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Teachers' professional development: A theoretical review
Article in Educational Research December 2012

DOI: 10.1080/00131881.2012.734725
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May Brit Postholm

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Teachers' professional development:

a theoretical review
a
May Brit Postholm
a
Program for Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology , Dragvoll gård, Låven, 7491 Trondheim Norway ,
Published online: 02 Nov 2012.
To cite this article: May Britt Postholm (2012) Teachers' professional development: a theoretical review,
Educational Research, 54:4, 405-429, DOI: 10.1080/00131881.2012.734725
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Educational Research
Vol. 54, no. 4, December 2012, 405–429
Teachers' professional development: a theoretical review

May Brit Postholm*
Program for Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Dragvoll
gaÿrd, Laÿven, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
(Received 9 February 2012; resubmitted 3 August 2012; final version received 30 August 2012)
Background and purpose: The article reviews studies that focus on the professional
development of teachers after they have completed their basic teacher training.
Teacher professional development is defined as teachers' learning: how they learn
to learn and how they apply their knowledge in practice to support pupils' learning.
The research question addressed in the article is: How do experienced teachers
learn?
Main argument: The review is framed by theories within the constructivist paradigm.
From this perspective, knowledge is perceived as the construction of meaning and
understanding within social interaction. The social surroundings are seen as
decisive for how the individual learns and develops. It is argued that courses and
lectures, or 'times for telling', and teachers' development of a metacognitive attitude
are decisive factors for teachers' learning within a constructivist frame of reference.
Sources of evidence and method: To attempt to answer the research question, a

search was conducted of the subject of pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search
[Universitetbiblioteket
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undertaken 9 August 2011) using the search strings 'teacher learning', 'teacher
development' and 'teacher professional development', and covering the period from
2009 to 2011 to probe the most recent decade of research. Articles that dealt with
basic education, primary and secondary schools were selected, and articles that
dealt with learning using digital tools and the internet and newly trained teachers
were rejected. A set of 31 articles was selected from this search. To ensure width
and depth of coverage, this was supplemented by a selection of review studies and
research on further education in respect of teachers' learning. The texts were
analyzed by means of open and axial coding, developing main and sub-categories.
Conclusions: The review of articles shows that both individual and organizational
factors impact teachers' learning. Teacher co-operation has importance for how
they develop, and some of the teachers can lead such learning activities themselves.
Moreover, a positive school culture with a good atmosphere and understanding of
teachers' learning, in addition to co-operation with external resource persons, may
impact the professional development of teachers. The article concludes with the
reflection that learning in school is the best arena for further development of
teachers.
Keywords: teacher professional development; teacher learning; further development;
continuous learning; continuous development.
Introduction
This article focuses on the professional development of teachers after they have
completed their basic teacher training. Teacher professional development means
*Email: may.britt.postholm@ntnu.no
ISSN 0013-1881 print/ISSN 1469-5847 online

2012 NFER
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2012.734725
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406 MB Postholm
teachers' learning, how they learn to learn and how they apply their knowledge in
practice to support pupil learning (Avalos 2011). Teachers can learn through
participation in various courses, in school when they reflect on their own teaching
and in observation of and reflection on others' teaching in co-operation with
colleagues. Learning can occur in planned reflection meetings between teachers, or
teachers can learn from unplanned conversations with other colleagues before or
after teaching, or in parent–teacher meetings. Thus, learning may occur in various
ways, both formally and informally.
Learning can be defined in different ways. In this paper, learning is connected to
the cognitivist – and mainly the constructivist – paradigm. In these two paradigms,
the learner is perceived as active in the learning process. In the cognitivist paradigm,
learning takes place when an individual is taught or is mentally stimulated in other
ways, and in the constructivist paradigm, knowledge is perceived as the construction
of meaning and understanding within social interaction. The social surroundings
play a role in how a human develops within the cognitivist paradigm, but the
individual is in the foreground from this perspective. Within the constructivist
paradigm, the social surroundings are seen as decisive for how the individual learns
and develops. Individuals construct knowledge and learn through mediated acts in
the encounter with one or more persons and the surroundings in which they live and
act. From this perspective, Vygotsky's thoughts and ideas on learning are central.
The cognitivist and constructivist paradigms reject the positivist approach, which
describes a human being as an empty vessel, a 'tabula rasa', who is passive in the
learning process (Prawat 1996). Theories of metacognition (Flavell 1979, 1987),
which will be presented later in this paper, are traditionally defined as belonging
within the cognitivist paradigm.
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The research question that is pursued in this article is: How do experienced
teachers learn? First, theories on learning are presented, followed by a description
of how the articles were selected and analyzed. After the methodological section,
international research findings on teachers' learning over a period of three years
from 2009 to 2011 are presented. Following a summary, the final conclusion
discussed how the continuing education of teachers could be organized in the future.
Theoretical perspectives
Socio-cultural theory and learning
In applying socio-cultural theory and Vygotsky's thoughts and ideas, Warford (2011)
claims that teachers' learning is situated. Facts are not transferred to the learners,
but the learners appropriate their own meaning relating to the content by means of
cultural artifacts. Cultural artifacts may, in this context, be the language used in
conversation, or the learner may be in dialogue with a text. Teaching teachers with
this perspective as the guide would often require a dialogue between the previous
experiences the teachers had, their tacit perception of pedagogy and the educational
content they interacted with in their training. According to Warford (2011), teacher
trainers cannot promote the learning of teachers without awakening their previous
knowledge and experiences during the learning process.
Based on the previous knowledge of teachers, they may be assisted in their zones
of proximal development by more competent others (Vygotsky 1978). More
competent others may, in this setting, be colleagues, external teachers or other
resource persons.
Educational Research 407
In the learning process, reflection is a key activity. Postholm (2008) has described a
reflection as the key to teachers' learning and development of teaching practice.
Lempert-Shepell (1995) defined reflection 'as the ability to make one's own behavior an
object of study: To manage it via the ability to regard oneself as the ideal other' (p. 434). A
relationship appears between reflection and action, and Lempert-Shepell (1995) goes on to
say: 'Reflection changes the character of the action. An acting person stops dealing with
the situational action but regards the sphere of possible actions. The structure of an action
can change' (p. 435). According to Lempert-Shepell, both co-organization and self-
organization of the content of activities are vital for promoting teachers' learning.
In organizing and reflecting on teaching, everyday terms and scientific constructs

(Vygotsky 2000) may be interwoven, thus bringing theory and practice closer together.
Hence, reflection may contribute to developing both theory and practice (Kvernbekk 2011).
Vygotsky (2000) asserted that behind a theory, thought or idea we will always find an
emotion or will, and that full understanding of another person's thoughts is only possible
when this person's emotions or intent have been understood. To understand the language
of another is not sufficient to understand the other's words, we must also understand his or
her thoughts. But this is still not enough; we must also understand the person's motivation.
This means that thoughts, emotions and a person's will are closely linked to actions, hence
also to teachers' professional development and learning understood within a socio-cultural
frame of reference.
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'A time for telling'

According to Schwartz and Bransford (1998), there is also 'a time for telling' within a
constructivist paradigm. Bakhtin (1981) has presented two constructs that might be useful
thinking tools in this context. He speaks about the 'authoritarian' and 'authoritative' word.
The authoritarian word stands for what can be defined as a direct transfer of new knowledge,
while the authoritative word invites dialogue. In a lecture, many dialogues may arise
between listeners and lecturers without any exchange of words. The lecturer may awaken
internal dialogues (Bakhtin 1981; Vygotsky 2000) in each listener. These dialogues may
develop each individual's understanding, but this requires that the listener has decided to
attend a lecture which has been talked about and has piqued his or her interest, and that
has lived up to his or her expectations. Thus lectures that build on interest and background
knowledge and that are, therefore, within the learners' zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky 1978) may contribute to learning. Courses and lectures may in this way be useful
in learning processes. In addition to the lecture itself, in order for the learning process to be
optimal, the dialogue must continue – which, for teachers, means continuing the dialogue
in school.
Metacognitive processes and learning

Metacognition is part of what is called self-regulated learning. In our context, it means
teachers learning to learn. Dewey (1916) believed that people who continually participate in
development situations also learn to learn. Metacognition is a common denominator for
metacognitive strategies and metacognitive knowledge (Flavell 1979, 1987). Metacognitive
strategies are found at a higher reflection level than
408 MB Postholm
cognitive strategies (Braÿten 2005). When we use metacognitive strategies, the

intention is not to satisfy specific goals, but rather to assess how goals are to be or
have been satisfied. Metacognitive strategies imply thoughts about thoughts, or
knowledge or cognition about cognitive phenomena. Using metacognitive strategies
means that learners can plan, lead, regulate and control their own learning (Boekaerts,
Pintrich, and Zeidner 2000; Flavell 1976; Zimmerman 2001, 2006). In addition to
controlling one's own learning processes by using metacognitive strategies,
metacognitive knowledge is extremely important for understanding which strategies
can be used in different situations.
Flavell (1979, 1987) divides metacognitive knowledge into three components:
knowledge about a person, about tasks and about strategies. Knowledge about a
person means how one understands oneself as a learning and thinking person.
Knowledge about tasks means that one is aware of various cognitive tasks and how
they require different solutions. Knowledge about strategies includes the learner's
knowledge about various methods that might be applied to resolve a task. In school,
this means how the teacher develops a metacognitive attitude (Jackson 1974) on his/
her own practice. In this context, it means seeing the pupils and how teaching actions
are adapted to each individual in the encounter between the teacher and pupils.
Hence, it is important to adopt a meta-perspective on the interaction processes in the
classroom to facilitate learning and to deal with expected and unexpected input.
It also means learning from actions that unfold in the classroom through action learning
(Tiller 2006; Postholm and Jacobsen 2011) so that teaching can be continuously
changed and improved. Additionally, it involves knowing how one learns from these
acts, and thus how to use metacognitive strategies. Dearden (1976) called this first-
order and second-order learning. First-order learning means learning content. Second-
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order learning means becoming aware of how the content is learned.
Metacognition has its origin in the cognitive paradigm (Flavell 1979, 1987).
When teachers develop a metacognitive attitude (Jackson 1974), they are aware of
their own practice. The teachers interact and construct knowledge and learn together
with their pupils during activities in the classroom. In this way, metacognition and the
development of a metacognitive attitude are important factors connected with learning,
also within a constructivist frame of reference.
method
Literature search rationale
To attempt to answer the research question, a search was conducted of the subject of
pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search undertaken 9 August 2011) using the
search strings 'teacher learning', 'teacher development' and 'teacher professional
development', and covering the period from 2009 to 2011 to probe the most recent
decade of research. The intention was to obtain an overview of previous research
published in international periodicals relating to teachers' learning. This yielded 638
hits. Narrowing the search down to 'Educational and Educational research' resulted in
395 hits. Of these, 278 articles and 12 review articles were brought into focus. Articles
that dealt with basic education, primary and secondary school1 were selected. A
decision was made to exclude articles that deal with learning using digital tools and
the internet and newly trained teachers, on the basis that these significant areas would
best be dealt with by conducting separate review studies. In this way, focus in
the present study was retained on experienced teachers in basic education and their
learning in the school where they were working.
After reading the abstracts and articles that had been identified, a final set of 31 articles
was selected to pursue the research question for this review: eight articles from 2011, ten
articles from 2010 and 13 articles from 2009. In addition to these, three literature review
articles and an international meta-study were also selected (Timperley et al. 2007). It was
considered that these articles, as a group, give a good overview of research on teachers'
learning. They also provide insight into research findings from various regions of the world.
Thus, the selection of papers offered width and depth.
The decision was also made to examine research on further education and teachers'
learning, because further education has been a very important way for experienced
teachers to develop their knowledge and teach in school. The same search strings as
mentioned above, in addition to 'further education', and the same period were used to
search the subject of pedagogy in the ISI WEB of Science (search undertaken 9 August
2011). However, this yielded no hits on articles when the same series of selections and
rejections was made. Research in the last decade has, it appears, not been strongly
focused on further education. To deal with this identified shortcoming for formal further
education, a Norwegian study (Hagen and Nyen 2009), TALIS (2009), McMahon et al.'s
report from 2007 and two international studies (Parise and Spillane 2010 and Buczynski
and Hansen 2010) were accordingly included. These were during the discovery of the
reading of articles about teachers' learning and dealing with traditional courses or continuing
formal education of teachers.
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Analysis strategy
When examining the articles, the intention was to pinpoint the main findings from the
studies presented in the articles. The contents of the articles were also structured and
reduced by coding and categorizing the texts in open and axial analysis processes (Strauss
and Corbin 1990, 1998) so that their essence was made reportable (Garfinkel 1967; Sachs
1992). The open analysis process, gave rise to categories on the same horizontal level,
and led to the following two main categories: (1) 'formal continuing education' and (2)
'learning in school'.
The second main category included several research findings and to structure them so
they were more reportable, the texts about 'learning in school' were sorted into sub-
categories by asking 'when, 'how' and 'under what conditions' learning in school takes place
(Strauss and Corbin 1990, 1998). This axial analysis process resulted in the following
seven sub-categories: (1) five characteristics of teachers' learning; (2) individual and
organizational factors in teachers' learning; (3) teacher co-operation for teachers' learning;
(4) school culture and teachers' learning; (5) co-operation between external resource
persons and teachers for teachers' learning; (6) teachers as leaders of other teachers'
learning; (7) positive atmosphere and understanding of teachers' learning. In this paper,
these categories will be used to structure the presentation of the articles and their findings.
The presentation of the research articles outlines the samples of the studies and the
school level in which they were conducted. The review text also locates the studies
geographically, either directly or indirectly. The intention of the presentation
410 MB Postholm
is that the findings will function as a thinking tool for teachers' learning and thus have
significance beyond the local contexts of the research studies.
The three review articles are presented under each of their own headings because
they have their own structure based on the articles that were included in the review.
The themes in the review articles thus correspond to the themes developed on the
basis of the other articles included in this review paper. The summaries of these
three review articles do not deviate from the findings in the other presented articles,
but provide supportive and additive understanding of teachers' learning in the schools
where they were working.
The theoretical framework in relation to the categories

developed The coding and categorising process structuring the content of the review
articles into themes suggests that there are 'times for telling' (Schwartz and Bransford
1998), meaning that there are appropriate times for courses and lectures – as in
formal continuing education. This review indicates, however, that research has
emphasized learning as situated (Vygotsky 1978, 2000; Warford 2011), which implies
learning actually takes place in the schools where the teachers are working. Theories
on situated learning emphasize that learners are active in their learning processes
(Lempert-Shepell 1995; Postholm 2008), and that learners have to be metacognitive
in these processes (Flavell 1979, 1987). Furthermore, a person's thoughts, emotions
and will are closely linked to actions, and the context in which learning takes place
has consequences for the learning process (Vygotsky 1978, 2000). The categories
also focus on such contextual factors as individual and organizational features,
teacher co-operation and a positive atmosphere. This shows that the surroundings
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are very important elements in the individual's learning and development, as is also
the stance within the constructivist paradigm (Prawat 1996).
Findings
Teachers' learning: formal continuing education
In Norway, formal competence development among teachers in lower and higher
secondary schools has changed over the last five or six years (Hagen and Nyen 2009).
Hagen and Nyen refer to how teachers have high formal competence. Compared
with the rest of the national workforce – including other professional groups with
higher education – teachers participate to a high degree in training and education.
This applies not least to formal further education, even if there has been no increase
in recent years.
Hagen and Nyen (2009) comment that teachers have little tradition for stimulating
learning in their day-to-day work, but also state that the traditional teacher role in
Norway has been evolving. Teachers have more collaborative non-classroom time
outside their teaching, which enables more co-operation between colleagues when it
comes to the planning, implementation and assessment of teaching. This may form
the basis for more practice-oriented learning between colleagues in school. The
practical experiences of teachers also have a positive effect on the pupil's learning
outcome, and it would appear this has the highest effect from three to five years after
the training is finished. If the teachers are working in a development-oriented school
environment which attaches importance to continuing
learning and co-operation, the effect will be maintained longer than three to five years,
according to Hagen and Nyen (2009). They refer to qualitative analyzes of what
characterizes good teachers. They show that good teachers have the ability to increase
their competence by co-operating with other teachers while they assume responsibility
for their own professional development. Hammerness et al. (2005) call this 'adaptive
expertise', which means the ability to learn something from others on a continuing basis.
In a study focusing on primary and secondary schools (82% of the 261 respondents
were either primary or secondary teachers), the Scottish school researcher McMahon
and colleagues (2007) point out that further education with practice-oriented research
activities and content that integrates teachers ' own action research appears to be
particularly fertile ground. In Parise and Spillane's (2010) study, a survey of school
staff members in 30 American elementary schools showed that teachers appreciate
further formal education if they are directly connected to teaching in school. Precisely
the fact that further education is so closely linked to and relevant for their own working
day appears to lead teachers to find that the time they invest is well spent. In a study
carried out in OECD countries (TALIS 2009), Norwegian teachers at the lower
secondary school level stated that qualification programs and research activities2 have
the most importance for their professional development.
The American researchers Buczynski and Hansen (2010) found that teacher
learning also has an impact on the learning of pupils. Their study looked at courses
given to 118 fourth to sixth grade teachers of mathematics and natural sciences with
an exploratory method as the educational tool. The course the teachers attended
comprised 80 hours over one year, a summer course before the start of school and
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Saturdays during the school year. The content of the course includes 'exploratory
teaching as method', content knowledge in maths and natural science and formative
assessment, the assessment of the pupils' work during activities to enhance their
learning. Teachers from two districts participated, and the pupils in one of these districts
performed better in tests at the district level, while the achievements of pupils in the
other districts remained at the same level. The findings also indicated that several
teachers from the same school participating led to the best pupil results.
Teachers' learning: learning in school

The action Tiller (2006) speaks of a new wave of teacher learning and the teacher's
ability to learn and, thus, be metacognitive. According to Tiller, this self-learning should
take place in the day-to-day teaching. The experiences gained must be processed and
thus lead to the development of new and deeper knowledge, which in the next instance
will contribute to developing one's own performance in the job.
Tiller states that teachers must not become caught up in the experiences, but must
include them in the current situation and planning for future practice. Thus teachers
can learn from their own experiences by being exploratory, and in this way they will
have a meta-perspective on their own teaching practice (Postholm and Jacobsen 2011;
Postholm and Moen 2009).
In the sub-sections below, the findings from research on teachers' learning in school
are presented under the seven themes developed during the analysis process.
412 MB Postholm
Theme 1: Five characteristics of teachers' learning

In a theoretical study, Desimone (2009), identified five characteristics of teachers'
learning that should be prominent if the knowledge and skills of teachers are to be
strengthened and their practice improved. These are: content focus, active learning,
coherence, duration and collective participation or co-operation. The focus on content
means both subject knowledge and knowledge about how pupils can acquire this
knowledge. Active learning may mean observing expert teachers or being observed
personally with subsequent interactive feedback and discussions. Coherence refers
to the content in the teachers' learning and whether it is consistent with their prior
knowledge and convictions. Duration means that development activities should last
for a certain period, and the time is spread over. Desimone suggests that the
development activity should last for at least one semester and include 20 hours or
more contact time between participants. Co-operation as an important factor for
development activities implies that teachers from the same school, teaching in the
same year or in the same department can learn together. Teachers can then learn
from each other. Desimone adds that the role of the school leader is essential for
teachers' learning.
Theme 2: Individual and organizational factors in teachers' learning

Several researchers have been interested in the relationship between teachers'
convictions, values and practice and their learning. According to the British
researchers James and McCormick (2009), some research suggests that teachers'
learning based on their teaching in the classroom influences their values and furthers
practice. However, the findings from their study of teachers in 40 primary and
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secondary schools show that change is not a sequential process; changes that occur
in practice, and values and convictions are related to each other. This means that
teachers may encounter practice with varying ideas about what is good teaching for
the pupils, but that these ideas may be influenced by the context the teachers are in,
the stage they are at in their career, their previous practical experiences and the pupils they have.
The data from a national survey of 1126 teachers working in 329 primary and 59
secondary schools in England shows that all these factors have an impact on what,
how and why teachers learn in the school where they are working (Opfer, Pedder,
and Lavicza 2011a) .
Using the same sample, these British researchers (Opfer, Pedder, and Lavicza
2011b) have also found that orientation at the school level (referring to the school as
a community, including both leaders and teachers), is important when it comes to
teachers' learning in the schools where they are working. They point out the
importance of schools communicating a clear vision, supporting professional
development and understanding the importance of expertise and supportive
networks. They add that it is not sufficient to communicate convictions but that they
must also be practiced. Thus, these two studies show that both individual and
organizational factors may have an impact on teachers' learning, but Opfer and
Pedder (2011) also concluded that the most important factors for good results at
school are the school's capacity to support professional learning and the ability to
get teachers involved in co-operating activities. They maintain that schools need
help and guidance to be able to develop the required capacity to support teaching
and learning, because they are unable to do so alone. A German study of 1939
German secondary teachers in 198 schools (Richter et al. 2011) shows that teachers use the
opportunities they have to learn differently in the course of their careers. The study shows
that teacher co-operation declines in the course of a teacher's career. Teachers co-operated
more at the start of their career than in the middle and end of it.
However, the study also showed that more experienced teachers read more theories and
research on teaching and learning than teachers in their initial years in the job.
According to James and McCormick (2009), teacher autonomy is important if teachers

are to learn. Teacher autonomy can be supported if teachers are allowed to identify their own
learning objectives and can talk about and reflect on learning in independent processes and
in processes with colleagues. They also found that teachers in school should form clear
opinions on where the development head should be, so they have a common vision. They
claim that schools should have a support system for teachers' professional development, and
that teachers should be given the opportunity to plan, implement and evaluate their practice
based on reflections starting from studies of their own practice. They also state that it is
important for teachers' learning that knowledgeable persons in school can be used as a
resource in their own school and in external networks in development activities.
Research has also been conducted into the kind of changes teachers' learning may lead
to. The Dutch researchers Hoekstra et al. (2009) have focused on changes in cognition and
actions in a study of 32 teachers from 21 different upper secondary schools. In their study,
they found that when some teachers took part in development activities to promote the active
and self-regulated learning of pupils, they developed their understanding but not necessarily
their actions in the classroom, while others might develop their teaching practice but not their
understanding. Others, again, might develop both. They state that the most important finding
of the study is that teachers learn in different ways, and that the support provided for teachers'
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learning, therefore, must be differentiated. In an article published in 2011 based on a case

study of four of the 32 teachers in the study mentioned above, Hoekstra and Korthagen
present findings indicating that the whole person must be considered, and that cognitive,
action-based, emotional and motivational aspects must be included as key factors in the
professional development of teachers. The text also states that the point of departure for
further development must be what a person knows and what this person's aim is. In this way,
the development process will have a positive point of departure, while there is also a need
for knowledge to develop practice, which, in this case, was focused on pupil activity and the
self-regulating learning processes of pupils.
The Dutch researchers Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010) examined the definition
of teachers' learning, which indicates that it is an active process that leads to changes in
terms of knowledge and convictions (cognition) and/or changes in teaching practice ( actions).
The 94 secondary teachers in the study participated in a national innovation program to
promote pupil self-regulation. Findings indicate that teachers found that experimenting in their
own practice, reflecting on their own practice and getting ideas from others were activities
that promoted learning. The participating teachers stated that learning outcomes can be seen
as changes in relation to knowledge and conviction, emotions, practice and intentions related
to the activity in practice. The study shows that the least number of changes occur in teaching
practice. The researchers explain this by saying that the study only covered one year, and
that changes in terms of knowledge and convictions, which were most frequently reported
cannot effect changes quite so quickly in teaching practice.
414 MB Postholm
However, Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010) suggest a longer duration of

development activities than Desimone (2009).
Theme 3: Teacher co-operation for teachers' learning

Teacher co-operation is a theme for several researchers examining teachers' learning.
The American researchers Levine and Marcus (2010) claim that more and more
research work shows that participation in co-operating communities influences
teachers' practices and improves pupils' learning. They found two review studies that
support this (Bolam et al. 2005 and Vescio, Ross, and Adams 2008). Nonetheless,
their own study of seven high school teachers working on the same team shows that
different focuses and varying activities with different structures may contribute to
variation when it comes to the content of the co-operation. During some meetings, the
teachers shared teaching problems based on their own protocols. Teachers volunteered
to be timekeepers; a problem would be described by a teacher and clarifying questions
would be asked by other teachers with a subsequent discussion.
Other meetings were highly structured: what the teachers did and said together was
guided by a published agenda. However, meetings could also be loosely structured.
The direction for what the teachers would do or say was set either by the principal at
the beginning of the meeting, or by a shared understanding of a particular routine or
activity. Levine and Marcus (2010) therefore concluded that different forms of
cooperative activities should be planned to promote learning in various areas.
In their study of ten teachers from a secondary school, Lawrence and Chong
(2010) from Singapore have examined how 'Lesson study', which originated in Japan,
has contributed to teachers' learning. Lesson study means that teachers plan a class
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together, and then one of them teaches this class for the allotted period while the
others observe. After the teaching, they reflect on how the class functioned compared
to the stipulated goals, and then change the plan for the class as needed, and then
another member of the group teaches the class while the others observe. In this study,
the teachers were also joined by an expert teacher. The study shows that tips from
expert teachers were found to be useful, while this scheme allowed teachers to learn
new knowledge about the subject and practice education, thus gaining more
understanding of pupil needs and classroom management. The study also showed
that this work strengthened colleagues' sense of togetherness and teacher self-efficacy
in a teaching context. However, the participants in the study also pointed out challenges
in relation to finding time to observe and reflect. Findings in a review of 'Lesson study'
by Ono and Ferreira (2010) conducted in 313 secondary schools (grades 8–12) in
South Africa support those of Lawrence and Chong.
Moreover, Ono and Ferreira comment that teachers cannot change their teaching
overnight; it takes time.
In an American study (Given et al. 2010) of five elementary school teachers, the
researchers showed that documentation of pupil learning processes and teachers'
teaching that had a particular focus and served as the basis for dialogue and reflection
led to changed practices and strengthened the teachers' group processes.
This work improved the teachers' ability to observe, make notes, analyze, and
represent and respond to the teaching and learning that occurred in their classrooms,
which in turn changed the culture in their learning community. In a study conducted in
80 elementary schools carried out by the American researcher Camburn (2010),
findings show that teacher reflection based on practice actions actually leads to
changes in practice. The study also shows that the opportunity to reflect together with
colleagues and experts leads to more reflection, and that such reflection can also be a
powerful contribution to teachers' learning. This is also supported by findings from Parise
and Spillane (2010) who, as mentioned above, reported from a study including school staff
members in 30 elementary schools. Another American researcher, Glazier (2009), shows
that reflection in groups, on the basis of texts that have been read, may aid teachers'
learning. The study focused on teachers from various minorities (five Euro-Americans and
two African-Americans) working in high school, and the study showed that these reflections
made teachers more aware of their own positioning and the impact this might have on their
encounters with different pupils.
A study of 28 secondary school teachers conducted by Dutch researchers (Zwart et al.

2009) shows that paired co-operation between teachers may have beneficial rewards for
their learning. It shows that the greatest number of changes in teaching practice is achieved
when the teachers observe each other and give feedback on the observed practice. When
teachers know they are going to be observed, they feel some pressure to experiment and
model new teaching strategies for the observers, these researchers claim. The study also
shows that teachers learn the most when they have the opportunity to discuss their
experiences in a trusted, confident and constructive atmosphere. The study shows that if
teachers have internal motivation for learning, they will take part in professional development
programs even if the school leaders do not support this through time and scheduling. It is
not sufficient that structural and cultural circumstances facilitate learning, there must also
be a will to learn if learning is to occur, these researchers maintain. The study shows that
participation in a professional development program over one year may be too short a
period to establish systematic changes of actions. Another factor that may inhibit optimal
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use of paired co-operation is fear. Changes can lead to anxiety and may be threatening. If
the teachers in such a paired co-operation are too different, this might also inhibit the
learning that might occur. Meirink et al. (2009) from the Netherlands also found in a study
of 34 secondary teachers that teachers learned at their workplace by testing out different
teaching methods after having observed how a colleague teaches or after reflection on
teaching together with colleagues.
Theme 4: School culture and teachers' learning

Jurasaite-Harbison and Rex (2010) have also examined school culture and teachers'
expectations for their own professional development. The comparative study was conducted
in one elementary school in the USA, two elementary schools in Russia and one secondary
school in Lithuania. The researchers have shown that the school culture may also contribute
to co-operation between teachers and professional learning in informal situations, ie co-
operation that has not been planned. The study shows that in addition to administrative and
structural factors making informal co-operation possible, a culture among teachers that
encourages and appreciates learning is also necessary. Another finding is that if a school
culture has an order, hence the top-down strategy for promoting teacher performance, the
teachers will have a negative attitude towards informal learning.
According to Gregory (2010), another American researcher, it is important that schools

should focus on teacher expectations at the start of a development
416 MB Postholm
program to maximize teachers' learning in co-operating, problem-solving teams. Her

study of 34 elementary school teachers working in one school district shows that
teachers with high expectations for improvement also developed the most. The
Americans Rinke and Valli (2010), who studied three elementary schools in the same
district and under the same pressure to achieve annual progress in pupil achievement,
also found that this increases the focus on teachers' professional development. The
findings also show, however, that the quality of teachers' development is influenced
by the environment in which the learning experiences are made. In this context, they
point to supportive leaders who focus attention on teacher needs and interests, and
a school culture that is understood as the school's ethos, which means that the staff
share opinions and act on the basis of these. The study shows that several elements
may contribute to teachers' professional development.
These include having experts among colleagues who can contribute their competence,
having a common focus on the development of teaching, exchanging experience as
well as undertaking meta-reflection in relation to the development process itself. This
type of reflection means that the teachers are aware of their own learning.
Theme 5: Co-operation between external resource persons and teachers for teachers'
learning
Development of the school culture and a common vision for further work in school
were also themes for the action research study undertaken by Sales, Traver, and
Garcÿá (2011 ) in a Spanish primary school setting with 19 teachers. They
participated as resource persons in a school-based project. Their study shows the
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importance of teacher autonomy, in a sense that the need for change must come from the teachers.
They call the teachers 'change agents' but point out the importance of co-operation
between the teacher trainers from the university and teachers in school, concluding
that this may be a new way of training teachers in their practice.
In a New Zealand study (Starkey et al. 2009) on the introduction of a new national
reform, involving 449 secondary-school teachers in a survey and a case study sample
of 28 elementary schools, it was found that the ideas behind a reform should be part
of teachers' professional development. After an initial phase, where teachers were
given the opportunity to develop their understanding of why the reform should be
introduced, they were then given concrete examples of what the reform meant for
their own practice. During this work, the activity was adapted to schools and teachers,
and the schools were given expert assistance through all the phases – for example,
in helping to identify their own needs as well as what the pupils need. The study
exemplifies teachers seeing the usefulness of co-operating with other teachers
teaching the same subject, and suggests that the content of the work must be
adapted to the needs of the school and individual teachers. The study also indicates
that the quality of support teachers receive in their work is important to ensure
successful professional development. The teachers who participated in the study
stated that the external resource persons should have good educational knowledge,
a high level of expertise in teaching their subject, sound communicative abilities and
the ability to create constructive relationships. Among other attributes, they also need
sensible reflection skills, the ability to challenge thinking and practices, good data
skills combined with knowledge about the school's needs and the ability to model
teaching practice.
In a study carried out in 33 British primary and secondary schools, where researchers
supported teachers in the development activities, Wall et al. (2009) found that the theme
for development activities and the control over these must be the school's. The teachers in
this study wanted to develop their pupils' abilities to learn.
The findings show that the teachers involved in the project became more aware of their own
learning and their understanding of themselves as professionals. The researchers involved
in the project supported and guided the teachers in their exploratory activities, and all the
teachers in the same school were given courses twice a year relating to the themes they
were working on. They also attended an annual conference focusing on their theme. The
study gives no unambiguous answers concerning whether pupils learn more content, but
they develop awareness of their own learning. Another article from this project, written by
Baumfield et al. (2009), and involving researchers from Scotland and England, shows how
focus on pupils' learning also contributes to the professional development of teachers
through feedback from the pupils. In the teaching, the pupils were given a visual aid, which
gave them the opportunity to speak in 'cartoon thought bubbles' about their own experiences
in the learning process. These thought bubbles enabled the pupils to express what they
thought. This aid became productive as it led to dialogues on different levels. The teachers
received feedback from the pupils and this led to conversations between the teachers.
Bearing this in mind, the teachers developed an attitude in relation to the pupils' feedback
and a researcher view in co-operation with the researchers from the university.
Keung (2009), from Hong Kong, has written about 'Learning study', which is similar to
the method in 'Lesson study'. Teachers plan teaching together, observe the implementation
and then reflect upon the process and undertake further planning to test the teaching again.
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A researcher and a teacher trainer also took part in the development activities, which took
place in a primary school together with five teachers. The researcher gave the teachers
insight into how to learn from experiences in practice, while he also presented theory about
teaching, so that the activities would not have a mechanical and instrumental nature. The
teachers felt that they developed their professionalism during the project, which lasted from
September to March the following year. The study shows the importance of understanding
that the focus must be on the needs of the teachers, while the teachers develop an
understanding of how their teaching must start from where the pupils are and how they
think and learn. They learn to obtain information about pupil needs and then to plan their
teaching based on pupil aptitudes and skills. The study concludes that it is useful for
teachers in a practice community to observe and reflect upon each other's practice, so that
they learn and in turn the pupils' learning outcomes can improve.
A Norwegian project that studied 12 teachers in a lower secondary school, where the
focus was on pupil learning strategies and metacognition, examined the learning of teachers
and pupils. This project was based on co-operation between a researcher and teacher over
two years with two hours of contact time each week. Three subject teachers observed each
other once a semester. This meant that each teacher observed two other teachers and then
reflected on this observation together with the two other teachers twice, and also once on
their own observed teaching (Postholm 2011a). The researcher's task was to support and
challenge the teachers in the development process. The teachers found this activity
meaningful and felt it was something they learned from and could use in their teaching with
their pupils. They also stated that
418 MB Postholm
their action learning had an impact on the pupils' learning. The study shows that the
teacher's learning has an impact on the pupils' learning, particularly the weaker
pupils. Teachers find that pupils start to ask other questions about the texts they
read, questions that indicate that they would like to understand the content of the
material (Postholm 2010). The study shows the importance of teachers having the
time to agree on teaching practices, and the need for them to be assigned to work in
the same team over extended periods based on the same theme and issues. This
will let them develop familiar and safe relationships when it comes to the same
themes in the teaching (Postholm 2011b). Another study carried out by the Americans
Cobb, Zhao and Dean (2009) also shows how a group of teachers (at the largest
consisting of 14 teachers) working in five middle schools learned in co-operation with
researchers. In the study, the researchers found that there must be a close
relationship between what is reflected upon and what occurs in the practice situations.
These researchers found that video recordings of teaching situations were a good
tool for the reflection process, where the intention was to improve practices in the classroom.
Theme 6: Teachers as leaders of other teachers'

learning In New Zealand, Taylor et al. (2011) carried out a study of 22 secondary-
school teachers who were given the opportunity to adopt the role of leaders of other
secondary teachers in their professional development. This project was a pilot study
intended as a way of initiating a practice in schools that would encourage good
teachers to remain in school while also having the opportunity to develop there.
Teachers participating in the study and who were trained by university employees
stated that they were given the time to read theory (11 of 22), and/or time to reflect
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(7 of 22), and that these were valuable aspects of this role. They found that they
gained time to remove themselves a little from the hectic life in the classroom. They
also appreciated the personal and professional assistance they received from
university employees. In this role they also found that their enthusiasm for teaching
and learning was rekindled. This was a one-year project, a pilot study, and
participants had varying ideas about what they wanted to do after the project was completed.
Some would like to go back to their ordinary teacher role with new competence and
energy, others would not, while some would like to continue in the same leader role.
What is interesting is that none of them wanted leadership roles higher up in the
hierarchical system, but were rather interested in opportunities where they might
develop their own educational skills and those of others.
Theme 7: Positive atmosphere and understanding of teachers'

learning Kennedy (2011), from Scotland, interviewed 18 teachers and staff in relevant
positions (10 positions) who had a role in or were interested in teachers' continuing
professional development through co-operation in general. The study found that
having good relations between school staff was a requirement for such development
processes. Kennedy found that it was very important that school leaders create a
positive atmosphere and constructive relationships between colleagues, and that an
aim for teacher training must be that teachers-to-be must learn to give each other
feedback. She also found that the distribution of subjects and the teaching schedule
may impede co-operation between teachers, and that the professional development
of teachers must take, as its point of departure topics that are relevant for the
personal and professional needs of teachers. The paper suggests that education policy in
Scotland does not demonstrate an understanding of co-operative, continuous professional
development for teachers, as teachers are assessed individually according to professional
standards.
Individual assessment of teachers according to professional standards is also highlighted
in an article presenting a comparative study of primary schools in England and Finland. It
focuses on the professional community of teachers and their learning and development in
this community. The study interviewed 206 teachers in England and 12 teachers in Finland,
using the same questions (Webb et al. 2009). In Finland, the teachers who participated in
the study felt they were working in a democratic and fair school climate with a greater
opportunity to identify the limitations of school and to find creative ways of working
compared to England.
In the English schools, the teachers need to satisfy defined external goals rather than work
towards the interest-goals defined by the schools themselves. The study suggests that self-
determination leads to better well-being in the teaching job.
A study carried out in Canada (Clausen, Aquino, and Wideman 2009), over a year in a
small primary school with six teachers and a principal, shows that even if the principal is the
one to take the initiative to promote professional development and determine the theme of
the development activity, over time teachers may come to identify with the project and
make it their own. The principal in this study allowed for observation and reflection in the
teaching schedule. She would also teach classes for the teachers so that they had the
opportunity to observe each other. The principal supported the teachers through the
organization and conversations, while she also requested written reports from the work that
was done. The teachers who participated in the study, over time, developed a learning
community with open and supportive communication, which helped their professional
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development.
Review articles on teachers' learning

Webster-Wright at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia, has written an article
(2009) focusing on continuing professional learning (CPL) in general. She does not
distinguish between formal courses and learning at the workplace, as according to her,
everything is part of the learning when it refers to the practice of the profession. She
maintains that research must focus on all factors that contribute to learning, and her
rationale comes from Vygotsky's ideas on the holistic perspective (Vygotsky 2000). This
means that the content, the learners and the context of the learning must be included in a
study of CPL. She summarizes the articles by stating that the essence of the research she
has referenced is that professionals learn from experiences and that learning occurs
continuously through active participation in practice. She also suggests that critical reflection
can potentially impact learning in a powerful way. Furthermore, she reflects that there
continues to be little acceptance of transformative learning, which means considering
assumptions that convictions build – and, afterward, acting on the basis of the insight that
the transformed perspective of meaning gives.
Schechter from Bar-Ilan University in Israel (2010) examines how a national program
initiated by the Ministry of Knowledge in Israel, which aimed to contribute to CPL in school,
influenced and supported teachers' learning. A total of 20 schools participated in the study
(junior and senior high schools). One project aim was that teachers and leaders in collective
learning processes would develop teaching
420 MB Postholm
practices based on presentation of and reflection on success stories from their own
classrooms. One goal of the work was that they would also learn to learn, thus
becoming aware of how they reflected on practice. In each school, an experienced
teacher (a learning co-ordinator) led the common reflection processes. The leaders
at the school also participated in these processes. The work was supported by a
development team consisting of the head of the school, the learning co-ordinator, a
regional director of the school and a person who followed up the learning processes
from a national development team. The article presents these processes from one of
the schools under study. In an analysis of the material, it emerges that the one-year
project could be divided into three phases: an initial phase where the participants
became acquainted with and developed trust in each other, the second and longest
phase where they shared success stories and the third phase where they tested
programs presented in their own practices and then reflected together on how things
were progressing. The teachers found that they developed trust in each other, and
that these common reflections were useful for their teaching. During the year of the
project, their own reflections were never made from a meta-perspective, which would
have given them the opportunity to reflect on how they learned to learn.
Schechter states in the conclusion that learning in professional learning communities,
which is based on success stories from practice, may help tie together successful
practices, with national abstract and policy-controlled reforms.
Darling-Hammond and Richardson from Stanford University, California, discussed
in their review text (2009) what generally supports and what does not support
teachers' professional development. Their article points out that research supports
professional learning which allows teachers to immerse themselves in subject
knowledge and how to teach this to the pupils, and which, moreover, teaches the
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teachers to understand how pupils learn specific content. The focus is also on how
teachers in their professional learning must acquire new knowledge, test it in practice
and reflect upon the results with colleagues so that learning occurs in co-operation
with them. They propose reading literature in study groups as an activity for teachers'
learning. They also focus on research, which states that there must be regular
opportunities for professional development and that it must occur over an extended
period. They refer to findings in an article by Yoon et al. (2007), which indicates that
the time allocation should be from 30 to 100 hours over a period of 6–12 months.
The article points out the importance of supportive leadership and good relationships
between colleagues where failure and innovation are allowed and invited as a
necessary part of professional learning among co-operating colleagues.
An international meta-study
Based on 97 studies conducted in primary and secondary schools, Timperley et al.
(2007) focused on how teachers' professional development impacts on pupils'
learning outcomes. The activity that the studies were based on was carried out with
a view to satisfying the political objectives in force, and the studies were carried out
over a period of six months to two years. Pupil learning outcomes were related to
personal, social and academic outcomes. Seven elements in a professional learning
context were found. These were:
. Providing sufficient time for extended opportunities to learn and use the time
effectively;
. Engaging external expertise; .

Focusing on engaging teachers in the learning process rather than being concerned
about whether they volunteered or not; . Challenging
problematic discourses; . Providing
opportunities to interact in a community of professionals; . Ensuring
content was consistent with wider policy trends; . In school-
based initiatives, having leaders actively leading professionals
learning opportunities (p. xxvi).
The researchers comment that under most circumstances it is necessary to expand

the timeframe if optimal learning is to occur, but how the time is spent is also important.
The studies indicate that learning is not a linear process, and that resource persons
who attempt to implement readymade programs for the desired practice rarely have a
lasting impact on pupil learning outcomes. Programs developed in co-operation with
the teachers, on the other hand, did have a lasting impact.
In most of the studies, researchers with supplementary funding have been hired in,
and their research provided knowledge that contributed to the teachers' professional
development. Thus, knowledge and the development of practice went hand in hand. It
was understandable that the teachers needed external expertise because the
requirement for substantial new learning in the studies demanded that the teachers
had to learn relevant content and new skills to consider current practice in alternative
ways. In the studies, there was no relation between the students' learning outcome
and whether the participation was voluntary or not.
The reason for the participation proved to be more important for pupils' learning than
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involvement in the start-up of the development activities. A shift away from facts,
procedures and cramming to exploratory activity and development of the pupils'
understanding of concepts had a positive impact on student learning, particularly in
mathematics. A positive outcome was also similarly experienced with a shift away from
problematic discourses, which might, for example, include the stigmatization of
struggling pupils.
In many of these studies, the school leaders actively supported the teachers'
professional learning, sometimes participating too. Most frequently, the leaders
prepared an organizational room for the teachers to learn, giving them access to
relevant expertise and the opportunity to process new information. In some schools,
the leaders also developed a learning culture where they themselves participated as
learners rather than organizers of learning for others. However, the researchers found
that participation in a professional community did not necessarily lead to development.
Participation might also reinforce an ineffective status quo. They maintain that effective
professional communities are characterized by participants being supported in
developing new insights and understanding the implications for teaching, and analyzing
the importance of teaching for pupil learning. The researchers also found that a
characteristic sign of an efficient community is that all feel collective responsibility for
pupil learning.
The content of the professional learning and development includes subject
knowledge and the relation between curriculum, pedagogy and information from
assessments of pupils' knowledge, which includes their progression in terms of specific
syllabus, their culture, linguistic and cultural resources, theoretical framework work
and understanding of concepts. Skills the researching needed teachers included
422 MB Postholm
analysis of their own practice and seeing new possibilities in relation to standards
applicable to this practice, and, moreover, developing methods for examining the
practice with the aim of finding ways of making improvements. In the studies, the
teachers were given theoretical grounds for alternative practices. Presentation of
theory in isolation from the implications in practice was insufficient when it came to
improving pupil learning outcomes, and in the studies, the teachers received support
to transform theory into practice.
We observe from 50% of the studies that show significant positive outcomes for
the pupils that the teachers in the schools in question had developed their
understanding and use of assessment in their own practice. Skills relating to
analyzing, interpreting and using data were considered part of the professional
development. The data might consist of the pupils' thinking and understanding as
expressed in drawings and interviews, observations of their work and test results. In
all these studies, the collected material data was used to analyze the relationship
between teaching and learning with the purpose of improving the teaching.
The acquisition and continued use of knowledge and skills turned out to depend
on whether the school supported continuing learning and its application and on
whether the school leaders motivated the teachers to maintain their commitment.
Maintaining such commitment may be related to circumstances that are known when
it comes to promoting teachers' self-regulated learning. Those who are self regulated
are able to answer the following questions: Where am I going? How do I get there?
And where will I go afterwards? Teachers with a research approach, with good
subject knowledge and with support from their school leaders are continuously
interested in relating their teaching to pupil learning. The studies show that it is
important that the teachers develop a metacognitive awareness that helps them to
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control their own learning by defining goals and leading the processes towards these
goals. With a metacognitive awareness, teachers can look critically at their own role
and at how they can lead pupils towards a learning objective. Jackson (1974) calls
this developing a metacognitive attitude to work in school, and this is done so
teachers can deal with the complexity in their work. The studies also make it clear
that if self-regulating processes are to become as effective as possible, they must
permeate the processes at all levels: on the pupil, teacher and organizational levels.
In addition to supporting an exploratory attitude and continuing learning, teachers
must have the opportunity to determine what they and their pupils need to learn.
According to Timperley et al. (2007), this must be a common activity for all the
teachers, as the pupils have a number of teachers.
The studies showed that teachers who had an exploratory approach found the
relationship between the content to be learned and how the learning activity was
designed to be important. Feedback on teaching given by colleagues or others with
expertise based on observations of this teaching also helps the teachers to transform
theoretical principles into actions of practice. When the teachers were put in a learner
position, they had the opportunity to develop their own subject knowledge,
demonstrate good educational practice, develop insight into their own learning
situations, develop greater empathy with the pupils as learners and develop a
practice that supports rich discussion with others on topics relating to learning
activities. In co-operation with colleagues or others with expertise, the reading of
texts might also be a tool that could promote discussions. The studies suggest,
though, that a lack of shared understanding of the purpose of the development
activities was a problematic aspect (Timperley et al. 2007). It's not surprising that, just like other learn
need a good reason for becoming sufficiently involved to dig deeply into new knowledge so
that their practice can be changed and improved.
The researchers presented key concepts and theoretical principles that formed a
theoretical basis that teachers could base their understanding on and then develop
relationships to practice. After this introductory presentation, they have many opportunities to
learn in their teaching. The teachers were helpful in transforming theory into practice, and
they had opportunities to discuss and state their opinions relating to the new learning and its
implications for their practice. In several of the studies, Timperley et al. (2007) examined the
teachers' practice theories that were involved. These practice theories comprise conviction
and values, knowledge, skills and practices that follow from these, and the desired pupil
learning outcome (Robinson 1993). Without starting from and 'involving' current theories on
what they would like to do, according to Timperley et al. (2007), new theories and new
practice will probably be placed outside the existing practice instead of replacing it or
developing it. This means that they may also be quickly forgotten.
The studies show that several factors are important if new learning is to be constituted in
practice. First, learning must take, as its point of departure, teaching practice. Second, it must
develop relevant educational content and an exploratory approach to practice. Third, existing
practice theories must be involved as the starting point for a continuing exploration process.
The findings in these studies suggest that projects that lasted one year or more had a positive
impact on teachers' professional development.
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Summary and concluding reflections

The research question that has been pursued throughout this article is: How do experienced
teachers learn? In this section, the most relevant themes and points from the presented
articles and their findings are brought together. These findings provide evidence for the
conclusion drawn at the end of the text.
Courses and workshops may be quite useful in learning processes, while learning in
one's own school practice may have another function. Not all forms for activity that facilitate
teachers' learning will necessarily be relevant to all teachers.
According to James and McCormick (2009), there may be differences between teachers in
the same school and in different schools. They state that practices have different cultural and
structural aspects that impact each other. Cultures create structures, and structures are
formed by cultures. School leaders may contribute to changing structures and creating
cultures, and they can distribute leadership to persons who have no formal leadership
qualification but who can support change and development both culturally and structurally. If
teachers are to learn and thus change on-going practice, one requirement, according to
James and McCormick (2009), is that the cultures and structures are changed. It is also
important for what happens in school to be supported by political decisions. Collinson et al.
(2009) maintain that today's society needs teachers who learn continuously, and that
education policies that are not supported financially by the authorities have a long history of
failing. Collinson et al. propose that local authorities and teachers must be allowed to take
part in political decisions so they can be part of the decision-making before decisions are
implemented in schools. According to Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010), innovations
in school have failed too often because teachers' learning was not considered.
424 MB Postholm
Researchers emphasize that formal education further with practice-oriented

exploratory work, which includes testing in one's own teaching, appears to be
particularly fertile for the development of teachers' classroom practices and pupil
learning (McMahon et al. 2007; Parise and Spillane 2010; TALIS 2009). The
teachers' reflections of their own practice in their further education are, thus, allowed
to continue into the practice during and after the education, particularly when several
teachers from the same school participate in further education together.
Both national and international research suggest that learning that occurs in
school in co-operation with other teachers and a school administration that supports
social learning is the best way for teachers to develop their own teaching, which in
turn leads to benefits for pupils' learning. Teachers want to work with themes they
are interested in based on their practical experiences and want to stipulate their own
learning goals, thus being autonomous in the development of their own practice.
They also want to co-operate and reflect upon practice with colleagues to change
and develop their teaching. Teachers find this activity meaningful, and the studies
show the importance of practice as a point of departure for reflection. Research also
states that expert teachers or other resource persons, or what the theory calls more
competent others (Vygotsky 1978), must be invited into the learning process so that
new knowledge is added and learning is promoted. Research findings show that
substantial requirements are placed on the competence of such persons and, thus,
on the quality of the support provided (Starkey et al. 2009). Research suggests that
development activities connected to teachers' learning should last for some time,
but there is no clear formula for the scope and duration of such activities. In the
studies presented, the length of the activity ranges from one semester and a scope
of 20 hours to development activities stretching over two years and with two hours'
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contact time per week per school year.

The studies presented agree with Desimone's (2009) five characteristics of
teachers' learning, but all in all, they also represent other features that are important
for teachers' learning. Studies present the idea that it is important that teachers learn
to learn, thus becoming self-regulated in their own learning process. This means
that they learn to collect information as the basis for developing their own practice,
hence becoming researchers in their practice (Postholm and Jacobsen 2011;
Postholm and Moen 2009). Furthermore, how they reflect upon this practice is
important for planning their future teaching. By reflecting on their own practice, they
can assess whether the learning objectives have been satisfied and then plan to
satisfy new objectives based on knowledge about themselves and their pupils,
based on the tasks that are to be implemented in the teaching and the teaching
strategies they choose to apply. In such reflection on their own practice, they use
both metacognitive strategies and metacognitive knowledge (Flavell 1979, 1987).
In addition, the studies indicate the importance of both individual and inter-
connected factors in development activities that elaborate on Desimone's (2009)
characteristics. For example, the teachers must have a will to learn, and there must
be more than just adequate time and resources. It is important that teachers
experience expectations for improvement, and that the whole person is considered.
This means that cognitive, actional, emotional and motivational aspects are important
factors in the professional development of teachers (Hoekstra and Korthagen 2011;
Vygotsky 2000). The studies also suggest the importance of a common vision
among colleagues, and that good relationships between employees are a requirement
for development. Research also shows that the sense of
togetherness among colleagues and teachers' self-efficacy are strengthened through

teacher co-operation (Lawrence and Chong 2010). Several of the studies mention texts and
literature used in reading groups as tools in the learning process for teachers.
The intention of teachers learning how to facilitate better teaching is that pupils will achieve
better results. Pupils' learning is not in focus in all the studies, but based on socio-cultural
theory we at least know that the external conditions for pupil learning may improve when
there is a focus on teachers' learning.
There is not necessarily a conflict between teachers' learning in practice and participation
in traditional further education courses, but research suggests that courses teachers
participate in should be connected to the development processes they are already
participating in at their school (McMahon et al. 2007; Parise and Spillane 2010). In this way,
the knowledge they acquire from the course may benefit the school as a whole, and there
may then also be 'a time for telling' (Schwartz and Bransford 1998). Ideally, all teachers in
the same school, or at least a number of them, should receive the same course training as
a stage in the practice development (Buczynski and Hansen 2010). Teacher trainers have
a lot of knowledge, but this knowledge needs to be out in practice and shared with the
teachers. Research suggests that the best way of doing this is to have teacher trainers
contribute their knowledge in interaction processes in the teachers' arenas (Cobb et al.
2009; James and McCormick 2009; Keung 2009; Opfer and Pedder 2011, Postholm 2011a;
Sales et al. 2011; Starkey et al. 2009; Timperley et al. 2007; Wall et al. 2009). Bearing this
in mind, it is safe to say that the schools in which the teachers work are the best arenas for
them to learn. Sales et al. (2011) maintain that this may be the new way of training teachers.
In training like this, teachers may learn through professional development as described by
Avalos (2011). Members of the teaching profession may learn how to learn so they can use
their knowledge in their teaching to benefit pupil learning.
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Notes
1. When referring to basic education, the terms primary and secondary school are used.
However, when referring to studies conducted in a system where other terms of reference are
employed, the terminology from those studies is retained where appropriate.
2. When I refer to work by other authors, I use the same terms as they do: for example, 'research
activities'. Teachers' 'research activities' are termed either 'R&D activities' or 'action learning'.
This means that the term 'action research' is not used when it comes to teachers' systematic
work: instead, it is called 'action learning'.
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Teachers' professional development: A theoretical review

Article in Educational Research December 2012

May Brit Postholm

Ungdomstrinn i utvikling View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Educational Research Publication

Teachers' professional development:

Published online: 02 Nov 2012.

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2012.734725

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR THE ARTICLE

Teachers' professional development: a theoretical review

Sources of evidence and method: To attempt to answer the research question, a

ISSN 0013-1881 print/ISSN 1469-5847 online

Educational Research 407

In organizing and reflecting on teaching, everyday terms and scientific constructs

'A time for telling'

Metacognitive processes and learning

cognitive strategies (Braÿten 2005). When we use metacognitive strategies, the

order learning means becoming aware of how the content is learned.

Educational Research 409

The theoretical framework in relation to the categories

Educational Research 411

Teachers' learning: learning in school

Theme 1: Five characteristics of teachers' learning

Theme 2: Individual and organizational factors in teachers' learning

Educational Research 413

According to James and McCormick (2009), teacher autonomy is important if teachers

learning, therefore, must be differentiated. In an article published in 2011 based on a case

However, Bakkenes, Vermunt, and Wubbels (2010) suggest a longer duration of

Theme 3: Teacher co-operation for teachers' learning

Educational Research 415

A study of 28 secondary school teachers conducted by Dutch researchers (Zwart et al.

Theme 4: School culture and teachers' learning

According to Gregory (2010), another American researcher, it is important that schools

program to maximize teachers' learning in co-operating, problem-solving teams. Her

Educational Research 417

Theme 6: Teachers as leaders of other teachers'

Theme 7: Positive atmosphere and understanding of teachers'

Educational Research 419

Review articles on teachers' learning

Educational Research 421

. Engaging external expertise; .

The researchers comment that under most circumstances it is necessary to expand

Educational Research 423

Summary and concluding reflections

Researchers emphasize that formal education further with practice-oriented

contact time per week per school year.

Educational Research 425

togetherness among colleagues and teachers' self-efficacy are strengthened through

LB Resnick, 231–5. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

Educational Research 427

professional development and change: A national study of teachers in England.

Tiller, T. 2006. Aksjonslæring – forskende partnerskap i skolen [Action learning – researching

development: Best evidence synthesis iteration. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of

Webster-Wright, A. 2009. Reframing professional development through under standing authentic

Educational Research 429

Zimmerman, BJ 2006. Development and adaptation of expertise: The role of self-regulatory

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