TOS 1: UNIT 2 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 1. To Understand Axial Stress, Strain, Elastic Limit and Modulus of Elasticity 2. To Understand Elasticity, Plasticity and other properties of materials 3. To Study Lateral Deformations and other IV Cols Tela E-te (oli 4. To Understand principle of Superposition ona body. 5. To Understand the Composite Materials 6. To Understand the concepts of Bulk Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity. 7. To Understand Stress Strain Curve of different Materials.21 TOS 1: Unit 2: Simple Stresses and Strains 2.1 A force may change the shape of a body. It may cause Compression, cause Tension, cause Bending Compression and Bending Tension in a spanning Member, cause Torsion or cause Shearing ona body on which it is acting. When a Force acts axially ona «, ferme a ' ea aia body it causes ce | 1. Axial or Direct ‘ ai z, transverse ; =: axis Compression 2. Axial or Direct Tension Definitions: | Loading 2.1.1 Stress: Force applied per unit cross sectional area (area perpendicular to the direction of the force) is defined as Stress. Unit of Stress is N/m? or N/mm? or kN/m? Expressed as O = P/A where P is the force and A is the cross sectional area 1Pascal (Pa) = 1N/m? = 10" Mega Pascals (MPa) = 10"N/mm* The effect of an axial force on a body is not seen in the stress (not a physical effect) but in the shortening or elongation of the body which can be measured and recorded. This effect is known as strain 2.1.2 Axial Strain or Linear Strain: Linear Strain is change in length (dimension parallel to the direction of the force) per unit original length, Strain has No Units. Svan “ Strain is expressed as @ = 6L/L where OL is the change in length and | is the original length 2.1.3 Elastic Limit: For every material there is a limiting value of load for a given resisting section up to and within which the strain or deformation disappears on removal of the load (The property of Elasticity). The value of intensity of stress corresponding to the limiting load is known as Elastic Limit. 2.1.4 Hooke’s Law: It states that when a material is loaded within its Elastic Limit, the stress produced is directly proportional to the strain. The stress strain curve is dealt with lastly. Stress ot Strain, thatis@ a@@or of/e=Constant 2.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity: The Ratio of stress and strain which is a constant within the elastic limit is called Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus and is denoted by E. E=o/e. Unit of Eis N/mm’. L Hence 6L=— AE E for copper = 1 x 10°N/mm/, E for Steel = 2 x 10°N/mm’, E for teak wood = 0.0942 x 10°N/mm? E for concrete grade M20 = 0.25 x 10°N/mm? TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho22 Le ed a hee | ee come back to its original shape and size after removal of force, The ability of the material or body to regain or retain its shape is specific to the body and is the property which will help us in deciding its use in construction. Accordingly let us define the following Mechanical Properties of Materials 2.2.1 Elasticity: It is the property of the material due to which it regains its original size and shape after removal of the external forces causing the deformation. E.G. Steel 2.2.2 Plasticity: Lack of Elasticity is known as Plasticity. The plasticity of the material is ability to change its shape without destruction under the action of external action and to retain the shape given to it when the loads are removed. E.G Clay is a plastic Material Most materials are elastic up-to certain point or load and then they become plastic 2.2.3 Ductility: Large deformations occur on application of a small load Ductile materials can be reduced from large sections to thinner and thinner sections i.e. they can be drawn into wires. Ductility is measured in terms of percentage elongation. Ductility increases with increase in temperature. e.g.— Gold, Silver, Aluminum, Copper etc. 2.2.4 Brittleness: Lack of ductility is called Brittleness. Non ductile materials are brittle. Brittleness is also defined as a property of Breaking, Fracturing or Shattering a material without prior warning or without much permanent distortion under load. E.G. Cast iron, Concrete, Glass. These materials are good for resisting Compressive loads but less to extremely less suitable for Tensile Loads context in our syllabus Other Mechanical Properties of Materials: 2.2.5 Strength: The Strength of a material is its ability to sustain loads without undue distortion, collapse or rupture. E.G. The material of a colurnn should have adequate Compressive Strength. 2.2.6 Hardness: Hardness of material is defined as the resistance of material to Wear, Abrasion, Scratching, or Indentation. 2.2.7 Mialleability: /t is the ability of a material to be get permanently by compression without rupture and hence can be rolled into thin sheets without cracking or breaking. E.G. Gold, Silver, Aluminum. 2.2.8 Fatigue: The property or phenomenon of failure under fluctuating or repeated loading is called Fatigue or Endurance Limit 2.2.9 Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist elastic deformation is called Stiffness. 2.2.10 Creep: Certain parts of a building like a Column sustain loads for a long period of time. The materials of such parts continue to deform and finally break. Creep continues as long as the load is applied. The greater the time, the more will be the Creep. The continuous deformation with time which the material undergoes due to application of external loads is called Creep TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho23 2.3 Lateral Strain: it can easily be seen from the sketch that if the load elongates the body along the direction of the force, it compresses the body in the other two directions and vice versa. Linear Strain or Axial Strain or Primary Strain or simply Strain is the strain caused in the direction of the force. 2.3.1 Lateral Strain is the strain in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. Lateral Strain = Change in Lateral dimension/ Original Lateral Dimension = 6b/b or &t/t, where b and t are the width and thickness of a rectangular bar And 5b and &t are the change in width and thickness of the bar Lateral strain has No Unit For a circular rod Lateral Strain = 6d/d where d is the diameter and 4d is the change in diameter 2.3.2 Poisson's Ratio: When a homogenous material is loaded within its elastic limit, the ratio of the lateral strain to linear strain is a constant and is known as Poisson's Ratio denoted by yp or 1/m. = Lateral Strain/ Linear Strain. Hence Lateral Strain =x e The value of 1 for most metals is between 0.25 to 0.4 For Structural Stee! the Modulus of Elasticity E = 2.0 X 10° N/mm? and Poisson's Ratio u = 0.3 if the linear strain is tensile and hence positive, lateral strain will be compressive and hence negative If the linear strain as compressive and hence negative, lateral strain will be tensile and hence negative Problem] = Arectangular bar of 50 width and 40 thickness, 1500mm long is subjected to an axial pull of BOkN along its length. Its length increases by 0.3 mm and thickness decreases by 0.0024mm. «Calculate Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio. «Calculate Nominal Stress and Axial Strain and Lateral Strain elif the same rod is applied a push of 450kN along its length, find the change in |ength. Solution: ® Nominal Stress = Force/Area = P/A= 80x 10° / 50x 40 = 40N/mm’? =a © Axial Strain = Change in Length/Original Length = 65L/L = 0.3/1500 = 0.0002 =e ® Young’s Modulus = Stress / Strain = o/e = 40/0.0002 = 2x 10°N/mm?=E * Lateral Strain = Change in thickness/Original Thickness = 0.0024/40 = 0.00006 ® Poisson's Ratio = Lateral Strain / Linear Strain = 0.00006/0,0002 =0 .3= p e 6L=PL/AE=450 x 10? x 1500/ 40 x 50 x 2 x 10° = 1.68mm for a load of 450kN Problem 2 A1200mm long bar of 30mm diameter is subjected to an axial push of G00kN along its length. Calculate the change in length and diameter if E=2 x 10° N/mm? and p=0.3 Solution: ® Area = 3.14 x 30°/4 = 706.5mm’, L = 1200mm. ® §L=PL/AE = 600 x 10° x 1200/ 706.5 x 2x 10° = 5.095mm e Linear Strain = 5.095/12700 = 0.00424 =e TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho24 * Lateral Strain = x e = 0.00127 ® Lateral Strain = 6d/d = 0.00127 Hence 6d = 0.00127 x 30 = 0.0382mm Problem 3 A Copper wire of length 600mm is subjected to a pull of 6.2KN along its length. If stress is not to exceed 70N/mm’ calculate the diameter. Also calculate its elongation if E = 10°N/mrm? Solution: ® Ifdis the diameter Area =nd?/4=A ® o(Stress)=P/A =6.2 x 10°/ nd*/4 ® Hence 6.2 x 10°/ nd?/4 = 70N/mm’ as stress is not to exceed 6.2kN Hence d* = 112.82, d= 10.62mm ® Area = 3.14% 10.627/4 = 88.53mm? ® 6L=PL/AE = 6.2 x 10° x 600/88.53 x 1x 10° = 0.42mm 2.4 Deformation of a Body Subjected to Axial Forces (Principle of Superposition): Principle of Superposition: When a number of forces are acting on a body, the resulting strain will be the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual forces. Problem 4 = Asteel rod of varying diameters is subjected to various forces along its length as shown and it is in equilibrium. If E = 2 x 10°N/mm? a. Find P for equilibrium. b. Calculate the Stresses in each part of the rod c. Calculate the total change in length. 4“ Dia i i Dia 160mm Dia ae ee so p= 200K 1-55 0KN 4900-1400 1000 — Solution: Area AB = 3.14 x 1407/4 = 15386mm? Area BC = 3,14 x 2007/4 = 31400mm? Area CD = 3.14 x 160*/4 = 20096mm" a. Calculate P for equilibrium ZFH = 0 will give 150+ P + 200-550 =0, Hence P = 200kN b. Calculate Stresses in each part of the rod Draw free body diagrams of each part and find Force and type acting on each part, As shown below TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho25 A B +50kN 2 + 200+200-550 = -150kN B ( +150+200 = +350KN—S__ 4200-550 = -350KN C 0 +150+200+200 = +550kN—e_____e--550kN Accordingly Force on AB= 150kN compressive, hence O,qg = 150 x 10°/15386 = 9.75N/mm? Force on BC = + 150 + 200 = 350kN compressive hence Oge = 350 x 10°/31400 = 11.14N/mm?* Force on CD = 550kN compressive Hence Ocp = 550 X 107/20096 = 27,36N/mm* C. Calculate Total Deformation (Note negative sign indicates compression) BL aa = PL/AE = 150 x 10° x 1200/15386 x 2 x 10° = - 0.05854mm SL ac = PL/AE = 350 x 107 x 1400/31400 x 2 x 10° = - 0,07802mm BL cp = PL/AE = 550 x 10° x 1000/20096 x 2 x 10° = - 0.1368mm Hence Total Deformation = - 0.05854 - 0.07802 - 0.1368 = - 0.27mm (The - sign indicates compression) Problem5 A steel bar of area 200mm? uniform area all through-out is subjected to axial loads along its length as shown and it is in equilibrium. If E = 2x 10°N/mm? a) Find P for equilibrium. b) Calculate the total change in length. A B C 0 SOkN<—{_ dP 20KN > 50KN | 1994100011000 Solution: Area = 200mm’ a. Calculate P for equilibrium IFH = 0 will give -50-P-20+50=0. Hence Ps-20kN, Hence direction of P shown is wrong and should be reversed as shown in the free body diagrams below “ B C 0 SOkN<—__20kN—> i 200KN > SKN | 1999 1990! soo — TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho26 b. To Calculate the total change in Length draw free body diagram of each part A B -S0kKNe—___ > +20-20+50=+50KN 0 ( -50+20=-30KN<4_ — +—1000-—+ -50+20- Sh +50 c. 6b »s =PL/AE = 50 x 10? x 1000/200 x 2x 10° =+1.25mm Tensile SL ac = PL/AE = 30x 10’ x 1000/200 x 2x 10°=+0.75mm Tensile Bleo = PL/AE = 50x 10" x 1000/200 x 2 x 10°=+1,.25mm Tensile Total Elongation of the bar =+3.25mm (The + sign indicates elongation) Problem 6 A steel bar of square sections as shown is subjected to axial loads along its length and it is in equilibrium. If E = 2x 10°N/mm? 1. Find Pin magnitude and direction for equilibrium. 2. Find stresses in each part of the bar 3. Find Total change in length Solution: Area AB = 30 X 30 = 900mm’, Area BC = 25 X 25 = 625mm? 1. Let us assume P towards right IFH = 0 will give + 50 + P +100 = 0. Hence P =-150kN. Hence direction assumed is wrong. 2. Free Body Diagram will yield the following calculations (Diagram given Below) Ogg. 50x 107/900 = 55.55N/mm? Compressive TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho27 Opc. 100x 107/625 = 160N/mm? Tensile A | 30x30 B SOkN> <— -150+100=-SOkN ——1500mm—— ; 3 x 23 ( +50-150=-100kN<— —>+100KN 200mm 3. 6laq = PL/AE = 50% 10" x 1500/900 x 2 x 10° = -0.416mm SL ac = PL/AE = 100 x 10" x 2000/625 x 2 x 10° = +1.6mm Hence Net Change in Length = -0.416 + 1.6 = +1.18mm 2.5 Composite Materials: | — Many a times two materials are used and bound together such i ——- Tr that they act like one unit. E.g. the steel rods and concrete ina R.C.C Column For a composite material as shown decrease or increase in length of the bar should be equal. Hence strain in material 1 should be equal to strain in material 2 el =o01/E1 Where ol is stress in material 1 and E1 is Young's modulus of material 1 (E = a/e) e2 = 02/E2 Where o2 is stress in material 2 and E2 is Young's modulus of material 2 concrete - material 1 Hence o1/ 02 = £1/E2 =mandol=ma2 Equivalent area is defined as that area of material 1 which can carry the same load as an unit area of material 2 Letus work out the equivalent area of concrete w.rt steel Let Aconc and Opone be area of concrete and stress in concrete respectively Let A. and 0, be area of steel and stress in steel respectively Load in concrete = Load in steel Drone ¥ Acone = Og Abt Acone = On) Drone X Ay Aeonc « (1x Ast, where Mm = Eores / Econ If Ast = 1 then Equivalent area of concrete Aconc = M TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho28 Problem 7 — !f Estesi= 2 x 10°N/mm? and Econe = 0.25 x 10°N/mm?’, find that area of concrete which can take up the same load as a 20mm bar of steel. (This is for M20 grade concrete) Let Aconc and Oco,, be area of concrete and stress in concrete respectively Let A., and o.,, be area of concrete and stress in steel respectively Acone= M Act, 1M = Estoot! Econe = 2 x 105/0.25 x 10° = 8 Aw = 3.14 x 207/4 = 314mm? Acone = 8 x 314 =2512mm? (Simply put a concrete of M20 Grade will have to be @ 56mm diameter circular section or 50mm x 50mm square section to replace a 20mm bar of steel to carry the same load) Problem 8 AR.C.C Column of size 300 x 550 is reinforced with 12 No 20 diameter steel bars. If the load carried by the column is 1800kN, calculate the stress in each material and load carried by each material. Given E,,,. = 0.25 x 10°N/mm? and E«... = 2% 10°N/mm? Solution: Ag = Area Gross = 300 x 550 = 165000mm? Ay = 12% 3.14 x 207/4 = 3678mm? Hence Acone= 165000 -3678 = 161322mm" Ost / Ocone = Estect / Econc = 2 ¥ 10°/0.25 x 10°n = B= m Ox = 8 KX Oconc Total Load on Column = Load by Concrete + Load by Steel Hence 1800 x 10° = Oeone ® Acone *# One M Ag (AS Load = Stress x Area) 1800 x 10? = Oconc X 161322 + 8 X Ocone X 3678 1800 « 10° = Geonc X (161322 + 29424) Mone A4N/mm* and Load by concrete = 944% 161322 = 1522, 82% 10°N Oy =8 x 9,44 = 75.52N/mm’ and Load by Steel = 75.52 x 3678 = 277.13 x 10°N Problem9 Find stresses in concrete and steel if an RCC column is subjected to axial compressive force of 1200KN. Diameter of column is 400mm and it is reinforced with 8 bars of Lamm diameter bars. Given Estes = 2 x 10°N/mm’, whereas Econ: = 0.2 x 10°N/mm’ Solution: Ag = Area Gross = 3.14 X 4007/4 = 125600mm’ Aw = 8x 3.14 x 167/4 = _1607.68mm" Hence A-one = 165000 -3678 = 123992.32mm* Ox: / Oconc = Estee / Econc = 2 ¥ 10°/0.2 x 10°n = 10 =m Hence Os = 10 ¥ ron Total Load on Column = Load by Concrete + Load by Steel Hence 1200 x 10? = GeoneX Acones Og X Ay (As Load = Stress x Area) 1200 x 10? = Gone X 123992.32 + 10 x Geom X 1607.68 1200 x 10? = Gone (123992.32 +16076.8) © Geone=8.57N/mm? and Load by concrete = 8.57 x 123992 32 = 1062.61 x 10°N * = = ? and Load by Steel = 85.7 x 1607.68 = 137,38 x 10°N TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho29 P Concent of Tri-Axial Loading: When a body is acted upon by forces acting in three mutually perpendicular directions, they are called Tri-Axial Forces Volumetric Strain @,: The ratio of the change in volume to the original Volume is known as Volumetric Strain denoted by e, e, = dv/V Bulk Modulus (K): When a body of a material is subjected to three mutually perpendicular like stresses of same intensity then the ratio of direct stress and the corresponding volumetric strain is known as Bulk Modulus denoted by K K=o/e, Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Bulk Modulus is E = 3K (1 - 2 p) Bulk Modulus describes the volumetric elasticity of a body or material or its tendency to deform in all directions when uniformly loaded in all directions. It is supposedly extension of Young's modulus in three dimensions 2.6.2 Shear Modulus; ® Shear Load: A Load on a body which acts parallel! or tangential to the plane under consideration, tending to slide its’ one part over the other at a section is called a shear load or shear force. Consider a cube abcd of side y, subjected to two equal and opposite forces F on the top and bottom faces. If the bottom face is fixed, the cube will be distorted to ab‘c'd. Let x be the shear deformation at right angles to length y. ® Shear Strain is defined as tan® = x/y. ® Shear Stress |s defined as F/Area at y and generally denoted byT ® Modulus of Rigidity is defined as G = Shear Stress/Shear Strain. Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity is E=2G (1+) Relationship between the three Moduli is E=9KG/G +3K TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar, Arthur Cutinho2.7 Stress Strain Curve and Permissible Stresses: 2.7.1 Stress Strain curve for mild stee! ° Ais the Limit Of Plastic Remon bE F Proportionality i.e. the point c up-t0O which stress to strain B D tn Swress ratio is constant or * Ato Bis the point of A / Yield Point Fracture Poss Elastic Limit where stress to Strain ratio is not a constant but the material is still elastic * B to C- Cis called Upper Yield Point up to where there is an increase in strain Sian ——> but no increase in load (This is due to creep) ® Dis called Lower Yield Point « E is called Ultimate Load Point «Ff is called Fracture Point When we design structures if we use the Yield Stress Value and calculate are required, the structure may fail because of not same quality but inferior quality of material used or load being greater than applied load, Hence we make allowances and introduce a factor of safety to be on the safer side Permissible Stresses = Yield Stress/ Factor of Safety. Permissible stresses are always within the Elastic Limit of a material and hence guarantee a safety Stress Jj Flashe Region 2.7.2 Stress Strain curve for Concrete Comparative Stress Strain Curve For Different Materia j Chartier cone of Cube iL Charatertic curve of Sanscture 6.0] 0,003 0.003 = 0.0035 | Strain (¢) (Wictate siraial Stress Strain Curve For Concrete Note the following 1. The curve for concrete is on the lower side of the graph as it is brittle material 2. The value of E is highest for Steel and Lowest for Concrete as per this graph (E = Stress/Strain) TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho