u m i ng 1 2 l b s o f c o al
h p 343 x
.

er rorse ow e per
p
-

o ur
(7) Im p v d iro i h e e ng ne s w t
p
ex d
a ns io n c y l in e rs ,
c o nsu m ing an e q u iv a
l e nt t o 4 l b s b e st c o al gfi x

er h orse - p
.

ow er per
o ur

P ressure 15 l b s . on t h e sq ua re inch .
2 06 A PPEN I X A D .

b rie ty lowly littl e and oft en

eat s , , ; avoid idl e
”
n ess and u sel ess m e ditation .

Th e n co m e m or e g en eral pre c epts

A dopt good h abits wh en I ch ang e m y m e thod
”
of life .

“
Ne v er turn to t he p ast unl ess t o enlight en t he
”
future Regr et s are u sel ess
. .

For m r esolutions in advanc e in ord er not

t o r efl e ct during action Th en ob ey thys elf
.

”
blindly .

“
T he pro m ptitud e of r e solutions m ost fre
”
quently accord s with t h eir ju stic e .

Yi eld fr e qu e ntly to t he fir st in spiration T oo .

m uch m e dit ation on t h e sa m e subj e ct e nds by sug

g e st in g t h e wor st part or at l east cau ses los s of

,

”
pr eciou s t i m e .

“
S uffer slight di sagr eeabl es without s eem ing t o
p erc ei v e th e m but r epuls e d e c i siv ely any one w ho
,

”
e vid ently int ends t o injur e or hu m ili at e you .

“
One should n e v er feign a ch aract e r that he
h as not or afi ec t a charact er th at h e cannot su s
,

”
tain .

S elf pos se ssion without s elf suffi c iency Cour

- -
.

”
ag e without effront e ry .

M ak e inti mat e acqu aint anc e s only with m u ch

circu m sp e ction p erfe ct confid enc e in tho se w ho
 D
A PPEN I X A . 2 07

hav e b een thoroughly t est ed . Nothing t o do wi th

”
oth ers .

Q u estion thys elf t o l earn what will pl ease

”
oth e rs .

No us el ess di scour se A ll conv ersation which

.

do es not s erv e t o enlight en o urs elv e s or oth er s ,

t o int e re st t h e h eart or am u se t he m ind is hurt ,

ful
Sp eak littl e of what you know and not at al l
,
”
of what you do not know .

“
Why not say m or e fre qu ently ,
I do no t
‘

kno w
“
Sp eak to ev ery one of that w hich he kno w s
b est Thi s will put him at his ease and b e p rofi t
.
,

”
abl e to you .

A b stain fro m all pl easantry which could

”
wound .

“
Em ploy o nly e xpr essions of t he m o st p erf e ct
propri ety .

L i st en att entiv ely t o your int erlocutor and so ,

pre p are him to l i st e n in t he sa m e w ay to your reply ,

”
an d pr e d ispo se him in favor of your argu m e nt s .

Show n ei t h er p as sion nor w earin e s in di scu s

s
Nev e r dir ect argu m ent against any one If
an .

yo u know so m e p articul ar s ag ain st your ad v ersary ,

you hav e a right t o m ak e him aw are of i t to k ee p

2 08 A PPEN I X A D .

him und e r control b u t proc ee d with discr etion

, ,

an d d o not wound him b e for e oth e rs .

Wh e n d i scu ssion d eg en erat es i nto disput e b e ,

”
sil e nt ; thi s is not to d e cl are your self b eat en .

Ho w m uch m od e sty add s to m e rit A m an of

t al ent who conc eal s his knowl e dg e is lik e a branch
”
b ending und er a w eight of fruit .

“
Why try to b e witty I would r ath er b e
thought stupid and m od e st than w itty and p re
”
t e nt iou s .

M en desire nothing so m u ch as to k th em
m a e
”
se lv es envi e d .

“
Egoti sm is t h e m o st co m m on and m o st h at e d
of all vic es Prop e rly sp eaking it is t he only one
.
,

”
wh i ch should b e h at e d .

T he pl e asu r es of self lov e are t he only on e s

-

”
th at can r eally b e turn e d into ridicul e .

I do not know why th e se t w o expr essions ,

good s ens e and co m m on sens e are confoun de d , .

”
Th er e is no thing l e ss co m m on th an good sen se .

T h e strain of suff ering caus es t he m ind t o

d ec ay .

We will quot e one o f thos e m i santhropic sall i e s

t he r arity of which we are gl ad to r e m ark

It m u st b e th at al l hon est p e opl e are in t he

”
g all eys ; only kn av e s are to b e m et with el se wh er e .
 A PPEN I X A D .

We say that is an egotist and nev erthe

m an ,

l ess his sw eet est pl easur e s co m e to him through

oth er s
. He only tast es th em on condi t ion of shar
ing th em .

If one could continually satisfy his d esir es h e ,

would n e ve r h av e ti m e t o d e sir e Happin ess th en

.

is n e c e s sarily co m po se d of alt ernativ e s It could .

”
not exist at a constant l e v el
‘
.

O n t he subj e ct of nations and con q u erors

To ach con q u eror can b e said wh en he has
e ,

c ease d tor m enting our poor glob e Would you ,

‘

not hav e b een abl e to tilt eq u ally w ell ag ai nst a

littl e glob e of past eboard
The laws of war do th ey say ? A S if w ar
,

”
w er e not t he d estru ction of all laws .

War has b ee n r epr esent e d as n ec essary to pre

v ent t he t oo r apid incr eas e of th e popul ation but ,

war m ows down t h e flow e r of t he young m en ,

w hil e it S p ar e s t h e m en di sgr ac e d by n atur e .

”
H enc e it t end s to t he d eg en eration of t he sp eci es .

Th en t he writ er turns his shafts against m e di

cin e
In so m e r esp e cts m edicin e is dir ectly oppos ed
to t he will of nature which t ends to p erp etu at e t he
,

strong est and b est of t he sp eci e s and to abandon ,

 A PPEN I X A D . 211

the d elicate t o a thousand form s of d estruction .

T his is wh at occurs am ong ani m als and sav ag e

m en . O n l y t he m ost robust attai n t he adult ag e ,

and th ese only r eproduc e t he sp eci e s M edici ne

.

and t he aids of t he soci al st at e prolong t he liv es of

feebl e cre atur es who se po st erity is u su ally e qu ally
feebl e . Am ong t he Sp art an s barbaro us regula
,

tions put an end to t he e xi st enc e of m al for m e d

-

infant s th at t he strength and b eauty of the rac e

,

m ight b e pr e se rv e d . Such r egul ations are anti

path etic t o our cu sto m s ; n e ver th el ess it m ight b e
d e sirabl e that w e should d e vot e ours elv e s t o t he
pr eservation of t he hu m an rac e fro m t he caus es of
”
w eakn ess and d eg en eracy .

“
T he d ecad enc e of t he Gr eek s and Ro m ans
wi thout ch ang e of rac e prov e s t he influ enc e of ih
”
st it ut ions upon custo m s .

We will giv e h ere a fragm ent on political econ

o m y t o S ho w t he vari ety contain e d in t he p ag e s on
,

which we draw
A ccording to t he sy st em of m od ern e cono m ist s
,

it would b e d esirabl e th at t he gov ern m ent should

i nt erfe r e as li ttl e as po ssibl e in t he co m m erc e and
industry of t he country Nev erth el ess w e c annot
.

d eny that in c ert ain circu m stanc es thi s int er v e n

”
tion is v ery us eful .
212 A PPE N I X A D .

Tax es are r egard ed by econo m ists as an evil ,

but as a n e c es sary e v il sinc e th ey provid e for pub

,

lic e xp e n ses Cons equ ently e cono m i sts think that

.
,

if t he gov ern m ent po ss ess e d suffici ent r ev enu e s in ,

do m ains for e xam pl e t he suppr es sio n of all tax es

,

would b e a d e sirabl e m easur e .

“
Tax e s are a m ean s of influ encing production
and co m m e rc e to giv e to th e m a dir e ction which
th ey would not n atur ally hav e t ak en Such an .

influ enc e m ay un doubt e dly h av e d i sagr eeabl e con

se q u e nc e s ii t h e t ax e s are i m pos e d without dis

cri m ination or e xclu siv ely for a fi sc al purpo se but ,

it is e ntir ely oth e rwi se if wi sdo m and t act pr esid e

”
at th e ir i nstitu t ion
.

“
A t ax on t h e r ent of a far m would b e m uch
b ett er th an a t ax on t he land its elf Propri e tors .

th e n could only avoi d t ax es by th e m selv e s i m prov

ing th e ir prop e rty A s it is th ey m e r ely coll e ct
.
,

t h e r e nt s and u su ally e m ploy th eir su rplu s in u n

,

productiv e e xp enditur e whil e t he propri e t ary

,

far m er s volunt arily d evot e th eirs to t he i m prov e

m ent of t h e l and.

“
A t ax on th e far m s would th e n r esult in t h e
propri e tors th em s elv es working th e l ands and t h i s ,

w ould m e an b e tt e r cultiv ation and i m prov em e nts

,

which would yi e ld r e turn s ind e e d but at too re ,

m ot e a p e riod for t h e t e n ant It would t end to a

.
 2 14 APPEND I X A .

ent ial p erson nel in t he s tat e , for it is th ey w ho

”
u sually m ak e t he l aw s .

Pe rh aps i t would b e n e c essary t o w eak e n th eir

oppo sition by not subj e cting t he actu al propri etor s
to t he n ew t ax wh i ch m ight t ak e efl ec t only with
,
’

t h e n e xt ch ang e e ith e r by s al e or by inh erit anc e

'
.

A r e strict i on of t h e right of tr an sfe r would al so

facilit at e t he pa ssag e fro m one situ ation t o t he
oth e r All ch ang e s in t ax es should as a g e n e ral
.
,

thing b e m ad e gradu ally i n ord er to avoid su dd e n

, ,

”
ch ang es of fortun e .

“
We m ay con sid e r t h e r e nting of a prop erty
for sev er al y e ar s as a sal e of t h e u sufruct during
t he ti m e of t h e l eas e Now nin e y ear s po ss e ss i o n
.
’
,

f or e xam pl e is e qu al to m or e th an a third o f t he
,

v alu e of t he prop erty s uppo sing t he an nu al prod

,

uct to b e on e tw e nti e th of t h e capit al ; It wo uld

th e n b e r eason ab l e to apply to thi s sor t of sal e the
law s w hich gov e rn that o f land e d prop erty an d ,

con sequ e ntly th e m ut ation t ax T he p e r son who .

cannot or will not cultivat e his soil inst ead of ,

al i en ating t h e prop e rty it se lf binds hi m self to ,

al i e n at e t h e u sufruct for a t i m e an d t he pric e is ,

p aid at stat e d int e rval s inst ead o f all at onc e .

”
Th e r e is far m r e nt .

“
No w it is by a fiction t hat t he pu rch ase r p ay s
t h e m ut at i on tax In fact it is always t he sel ler
.
,
 D
A PPEN I X A . 215

w ho p ays it The b uyer co m par e s the m on ey th at

.

h e sp e n d s with t h e adv ant ag e th at he gai n s an d ,

thi s co m p ar i son d et er m in es i t If he did no t m ak e

.

m on e y out o f it h e would not buy i t Wh e n t he .

r egi strat i on tax d id not exist t he purch aser had to

,

a
p y t h e sam e sum for t h e s am e purpo se an d this ,

”
su m w e nt into t h e po ck e t of t he se ll e r .

Propri e tor s of l and s th en aft er all hav e t o

, , ,

b ear t he m ut ation t ax es Al l incr ease of th ese

.

t ax es is a lo ss for th e m an d th ese tax es are b eav

,

ie r on th e sm all propr i e tors th an on t h e l arg e b e ,

c au se th eir ch ang es are m or e fre qu ent T he t ax .

on t he far m s on t he contrary would b e ar m ore

, ,

”
h eavily on l arge est at e s .

“
Th e t ax o n far m s not afl ec t ing t h e own e r s o f
ti m b e r would b e m ad e u p b y a t ax on t he fe ll i ng
, ,

a v e ry ju stifi abl e t ax for st anding ti m b e r is l an d e d

,

prop erty Standing ti m b e r is oft e n worth m u ch

.

”
m or e th an t h e l and o n w hich it stand s .

Fin ally , will give so m e thought s which r ev eal

we

the r eligiou s se nti m ent s of S adi C arnot :

M en ttri b ut e to chanc e tho se e v ents of the

a

c au se s of w hich th ey are ignor ant If th e y suc .

c e e d in div ining th e se c au se s ch anc e di sapp ear s

, .

To say th at a thing has h app e n e d b y ch anc e,

2 16 A PPEND I X A .

is to th at w e h av e not b een ab l e t o for e s ee it

say .

I do not m y self b eli e v e th at any oth e r acc eptation

can b e giv en to thi s word What to an ignoran t
.

m an is ch anc e c annot b e ch anc e to one b e tt e r in

,

s truct e d .

“
If hu m an r e a son is inc apa b l e of discov ering
t h e m y s e ri es of Divinity w hy h as not Divini ty
t ,

m ad e hu m an r e ason m or e cl ear sight e d -

“
God can not p uni sh m an for net b eli e ving
wh e n h e could so easily h av e enlight en e d and con
”
v in ce d him .

“
If God is ab solut ely good why should ,

He punis h t h e sinn e r for all e t ernity sinc e ,

He do e s not l ead him to good or giv e him an ,

9 ”
exa m pl e
“
A ccording t o t he doctrin e of t h e church Go d ,

r e s em b l e s a sphinx propo sing enig m as an d d e vour ,

”
ing tho se who c annot gu ess th e m .

The ch urch attribut e s to God a l l hu m an p as

sion s— ang e r d esir e for v eng eanc e curio sity tyr
, , ,

”
anny p arti ality idl e n e ss
, ,
.

“
If Chri sti an i ty w e r e prun e d of al l which is
not Christ thi s r eligion woul d b e t h e si m pl est in
,

”
t h e worl d .

Wh at m otiv e s hav e influ enc e d t he writ er s w ho

h av e r ej e ct e d all r eligiou s syst em s ? I s it th e con
Vic t ion th at t h e i d e a s which th ey oppo se are al l
2 18 A PPEND I X A .

We also know th at always in the collision of

bodi es th er e occur s a chang e of t em p er atur e an ,

el ev ation o f t em p er atur e We c annot as did M .

, .

Bertholl et attribut e t he h eat set fr ee in this c as e

,

to t he r e duction of t h e volu m e o f t he body ; f or

w h en thi s r eduction h as r each e d it s li m it t he lib er
at i on of h eat would c ease Now thi s do e s not oc
.

our .

It suffici ent th at t he body ch ang e for m by p er

is
c u ssion without ch ang e of volu m e to produc e dis
, ,

eng ag em ent of h eat .

If for ex am pl e w e t ak e a cub e of l ead an d strik e

, ,

it succ essiv ely on each o f its fac es th er e will alw ays ,

b e h eat lib er at e d without sen sibl e di m inution in

,

this di seng ag em ent so long as t h e blow s are con

,

tinn e d with e qual forc e Thi s do es not occur wh en

.

m ed al s are struck In thi s c ase th e m et al ca nnot

.

ch ang e for m aft er t he fir st blow s of the die an d ,

t he efi e c t of t he colli sion is not conv ey ed to t h e

m ed al but to t h e thr e ad s of t h e scr e w which are
,

str ain e d and to its support s

, .

It would seem th en th at h eat set free should

, ,

b e attribut e d to t he friction of t h e m ol ecul es of

t h e m et al which ch ang e pl ac e r el ativ ely to each
,

oth er th at is t he h eat is set fr e e ju st wh er e t he

, ,

m ov i ng forc e is e xp en d e d .

A S i m il ar r em ark will apply in r eg ard to t he col

 I AI YHEAHDI XTi d . 2 12)

lision of two bodi es of di ffering h ardn ess —l ead and

iron for in st anc e The fir st of th ese m et al s b e
.

co m es v e ry hot wh i l e t he secon d d o es not v ary sen

,

sib l y in t em p er atur e
.
But t h e m ot i v e pow er is
.

al m o st wh olly e xh au st e d in ch anging t h e for m of

t he first of th ese m et al s We m ay al so cit e as a

.
,

fact of the sam e n atur e th e h eat pro d uc ed b y t he

,

e xt en sion of a m et allic ro d ju st b e for e it br eak s .

Exp eri m ent has prov e d th at oth e r thing s b e i ng ,

e qu al t h e gr eat er t he e long ation b efor e ruptur e

, ,

t he m or e con sid er abl e is t h e el e v ation of t em p er a

tur e.

( )
2 [Th e r em aind er is bl an k ]

Wh en a hypoth esi s no long er su ffic es to expl ain

ph eno m en a i t should b e ab andon e d
, .

Thi s is t he c ase with t h e hypoth esis which re

g ard s c aloric as m att er as a sub t il e fluid
, .

T he e xp eri m ent al fact s t ending to d estroy thi s

th eory are as follow s
( )
1 T h e d e v e lop m ent of h eat b y p erc ussion o r

t he friction of b o d i es ( exp eri m ent s of Ru m for d

friction of wh eel s on th ei r spindl es on t h e axl es , ,

e xp e ri m e nt s to b e m ad e ) Her e t he el evat i on o f
.
’

t em p e rat ur e t ak es pl ac e at t h e sam e ti m e in t h e
body rubbing and t he body rubb ed M or eov e r .
,

th ey do not ch ang e p erc epti b ly in for m or n atur e

22 0 D
A PPEN I X A .

( to b e prov e.d ) Thus h e at is produc ed by m otion .

If it is m att er it m u st b e ad m itt e d that the m att er

,

is cr e at e d by m otion .

( )
2 Wh e n an a i r pu m p is work e d
-
a n d at
,
t h e

sa m e ti m e air is ad m itt e d into t h e r e c e iv er t he ,

t em p eratur e r em ains con st ant in t h e r e c eiv er It .

r em ains con st ant on t h e out sid e Con sequ ently .

,

t he air co m pr e s se d by t he pu m ps m u st ri se in
t em p er ature abov e the air out sid e an d it is ex ,

p ell e d a t a hig h e r t em p e r atur e

. Th e air e nt ers

th en at a t em p eratur e of for in st anc e and ,

° °
l eav es at anoth er 1 0 ,
9 0 or for ex am pl e .

Thus h eat has b een cr eat ed by m otion .

( )
3 If t h e air in a r ese rvoir is co m pr esse d a nd at ,

t he s am e ti m e allow e d to escap e through a littl e

op ening th ere is by t he co m pr ession el evation of
,

t em p eratur e by t he escap e low e ring of t em p er a

,

tur e ( according to Gay Lussac and W elt er ) The

-
.

air th en e nt er s at on e sid e at on e t em p er atur e and

esc ap e s at t he oth er sid e at a high er t em p er atur e ,

.

fro m which follows t he s am e concl usion as in t he

pr ec eding c ase .

( E xp e ri m e nt to b e m a d e : To fit to a high pr es -

sur e boil er a cock and a tub e l eading to it and em pty

ing into t he at m osph er e ; to op en t he cook a littl e
w ay and pr e s ent a th er m o m et er to t he outl e t of
,

t he st ea m ; to see i f i t r e m ains at 1 00 or m or e ;
°
2 22 A PPEN I X A D .

r esult of a vibr atory m ov em ent of t he eth er eal

flui d L i ght produc e s h eat or at l east accom p a
.
,

ni es t h e r adi ating h eat and m ov es with t he s am e

,

v elocity as h eat Radiating h eat is th en a vi b r atory

.

m ov e m e nt . It would b e ridiculous to suppo se th at

it is an e m is sion of m att e r whil e t he light which
acco m p ani e s it co uld b e only a m ov em ent .

Co uld a m otion ( that of radi ating h eat ) pro

du c e m att er ( caloric ) P
No undoubt e dly ; it c an only produc e a m otion
, .

Heat is th e n t he r e sult of a m otion .

Th en it is pl ain th at it could b e produc e d by t he

con su m pt i on of m otiv e pow er and th at it could ,

produc e this pow e r .

Al l t he oth e r ph eno m ena — co m position and de

co m pos i tion o f bodi es p as sag e to t he g ase ou s st at e
, ,

sp e cific h eat e quilibriu m of h eat its m or e or l e s s

, ,

easy tr ans m i ssi on its con st ancy in e xp eri m ent s

,

—
with t he c alori m et er could b e e xpl ain ed by thi s
hypoth esis But it would b e difficult to e xplain
.

why in t he d ev elop m ent of m otiv e power b y h eat

, ,

a cold body is n e c essary ; why i n con su m ing t h e,

h e at of a war m body m otion c annot b e produc e d

,
.

It app ear s v ery difficult to p en e trat e into t he

r e al essenc e of bodi es To avoid erron eou s r eason
.

ing it would b e n e c es sary to inv estigat e c ar efully

,
 APPEND I X A . 22 3

t he ourc e of our knowl e dge in r egard to the na

s

ture of b o d i es th e i r for m th e i r forc es ; to see wh at

, ,

t h e pr i m it i v e notion s ar e to see fro m wh at im

,

pr e ssion s th e y are d eriv ed to see how one is r ai se d

succ essiv ely to t he di ff er ent d egr ees of abstraction .

Is h eat t he r esult of a vibratory m otion of m ol e

cul es ? If this is so qu antity of h eat is si m ply
,

qu ant i ty of m otiv e pow e r A s long as m otiv e

.

po w e r is e m ploy e d to produ c e vibr atory m ov em ents ,

t h e qu ant i ty of h e at m u st b e unch ang eab l e ; which

se e m s t o follow fro m e xp eri m e nt s with t h e c alo

r im e t e r ; but wh e n it p asses i nto m ov em ent s of se n

si b l e e xt e nt
,
t he quantity of h eat can no long e r
r em ai n con st ant .

Can xam pl es b e found of t he pro d u ction of

e

m otiv e pow er with actu al con su m pt i on of h e at ?

It seem s that w e m ay find production of h eat w i th

con su m ption of m ot i v e pow er ( re entr anc e of t he
-

air into a vacuu m for e x am pl e)

, .

Wh at is th e c au se of t he production of h eat i n
co m bin at i on s of sub st anc es ? What is rad i ant
c aloric

Li q u efaction of bodi es solidific ation

,
of liqu id s ,
2 24 D
A PPEN I X A .

cryst alliz ation — are th ey not for m s of co m bination s

of int egrant m ol e cul e s

S upposing h eat du e to a vibratory m ov em ent ,

h ow c an t h e p assag e fro m t h e solid or t he liquid to

t he g ase ous stat e b e e xpl ain e d

Wh en m otiv e pow e r is produc e d by the passag e

of h eat fro m t h e body A to t h e body B is t h e qu an ,

t i ty of thi s h eat wh i ch arriv es at B ( if it is not t h e

sam e as th at w hich has b e en t ak en fro m A if a ,

portion has r e ally b ee n con su m e d to produc e m o

tiv e pow e r ) t he sam e wh at ev e r m ay b e th e sub
st anc e em ploy ed to r eal i z e t he m otiv e pow er ?
I s th e r e any w ay of u sing m or e h eat in t he pro
duction of m otiv e po w e r an d of c au sing l ess to
,

r each t h e bo d y B ? Could w e e v en utili z e it en

t irel y allo w ing non e to go to t h e body B ? If
,

thi s w e r e po ssi bl e m otiv e pow e r could b e cr e at e d

,

without con su m pt i on of co m b u stibl e an d by m er e

,

d e stru ction of t h e h eat of bodi es .

Is it ab solut ely c e rt ain that st ea m afte r having

op e r at e d an engin e an d produc e d m otiv e pow e r
c an r ai se t h e t e m p e r atur e of t h e w at e r o f con den

sation as if it had b e e n conduct e d dir e ctly into it ?

Re asoning show s us th at th e r e cannot be lo ss of

22 6 A PPEN I X A D .

We can th en e st abli sh t h e general proposition

th at m otiv e pow er is in quantity inv ar i abl e in
, ,

n atur e ; th at it is corr e ctly speaking n ev er eith er

, ,

prod uc e d or d estroy e d It is tru e t hat it ch anges

.

for m that is it produ c es so m e ti m es one sort of

, ,

m otio n so m eti m e s anoth e r but it is n e v er annihi

, ,

lat e d.

A ccording to so m e i d eas that I hav e for m ed

o n t h e th eory of h e at t he production of a unit of
,

m otiv e pow e r n e c essitat e s t h e d e struction of

u nits of h eats .

A m achi ne which would produc e 2 0 units of

m otiv e pow e r p er kilogra m of coal ought to d e stroy

20 X
of t he h eat d e v elop e d by t he co m bustion .

7000
20 X 8 1
about ,
that 1 5, l es s than .

7 000 1 000 1 00
E
( ach uni t of m otiv e pow e r or dynam e rep re , ,

s en ting t he w eight of one cubic m etr e of wat e r

rais ed to t he h eight of one m etr e ) .

Exp er im ents to he m ade on Heat and M otiv e P ow er .

To r ep eat Ru m ford s exp eri m ents in t he drilling

’

of a m e tal in w at e r but to m easur e t he m otiv e

,

pow e r consu m ed at t he sa m e ti m e as t h e h eat p ro

 APPEND I X A . 227

duced; sam e e xp eri m ent s on se v er al m e tals an d

on wood .

To strik e a pi e c e of l ead in variou s w ays t o ,

m easur e t he m otiv e pow e r con su m e d and t h e h eat

produc ed S am e e xp eri m ent s on oth er m e t al s

. .

To strongly ag i t at e w at er in a s m all c ask or in

a doubl e acting pu m p h aving a pi ston p i e rc ed with
-

a sm all op e ning .

Exp e ri m ent of the s am e sort o n t he agi tation of

m e rcury alcohol air an d oth e r g as es
, ,
T o m e asur e .

t he m oti ve pow e r con su m e d and h e at produc e d .

To d i t air into a vacuu m or into air m or e or

a m

l ess r ar efi ed ; id for oth er g ases or vapors T o

. .

e x am in e t h e el ev ation of t e m p e r atur e by m eans of

t he m ano m et e r and t he th e r m o m e t e r of Bré g uet .

Esti m ation of t h e e rror of t he th e r m o m e t er in t h e

ti m e r e quir e d for t he air to v ary a c ert ain nu m b e r
of d egr ee s Th ese e xp eri m ent s would s erv e t o
.

m easur e t he ch ang es which t ak e pl ac e in t he t e m

r at ure of t he g as d uring it s ch ang e s of volu m e

p e .

Th ey w ould also furnish m ean s of co m paring th ese

ch ang es with t he quantiti e s of m oti ve powe r p ro
duc ed or cons u m ed .

Exp el t he fro m a larg e r es ervoir in which it is

air

co m presse d and ch eck its v elocity in a larg e pip e in

,
2 28 APPEN I X A D .

which solid bodi es h av e b een plac e d ; m easur e t he

t em p eratur e wh e n it h as b e co m e u nifor m S ee if .

it is t he sam e as in t he r e s ervoir S am e exp eri .

m ents with oth er g ase s and with vapor for m ed

und er diffe r ent pr e ssur es .

’
To r ep eat Dalton s e xp e ri m ents and carry th em
on to pr ess ur e s of thirty or forty at m o sph er es T o .

m e asur e t he constitu e nt h eat of t h e vapor withi n

th es e li m i t s .

I el o n t h e vapor of alcohol of e th er of e ss enc e

.
, ,

of turp e ntin e o f m e rcury to prov e wh e th er t he

, ,

ag ent e m ploy e d m ak e s any difi erenc e in t h e pro

du ction of m oti v e pow er .

I cl on wat er charg e d with a d eliqu esc ent salt

.
,

t h e c alciu m chlorid e f o r instanc e

, .

I s t he l aw of t ensions al w ays t he s am e ? To
m e asur e t he sp e cific h eat of v apor .

Exp er im ents t o he m ade on the Tension f

o Vap or s .

A graduat ed capillary tub e fill ed with wat er ,

m e rcu ry o r with o il an d air

, Plung e thi s tub e
.

into a b ath of oil of m ercury or of m elt ed l ead

, , .

T o m e a su r e t h e t em p e ratur e by an air th e rm o m et e r .

Sam e e xp e ri m en t s with alcohol e th e r su l phid e , ,

of c arbon ,
m uri atic eth e r e ss e nc e of turp entin e
, ,

sulphur pho sphoru s

, .
230 A PPEND I X A .

t e m p eratur e with a th er m o m etric tub e b ent

,

round an d fill e d p artly w ith m ercury

, ,

partly with w at er or alcohol T he m er .

cury will op er at e by its w eigh t T he .

upp e r par t of t h e tub e will b e e m pty and

seal e d or fully Op e n to t h e at m osph er e
, .

T he bulb will b e i m m er se d in wat e r t h e

t em p e ratur e of which is to b e m easur e d .

F
IG ,
If t he tub e is s eal ed t he upp e r p art
,

m ust b e cool e d .

T he bulb m ight contain wat e r eth e r or ess enc e

, ,

of turp e ntin e .

If t he tub e is seal e d t he t ension of m ercurial

,

vapor could b e m easur e d .

Exp eri m nt s
e on t he
con stitu ent h eat of vapors
by m ean s of a baro m etric tub e having t w o e n
l arg e d bulbs On e of t he bu l b s m ay b e im
.

m er se d in cold wat er and t he e l e v ation of t e m p e r

,

atur e of thi s wat er will indic at e t he cons titu ent

heat of t he v apor .

FI G 8 . .
 A PPEND I X A . 231

The oth er bul b m ay b e w ar m ed e i t h er by boiling

liqui d o r b y fi re .

W at er alcohol st eam eth er m ercury ac etic

, , , ,

acid sulphid e of carbon

, .

The Op eration m ay b e r e p eat ed and add t h e r esults .

Exp er im en ts to he m ade on Gases an d Vap or s .

To m easur e t he t em p eratur e acquir e d by t he air

introduc ed into a v acuu m or sp ac e cont aining p re
v io usl y r ar efi ed air .

If t he vacuu m is m ad e und e r th e gla ss r e c ei v e r

of an air pu m p and the cock ad m itting t he out er
-
,

air he su dd enly op en ed t he introdu ction of thi s

,
°
air will c au s e a Br é g ue t th er m o m et e r to ri se to 50

or T o e x am in e t he m ov e m ent of thi s
th e r m o m et er wh en t he r ein trod uction
t ak es plac e only by d egr ees to co m par e ,

it wi th t h e m ov em ent of t he m ano m et er .

Constru ction of a m ano m et er which

m ay giv e t h e pr essur e al m o st inst ant a

neou sl y .

I m agin e a capillary tub e b ent into a

spiral at on e e nd and ha v ing one ex
,

t re m ity clos ed t he oth er op en

, Th i s .

tub e will b e p e rf ectly dry and a sm all

FI G 9
ind e x o f m ercury m ay b e introduc e d
. .

into it The d i am et er of t h e tub e will

. be s m all
232 A PPEN I X A D .

e no ugh for th e air enclos e d in it to t ak e al m o st

in stantly the t em p erat ur e of t he gl as s We shall .

try to asc e rtain t he ti m e n e c e s sary f or t he est ab

l ish m en t of thi s e quilibriu m of t e m p e r atur e by
placing t h e tub e u nd er t he r ec eiv e r of t he al r
pu m p m aking a par ti al vacuu m and ad m itting
, ,

t he air . We shall see wh eth er so m e s e cond s aft er

,

t he introdu ction , t he in de x p e rc eptibly m ov e s .

T he in de x m ust b e of v ery l ight w eight to avoid

oscill ation as m u ch as po ssibl e .

For th e sa m e r ea son t he capill ary tub e should

,

b e also as narrow as possibl e If th e straigh t p art

.

of t he tub e is equ al to t he b ent p art and t he ind e x

b e plac e d at t he b eginning of t he b ent part for a ,

pr e ssure e qual to at m o sph eric pr essur e it would ,

not b e n e c e ssary to subj ect t he instru m ent to a

l ess pr essu r e th an 5 at m o sph er e It is b et ween .

th es e t w o li m its that it would serv e as a m easur e .

It m igh t e nd in an op en enlarg em ent to pre v ent

t he proj e ction of t he m e rcury out si de t he tub e .

D i spo se d in this way it could b e u sed as a g ener al

,

m easur e f or pr e ssur e s b etw e e n p an d 5 p; p b e ing

any thing wh at e v e r . T he appar atu s will b e f ast
e n e d to a board b earing a gr adu at e d sc al e pl ac e d

again st t h e straight tub e T h e scal e will b e f or

.
,

inst anc e nu m b er e d b y fiv e s or t ens A corr espond

, .

ing t abl e d enoting pr essur es wo uld b e r e quir ed .

2 34 APPEN I X A D .

wh en ind e x is on 1 Wh eth er t h e air b e e x

t he .

ll e d or ad m i tt e d t he pr e s sur es would b e inst ead

p e
’
B
’
of p and p q and q ,
u t
. th e r e would follow
and

th e n
We should m ore ov er work at a unifor m t e m p era
tu r e and not e t he v ariation s .

If t he str aig ht p art of t he tub e w er e p e rf e ctly

c alibrat ed t he volu m e s and con se qu ently t he pr es
, ,

sur e s would form a g e o m etri c al progr ession wh en

, ,

t he figur e s of t he sc al e would b e found to b e in

arith m e tic al progr e ssion and a t abl e of log arith m s
,

would enabl e on e to b e found fro m the oth er .

In ord er to incr ease as r e quir ed t he m as s of air

e nclo se d in t h e tub e t h e in stru m ent m u st b e
pl ac e d on it s S id e or flat in t he air pu m p r ec eiver s
,
-
.

T he m ercury ind e x would b e p l ac e d in t he lat e r al

part of t he enl arg em ent of t he tub e an d t he at ,

m osp heric air would ent e r T he instru m e nt

.

m ight al so b e h e at e d in thi s po si t ion .

C ar e m u st b e t ak en t o a d m it only v ery dry air ,

which coul d b e obta i n e d by pl acing und e r t he re

c e iv er c alciu m chlorid e or any oth er sub stanc e
which ab sorb s m oi stur e gree dily .

In st ead of b ending t he tub e into a spir al it ,

m ight b e b e nt in t he m i d d l e in t h e fo rm of a U ,

or it m i ght b e b ett e r to for m thr ee four or m or e ,

 A PPENDI X A . 2 35

p arall el branch es M aking t he tub e v ery long t he

.
,

i n d e x w ould h av e a l arg er rang e for t he sam e

ch ang es of pr e ssur e and t he r esult s produc e d
,

coul d th en b e m easur e d by a slight v ari ation in

den sity in t he air of t he r e c e iv e r .

Com p ar ison o
f t he R ap i di ty w i t h w hi ch t he A ir

cools in the Receiv er an d in the Tu be .

L et us suppos e wh at I b eli e v e to b e v ery n ear

,

t h e tr uth th at t he h eat absorb e d is propor t ion al

,

to t he surfac e o f t he bodi es in cont act Fro m .

thi s w e c an i nfer w i thou t diflic ul ty th at t h e rapid ,

ity of t he cooling of the air in t wo cylindrical

tub es would be inv ersely as th ei r di am et ers .

If t he r e c eiv er is con sid er e d as a tub e of t w o

d e c i m etres in d i am et er and t he m ano m et er as a
,

tub e of one m illi m etre d i am et er t he rapidity of ,

t he cooling of t he air would b e in t h e ratio v ery ,

n early of 1 to 2 00
, .

Exten t
f o the M ov em en t
f o the I ndex .

Suppos e t he tub e turn e d up on its elf fi v e ti m e s

and h aving a tot al l ength of 1 m e tre a v ari at i o n
of d en si ty e qu al to 1
i n t h e air will giv e a m ov e
T?
m e nt of 1 d e ci m etr e
; a v ariation o f h e at of 1 d e

gr ee suppo se d t o b e e quival en t to a v ariation of

d ensity of will giv e g i l; of a m etr e or about
r
,
2 36 A PPEND I X A .

3 m m
. quit e an appr e ci abl e quantity As to t he
70, .

ti m e r e quir e d to m ov e t he m ercury in de x r eg ard ,

b e ing h ad to its m ass if w e suppo se it 1 c ent i

,

m e tr e long an d t h e v ari ation of pr e ssur e fi g of an

,

at m o sph er e it would r e quire abou t t of a second

,
‘

to m ak e it pass ov e r one d e ci m etr e .

Use of the I nst r u m ent in M easur ing the Var iafi

tions f
o t he Tensions f
o the A ir u nder a P neu
m atic R eceiv er .

At ach strok e of t he piston which e xpands t he

e

air u nd e r t h e pn e u m atic r e c eiv e r wh e n a v acuu m

i s to b e cr eat ed a lowe ring of pre ssur e i s produc ed

, ,

and undoubt edly a ch ang e o f t em p eratur e I t c an .

b e d e t er m in e d approxi m at e ly at l e ast by obs erving

, ,

the po sition of t h e m ano m et e r at t he in st ant aft er

t he dil at ation has t ak e n pl ac e and again aft e r a ,

ti m e long enough for t he t e m p er atur e to hav e re

turn e d to it s origin al point that of t he surrou nding
,

b o d i es C o m parison of t he el astic forc e in t he two

.

c as es will l e ad to co m p ari son of t he t em p eratur es .

The t e m p e r atur e h aving r e turn e d to its ori gin al

point w e will giv e a se cond strok e of t he pi ston
,

which will rarefy the air m ore th an th e for m er ,

and thu s w e will m ak e t wo ob se rv ation s of t he

m ano m e t e r b efore and aft er t he r eturn to t he

,

for m er t em p eratur e A nd so on . .
2 38 A PPEND I X B .

d et erioration s wh e n it s action has b een su stain e d

for a ti m e w i th any e n ergy .

T h e g e n e r al and p h il os0 p hic acc e pt ation of t he

word s p erp etu al m otion should includ e not only a
m otion s usc e pti b l e of ind e finit ely continui ng it self

aft e r a fir st i m pul se r e c e i v e d b u t t h e action of an

,

app ar atu s of any con struction wh at e v e r c ap ab l e

, ,

o f cr eat i ng m otiv e pow e r in unli m it e d quantity ,

c ap abl e of st arting fro m r e st all t he bodi es of na

tur e if th ey shoul d b e foun d in th at con d ition of ,

ov erco m ing th eir in ert i a; c apabl e fin ally of fi nd

, ,

ing in its elf t he forc e s n ec es sary to m ov e t he whol e

u niv er se to prolong to acc el e rat e inc essantly its
, , ,

m otion . S uch w ould b e a v erit abl e cr eation of

m otiv e pow e r If this w er e a po ssi bi l i ty it would
.
,

b e u sel e ss to see k in curr e nt s of air an d w at er or

in co m bu stibl e s thi s m otiv e po w er We should .

h av e at our di spo sal an in exh au stibl e sourc e upon

which w e could draw at will .

N O TE B — Th e e xp e ri m e nt al facts which b e st
.

prov e t he ch ang e of t em p e r atur e of g ases b y c om

pr ession or d i l at ation are t h e follo w ing
( )
1 T h e fal l of t h e th e r m o m e t e r plac e d und e r

t he r e c eiv e r o f a pn e u m atic m achin e in which a

v acuu m has b e en produc e d: Thi s fall is v e ry sen
sibl e on t he Br é g ue t th e r m o m e t e r : it m ay e xc ee d

40 or T he m i st which for m s in th i s cas e

°
 A PPEN I X B D . 2 39

se e m s to b e du e t o t he con d e n sation of t he w at ery

v apor c au se d b y the cooling o f t he air .

( )
2 Th e infl am m ation o f G e r m an t i nd e r i n t h e

so c all e d pn e u m at i c tin d e r box e s ; w h i ch are as

- -
,

w e know littl e pu m p ch am b e r s in which t h e air is

,
-

r ap i dly co m pr esse d .

e fall of a th e r m o m e t e r pl ac e d in a sp ac e
( )
3 T h
wh e r e t he air has b e e n fir st co m pr e sse d and th e n
allow e d to e sc ap e b y t h e op e n i ng of a cock .

( )
4 Th e r e s ult s of e xp e r i m e nt s o n t h e v elocity

o f sound M de L apl ac e has shown th at in

. .
,

ord e r to se cur e r esult s accur at ely by th eory and

co m putat i on i t is n e c essary to a ssu m e t he h e ating
,

of t he air b y su dd e n co m pr e s sion .

T he only fact wh i ch m ay b e adduc e d in oppo si

tion to t he abo v e is an e xp eri m e nt of M M Gay .

Lu ssac an d W elt e r d escri b e d in t he A nnal es de

,

Chim ie et de P hysiq ue A s m all op ening h aving

.

b ee n m ad e in a l arg e r ese rvoir of co m pr esse d air ,

an d t h e b all of a th e r m o m e t e r h av i ng b e e n intro

du c e d into t h e curr e nt of air which p asses o ut

through th i s op ening n o sen sibl e fall of t he t e m
,

er atu re d e not e d by t h e th e r m o m et e r h a b n
p s e e

o b serv e d .

T w o e xplan ation s of thi s fact m ay b e given

( )
1 T h e striking of t h e air ag ai n st t h e w all s o f t h e

op e ning by which it e sc ap es m ay d ev elop h eat in

 A PPEN I X B D .

ob servabl e qu antity ( 2 ) The air which has ju st

.

touch e d t h e bowl of t h e th er m o m et er po ssi b l y

t ak es ag ain by its colli sion wi t h this bowl or ,
’

rath e r b y t he eff e ct of t h e det ou r which it is

forc e d t o m ak e b y it s r e ncount er a d e n sity e qu al
,

to th at wh i ch i t had in t he r e c eiv er —m uch as t he

,

w at e r of a curr e nt ri se s against a fix e d ob st acl e ,

abov e it s l e v e l.

T h e ch ang e of t em p e ratur e occa sion e d in t he

as by t h e ch ang e o f volu m e m ay b e r e g ard e d as
g
o n e o f t h e m o st i m port ant facts of Phy sics b e
.

c aus e of t he nu m e rou s con se qu enc e s which it

e nt ai l s an d at t he S am e ti m e as on e of t h e m o st
,

d ifficult t o illu str at e an d to m easur e by d e c i siv e

,

e xp e ri m e nts. It s ee m s to pr e sent in so m e r esp e ct s

si ngul ar ano m ali e s .

I s it not to t h e cooling of t h e air by d il at ation

th at t he cold of t h e high er r egion s of t he at m o s
h r e m u st b e attribut e d ? T h e r a on giv en
p e e s s

h e r etofor e as an e xpl an atio n of thi s cold ar e e n

t irel y in su ffici ent ; it has b e e n said th at t h e air of
t he el e vat e d r e gion s r e c e iving littl e r e fl e ct e d h eat
fro m th e earth an d radi ating tow ard s c el e sti al
,

sp ac e would los e c aloric an d th at thi s is t h e cau se

, ,

of it s cool i ng ; but thi s e xpl anation is r e fut e d by

t h e f act th at at an e qu al h e ight cold r e ign s with
, ,

e u al an d e v e n m or e int e n sity on t h e el e v at e d
q
2 42 A PPEN I X B D .

ti e s e xi st for gas eous sub st anc e s but such exp eri ,

m e nts pr e se nt e d al m os t insur m ount abl e diffi c ul

ti e s .

T he irr e gul ariti e s of sp e cific h eat s of solid bodi e s

m i ght h av e b e e n attribut e d it would se e m to t he, ,

l at ent h eat e m ploy e d to produc e a b e ginning of

fu sion — a soft ening which occurs in m ost b odi e s
long b efor e co m pl et e fu sion We m ight support .

thi s Opinion b y t he follo w ing stat e m e nt : A ccording

to t h e e xp e ri m e nt s of M M D ulong and Pe tit t he .
,

incr ease of sp e cific h eat with t he t e m p e ratur e is

m or e rapid in solid s than in liqu i d s although t he ,

l at te r po ssess con sid e r ably m or e dil atability The .

c au se of irr egul arity j u st r ef err e d to if it is r eal , ,

would disapp ear e ntir ely in ga se s .

—
NOTE D In ord e r to d e t er m in e t h e arbitrary
.

con stant s A B A B in accord anc e with t he

, ,
’
,
’
,

r e sult s in M D alton s t abl e w e m u st b egin by c om

.
’
,

puting t he volu m e of t h e vapor as d et er m in e d by

i ts pr ur e
e ss an d e m a —
t p e r tur e a r esult which is ,

e asily acco m pli sh e d by r e f e r e nc e to t he laws of

M ariott e an d Gay Lus sac t he w eight of t h e vapor

-
,

b e ing fix e d .

Th e volu m e w ill b e giv en by t he e quation

2 67 t
0 ,
P
in which v is thi s volu m e , t t he t em p eratur e p ,
t he
 APPEN I X B D . 2 43

pr essur e and c a const ant qu antity d ep ending on

,

t h e w e ight of t h e v apor a n d o n t he unit s cho se n .

We giv e h er e t he t ab l e of t h e volu m e s occup i e d b y

a gr am m e of v apor for m e d at d i ff e r e nt t e m p e r a

tur e s and con se qu ently und e r di ff e r e nt pr e ssur es

,
.

t
d C e nt i
P
o r t e nsi o n o f t h e vp
a or o r vlm
o u e of a g ra mm e
or e g r ee s
d p
e x r es se d m m
In il l i e of v a
p o r e x p re sse d
g ra e .

tr e s of mre c ur y . In h t res .

T he fir st two colu m ns this t abl e ar e t ak en of

fro m t he Tr aite de P hy sique of M Biot ( vol i p

’

.
. . .
,

2 7 2 an d Th e th i rd is c alcul at e d b y m ean s
of t h e abov e for m ul a an d in accor d anc e with t he
,

r esult of e xp e ri m ent in d ic ating th at w at er v apor

,

iz ed und e r at m o sph e ric pr essur e occup i e s a sp ac e

1 7 00 ti m es as gr eat as in t h e l i qu i d st at e .

By u sing thr e e nu m b e r s of t h e fir st colu m n and

thr e e corr esponding nu m b e rs of t he third colu m n ,

w e can e asily d et er m in e t he c onstant Sof our eq ua

tion
A B log v
B l og
’ ’
A v
2 44 A PPEN I X BD .

We will not ent er into t he d e tails of t he calcula

t i on n e c e ss ary to d e t er m in e th ese quantiti e s It .

is su ffi ci e nt to say that t h e following v alu es ,

’
A r: 2 2 68, A
B 1 000, B ’

sa ti sfy fairly w ell t h e pr escrib e d conditions so that ,

t h e e qu ation

2 2 68 1 000 10 g v

l og v

e xpr es se s v e ry n early t he r elation which e xi st s b e

tw een t h e volu m e of t he vapor an d it s t em p era
tur e We m ay r em ark h er e that t h e qu antity B
.
’

is positiv e an d v e ry sm all which t e nd s to confir m

,

is —
th proposition that t he sp ecific h eat of an el astic
flu i d inc rease s with t he volu m e but follows a slow ,

progr ession .

NO TE E — W e r e w e to ad m it t he con stancy of
.

th e sp e cific h e at o f a gas wh e n it s volu m e do es not

ch ang e but wh en it s t em p er atur e v ari e s an alysi s
, ,

would show a r elat i on b et w ee n t h e m otiv e p ow e r

an d t h e th e r m o m e tric d egr ee We will S how how
.

thi s is and thi s w ill also giv e u s occasion to show

,

h ow so m e of t h e propositions e sta b li sh e d abov e

should b e e xpr e s se d in alg e b r aic langu ag e .

L et r b e t he qu antity of m otiv e pow e r produc e d

by t he e xpan sion of a giv en qu antity of air pas sing
2 46 APPEN I X B D .

If to abridg e
eq
,

uatio n woul d b e co m
, we c all N
e
t he qu antity
7 6 5 1

P = N

whenc e w e d e du c e , according to eq uation

t
5
dr N + 67

Reg arding t as con st ant an d taking , the int egral 0

t he t w o nu m b e rs w e sh all h av e
—
,

r N( t 2 67) log v l C .

If we suppo se r 0 wh en v 1, we shall hav e

C 0 ; wh e nc e

r N( t 2 67 ) log v .
( )
2

This is t h e otiv e pow er produc e d by the e xpan

m

sion of t he air which und er t he t e m p e ratur e t has

, ,

p asse d fro m t he volu m e 1 to th e volu m e v If in .

ste ad of w orki ng at t he t e m p e r atur e t w e work in

p re c is el
y t he sam e m ann e r at t h e t e m p eratur e

t l dt t he pow e r d ev elop e d will b e

-
,

r + Or N( t dt 2 6 7) l og v
‘

Subtract ing e q u ation w e hav e

Or N log v dt ( )
‘

. 3

L et e b e t he quantity of h eat e m ploy e d to m ai ntain

th e tem p eratur e of the g as con stant du ring it s
 A PPENDI X B . 2 47

dil at ation According t o t he r easoning of p ag e 6 9

.
,

Or w i ll b e t h e po w e r d e v elop e d by t he fall of t he
qu ant i ty e of h eat fro m t h e d egr e e t + t d to t h e
d e gree t If w e c all u t he m otiv e pow er d e v elop e d
.

by t he fall of unity of h eat fro m t he d egr ee t to t he

d egr e e z e ro as according to t he ge n era
, ,
l princ i pl e
e st ab li sh e d p ag e 6 8 thi s qu antity u ought to de
,

p en d sol ely on t it could b e r e pr e se nt e d by t he

,

funct i on Ft wh enc e u
,
Ft .

Wh e n t is incr e ase d it b e co m e s t + td u b e ,

co m e s u du ; wh enc e
u + du z E ( t + dt) .

Subtracting t he pr e c e ding e qu ation , w e hav e

da F (t dt) Ft E tdt
’
.

Thi s is e vid ently t he quantity of m otiv e pow e r

produc e d by t h e fall of unity of h eat fro m t h e
t e m p e ratur e t dt to t he t em p e r atur e t .

If t h e qu antity of h eat i n st ead o f b eing a unit

had b ee n e i ts m otiv e pow er pro d uc e d would h av e
,

had for it s valu e

eE
’
edu tdt .
( )
4

But edu is t he thing as ( Yr ; b oth ar e t h e

sam e

pow e r d ev elop e d b y t he fall o f t he qu antity e of .

'

h e at fro m t h e t em p e ratur e t dt to t he t e m p e r a
ture t ; cons e qu ently ,

edu
‘

Or ,
2 48 APPEN I X B D .

an d fro m eq uation s
eE
’
tdt N log v dt
or, dividing by E ’
t dt,
N
e _ l og v _ T l og v .

E t ’

Calling T t he fraction which is a function of t

only , t he e qu ation
e T log v

is t h e n lytic al e xpr ession of t he law stat e d pp 80

a a .
,

81 . It is co m m on to all ga ses sinc e t h e law s of ,

w hich w e h av e m ad e u se are co m m on to all .

If w e c all 3 t he qu antity of h eat n e c essary to

c hang e t h e air th at w e h av e e m ploy e d fro m t he
vol um e 1 an d fro m t he t e m p e r atur e z e ro to t h e
volu m e v an d to t he t e m p e r atur e t t he di ffe r enc e ,

b etw een s and e will b e t he qu antity of h eat r e

quir e d to bring t he air at t he vol um e 1 fro m z ero
to t This qu antity d e p end s on t al on e ; w e will
.

c all it U It will b e any function what ev e r of t

. .

We sh all hav e
3 = e U — T lo v 17
+ __
g + .

If w e diffe r entiat e thi s e quation with r el ation to t

alon e an d if w e r e pr e se nt it by T an d U the dif
’ ’
, ,

ferent ial co effici ent s o f T an d U w e shall g et ,

’ ’
T l og v + U;
2 50 A PPEN I X B D .

d e t e r m in e d an d w e would thu s b e abl e t o esti m at e

,

t he m otiv e pow e r d e v elop e d by any f all of h e at .

But th i s l att e r conclu sion is foun d e d on t he hy

o t h e sis of t h e con st ancy of t h e sp e cific h e at o f a
p
as w hich do e s no t ch ang e in volu m e — an hypoth
g
esi s which has not e t b ee n s uffici e ntly v e rifi e d b y
y
e xp e ri m ent . U ntil th e r e i s fr esh proof o ur e qu a ,

tion ( 6 ) c an b e ad m itt e d only throughout a li m it e d

portion of t h e th er m o m e tric sc al e .

In e qu ation t he fir st m e m b er r epr e se nt s as ,

w e h av e r e m ark e d t h e sp e cific h eat of t h e air oc

,

c u pying t h e vo l u m e v Exp e ri m e nt h aving shown

.

th at thi s h eat var i e s l i ttl e in spite of t he quite con

side rab l e ch ang e s of volu m e it is n e c e ssary th at
,

t he co e ffici e nt T of log v should b e a ve ry s m all

’

qu antity If w e consid e r it n othing and aft er

.
, ,

having m ultipli e d by dt t he e qu ation

T 0,
we t ak e t he int egral of it , we find
T C, constant q uantity ;

N
’
E t ’

wh e nc e
N N
E t
T C
wh enc e we d e duc e fin ally b y a s e cond int egr ation
, ,

Et At B .
 A PPEND I X B . 2 51

As Ft 0 wh e n t z 0, B is 0 ; thu s
Et At ;

that is t he m otiv e po we r produc e d would b e found

,

to b e e xactly proportion al to t h e fall of t he c alor i c .

Thi s is t he an alytic al tr an sl ation of w h at w as

st at e d on p ag e 9 8 .

NO TE F — M D alton b el i e ve d th at he had dis

. .

cov e r e d that t h e v apor s o f di ff er ent l i qu i d s at e qu al

th e rm o m etric di stanc e s fro m t he bo i l i ng point -

po ssess e qu al t en si on s ; b ut thi s l aw is not pr e

c isel y e x act ; i t is only approx i m at e It is t he .

sam e with t h e l aw of t h e proportion al i ty of t h e

l at e nt h e at of v apor s w i th th e ir d e n sit i es ( se e Ex
tr act s fro m a M é m oir e of M C D e sp ret z A nnales . .
,

de Chim ie et de P hysiq ue t xvi p 1 05 an d t , . . .

, .

xxiv p. .
Q u e stion s of thi s n ature ar e clos ely
conn e ct e d with tho se of t he m oti v e po w e r of h eat .

Q uit e r e c ently M M H D avy and Farad ay aft e r

. .
,

h aving con d uct e d a se ri es of el e gant e xp e r i m e nt s

on t he lique faction of gases by m ean s of con si d e r
abl e pr e ssur e h av e tri e d to o b se rv e t h e ch ang e s o f
,

t en sion of th e se liqu efi e d gase s o n account of sli g ht

ch ang e s of t e m p eratur e Th e y h aire in vi e w the
.

applic ation of t h e n e w liquid s to t h e pro d uct i on

o f m otiv e pow e r ( see A n nal es de Chim ie et de

P hysiq ue J anu ary 1 8 2 4 p

, , ,
.
2 52 A PPEND I X B .

Accor ding t o t he abov e m e ntion e d th e ory w e

-
,

c an for e see th at t h e u se o f th e s e liquids would

pr e sent n o advant ag es r el ativ ely to t he e cono m y

of h eat The adv ant ag es would b e found on l y in
.

t h e low e r t e m p e r atur e at which it would b e po ssi

b l e t o work an d in t he sourc es wh enc e for thi s

, ,

r e ason it would b e co m e pos si b l e to obt ain c aloric

,
.

N O TE G — .Thi s principl e t he r eal foun dation

,

of th e th e ory of st e am e ng i n es w as v ery cl early

-
,

d e v elop e d b y M Cl e m ent in a m e m oir pr ese nt e d

.

to t he A cad e m y of Sci enc e s s ev e r al y ear s ag o .

Thi s M em oir has n e v e r b e e n print ed and I o w e ,

th e kno wl e dg e o f it to t he k indn e ss of t h e author .

Not only is t he principl e e st ab li sh e d th e r ein b ut ,

it is appli e d to t h e diffe r ent syst em s of st eam

engin e s actu ally in u se T he m otiv e po w er of
.

each of th e m is e sti m at e d th e r e in b y th e aid of

t h e l aw cit e d pag e 9 2 and co m p ar e d with t he r e
,

sul t s of e xp e ri m e nt .

T h e principl e in qu e stion is so littl e known or

so poorly appr e ciat e d th at r e c ently M r Pe rkin s a
, .
,

c el ebrat e d m ech anic i an of London con stru ct e d a ,

m achin e i n which st eam produc e d u nd e r t h e pr e s

sur e of 3 5 at m o sph e r es— a pr e s sur e n e v e r b efor e

s e —
u d is su b j e ct e d to v ery littl e e xp ans i on of vol
um e as an o n e w ith t h e l e ast kno w l e dg e o f th i s
, y
m ac h i ne c an un d e rst and It con si sts of a singl e
.

cylind e r o f v e ry sm all di m e n si on s which at each ,

2 54 A PPEND I X B .

third o r a quart e r of t he strok e T he pi ston c o m

,
.

pl e t es its strok e th e r e for e un d e r a con st antly

, ,

d i m ini shing pr e ssur e T he fir st e ngi n e s working on .

thi s princ i pl e d at e fro m 1 77 8 W att conc e iv e d t he .

id ea of th e m in 1 7 69 an d t ook out a pat e nt in 1 7 8 2

, .

We giv e h e r e t he T abl e app e nd e d to W att s ’

pat en t He suppo se d t he st eam introduc e d into

.

t he cylind e r during t h e fir st quart e r o f t he strok e o f

t h e pi ston ; th en dividing thi s strok e into tw e nty
,

p art s he c alcul at e d t he m ean pr essur e as fol l ow s :

,

a ing p
f th d
D f th
nt f r m t h
u
P rt i n
e c re s re s s re o e
o o
t op
s o
of
e e sc e
t h e c y lin
t am t h nt i p ur
d er
o e
s e , e e re r e ss e
b e ing 1
.

S t e am rrivi ng (“
a
pr e s
0 20
f r e e ly f r o m
t h e b o il e r .
Stifr e

Q uart e r

Hal f o r l g ‘nal
Th te b pressur e
s; a
pt ff
i
i c o

822 an d
sc e n
th e
t tak i ng
de
8385
Pl ac e 0 9 15 b y ’
O ne th ird .

e x p ans1o n .

Bo tt om of 0 95
c yli nd er 1 00 Q uart er .

T o t al ,

M e an pr e ssu r e
20
 APPEN I X B D . 2 55

On which he r e m ark e d th at t h e m e an pr e ssur e is

,

m or e th an h al f t h e o r i g i n al pr e ssur e a l so th at i n
;
e m ploying a qu antity o f st e am e qu al to a qu art e r ,

it would produc e an e ff e ct m or e th an h alf .

W att h e r e suppo se d th at st eam follow s in its e x

p a n sio n t h e l aw o f M a riott e which should not b e
,

con si d e r e d e x ac t b e c au se in t h e fir st pl ac e t he
, , ,

el astic flu i d in d il ati ng f all s i n t e m p e ratur e and ,

in t he se cond pl ac e th er e is nothing to prov e th at

a p art of th i s flu i d is not cond en se d b y it s e x pan
sion . W att shoul d al so h av e t ak e n into con sid e r a
tion t h e forc e n e c e ssary to e xp el t he st eam wh i ch
r e m ain s afte r cond en sati on and which is f ound i n
,

qu antity as m uch gr e at e r as t he e xp ans i on of t he

v olu m e has b ee n c arr i e d furth e r Dr Robinson . .

h as suppl e m ent e d t h e w o rk of Watt by a si m pl e

for m ul a t o c alcul at e t h e e ffe ct of t he e xp an sion o f
S t ea m , but th i s for m ul a is foun d to h av e t h e sam e
fault s th at w e h av e ju st not i c e d It has nev e rt he
.

l e ss b e en u se ful to co nstructor s b y furn i shing th e m

approx i m at e d at a pr act i c ally qu i te sat isfaCt ory .

We h av e con sid e r e d i t u sef ul to r e c all th ese fact s

b e c au se th e y ar e littl e kno w n e sp e c i ally
,
in
Fr anc e . Th ese eng i n es h av e b een b u ilt aft e r t he
m od el s of t h e i nv e ntor s b ut t h e id e as b y which
,

t he i nv entor s w er e orig i n al l y influ e nc e d h av e b e e n

but l i ttl e und er stood . I gnoranc e of th e se i d e as
 A PPEND I X B .

h as oft en l e d to grav e e rror s Engin es origin ally.

w ell conc e iv e d h av e d et eriorat e d in t he h and s of

unskilful build e r s who w i sh i ng to introduc e in
'

, ,

th em i m prov e m e nts of littl e valu e hav e n egl e ct e d ,

t he c ap i t al con sid e r ation s which th ey did not know

e nough to appr e ci at e .

NO TE 11 — The advantag e i n sub stituti ng t w o

.

cylin d e r s for one is e vid ent In a singl e cylind e r

.

t he i m puls i on of t h e pi ston would b e e xtr e m ely

v ariabl e fro m t he b eg inning to t h e end of t he
strok e . It woul d b e n e c e ssary for al l t he p arts b y
which the m otion is tran sm itt e d to b e of suffi ci ent
str e ngth to r esi st t h e fir st i m pul si on an d p e rf e ctly ,

fitt e d to avoid t he a b rupt m o v e m ent s wh i ch would

gr eatly inj ur e an d soo n d est roy th e m
. It would .

b e e sp e ci ally on t he working b eam on t he ,

supports ,
on t h e crank on th e conn ecting rod
,
-
,

an d on t h e fi rst g ear wh e el s th at t he un e qual

-

effort would b e f elt and would produ c e t he

,

m o st i njur i ou s e ff e ct s It would b e n e c e s sary

.

th at t h e st eam cylin d e r should b e b oth su ffici ently

-

strong to su st ain t h e high e st pr e ssur e and with ,

a l arg e e nough c ap acity to cont ain t h e st e am

aft e r it s e xp an si on o f volu m e whil e in u sing t w o
,

succ e ssiv e cyl i n de rs it is only n e c e s sary to h av e

t h e fir st suffici e ntly strong an d of m e d iu m c a

a c it — which i not at al l diffi c ul t — an d to h av e
p ,y s ,
2 58 A PPENDI X B .

d a ood v e ry n early t he sam e e ff e ct

if t he el ast ic
as
‘

fluid had b e en a m ixtur e of air an d co m bu sti bl e

as of air and c ar b ur e tt e d hydrog e n a s for e x
g , g ,

Th e r e w as a sort of explo sion an d a su d

'

am pl e .
,

de n dil at ation o f t h e e as fl —
l tic u id a d i l at ation th at
w as utili z e d b y m aking it act u pon t h e p i ston .

The l att e r m ay h av e a m otion of any a m pli tu d e

wh at e v er and th e m otiv e powe r is thu s r ealiz e d
,
.

The air is n ext r e n e w ed and t he Op e r at i on r e

,

at ed
p e .

This m achin e v e ry ing e niou s an d int er esting

, ,

e sp e ci ally on account o f t h e nov e lty of it s princ i

l e f ail s in an esse nti al point Th e m at e ri a

l u se d
p ,
.

as a co m b u sti bl e ( it w as t h e du st of Lycopodiu m ,

u se d to produc e fl am e in o ur th e atr e s) w as so e x
p en si v e th at all t h e advant ag e w as lo st through
,

th at c au se ; an d unfortun at ely it w as di ffi cult to

e m ploy a co m b ust ib l e of m od e rat e pric e si nc e a ,

v e ry fin ely powd e r e d sub stanc e w as r e quir e d w hich

would b urn quickly S pr ead r ap i dly and l eav e littl e
, ,

o r no ash .

In st ead of working as did M M Ni e pc e it would .

,

see m to u s pr e f e r ab l e to co m pr e ss t h e air b y m ea n s

o f pu m p s to m ak e it tr av e r se a p e rf e ctly clo se d
,

furn ac e into which t h e co m b usti b l e had b e e n in

t ro du c e d i n s m all portion s b y a m e ch ani sm easy of
conc ep tion to m ak e i t d e v elop its action in a cyl in
,
 APPEND I X B . 2 59

der with a pi ston o r in any oth er vari abl e sp ac e ;

,

fi n ally to throw i t out ag ai n into t h e at m o sph e r e

, ,

o r e v e n t o m ak e it p ass und e r a st e am boil e r in -

ord er to ut i li z e t he t em p er atur e r em aining .

The princip al d ifficulti e s th at w e S hould m e et in

thi s m od e of op er ation would b e to enclo se th e fur
n ac e in a su ffici ently strong env elop e to k eep t he
,

co m bu stion m eanwhil e in t he r equi sit e st at e to ,

m ai nt ai n t he difi erent p art s of t h e app ar atu s at a

m od er at e t em p er atur e an d to pr e v ent r apid abr a

,

sion o f t h e cylind e r an d of t he pi ston . Th e se dif

fi c ul t ie s do not app ear to b e insur m ount abl e .

Th er e h av e b e en m ad e it is said r e c ently in
, ,

Engl and succ e ssful att e m pt s to d e v elop m otiv e

,

power through the action of h eat on at m o sph eric

air. We ar e entirely i gnor ant in wh at th ese at
t em pt s h av e con si st e d — if ind ee d th ey h av e r eally
b een m ad e .

NO TE J —The r esult giv en h er e w as furni sh e d by

an engin e who se l arge cylind er w as 4 5 inch es in
di am et e r and 7 feet strok e It is u se d in o ne Of t h e
.

m in e s of Cornw all c all e d Wh eal A br ah am Th i s .

r esult should b e con si d er e d as so m ewh at e x c ep

t ional for i t w as only t em por ary cont inu i ng b ut a
, ,

singl e m onth .Thirty m i ll i on s of l b s r ai se d one

.

Engli sh foot p er bu sh el o f co al o f 8 8 l b s is g e n er ally

.

r egard e d as an e xc e ll ent r esult for st eam engin es -

.
2 60 A PPEND I X B .

It is so m eti m es attain e d by engin es of t he W att

typ e but v e ry r ar e ly surp asse d This l att e r pro d
, .

u et am ount s in Fr ench m e asur e s to

,
kilo ,

gr am s rai se d one m e tr e p e r k i logram of coal con

su m e d .

A ccording to what is g en e r ally und e r stood by

on e hor se pow e r in esti m ating t h e duty o f st e am
-
,

e ngin es an engin e of t en hor se pow e r sh ould rais e

,
-

er s e con d 1 0 x 7 5 kilogra m s or 7 50 kilogra m s to

p , ,

a h e ight of on e m etr e or m or e p er hou r ; 7 50 X

, ,

3 600 kilogr am s to one m etr e If w e .

suppo se that each kilogr am o f co al r ai se d to this

h eigh t kilogram s it will b e n ec e ssary in
, ,

or d er to asc ert ain how m uch coal is b urnt in o ne

hour by our t en hor se pow er engin e to divid e
- -
,

000 b y which giv es 217601 0 2 6 kilo

gram s Now it is seldo m th at a t en hor se pow e r
.
- -

e ngin e consu m e s l ess than 2 6 kilogra m s of coal p er

hour .
2 62 D
A PPEN IX C .

m or e of al l h eat suppli e d by t he
,
—
boil er is r e duc ed
n early in proportion to t he nu m b e r of st ea m cyl in -

d er s in seri es .

For t he appli e d th e r m odyn am ic s of t h e st ea m

e ngin e following Carnot and Tho m son se e t he
, ,

p ag e s of Rankin e an d of Cla usi us of 1 8 50 to 1 8 60 ,

and esp e ci ally t he tr eati se of Rankin e on t he

St eam engin e T he e d i tor has adopt e d t he m e thods
-
.

“
o f th e s e gr eat su cc e ssor s of C arnot in his M anu al
o f t h e St ea m e ngin e
-
”
( 2 vol s.8 v o ; N Y. J
. Wil
, e
.
y
85 Sons ) which m ay b e consult e d in thi s conn e c
,

tion an d esp e cially for d et ail s of t he th eory and

,

t he structur e o f thi s pri m e m ov e r .