3

Definition of lighting design

Lighting design is often incorrectly considered to be simply the selection of the lighting equipment for a system.
While selecting the most cost-effective and energy-efficient products is important, they are just the tools to
achieve the design.
True lighting design involves assessing and meeting the needs of the people who use the space and balancing
function and the aesthetic impact supplied by the lighting system.
Lighting is an art as well as a science. This implies that there are no hard and fast rules for lighting design nor
will there be one ideal or optimum solution to a lighting problem. More often than not, the lighting designer is
confronted with a set of conflicting requirements for which priorities must be allocated before a satisfactory
compromise can be found. There is no substitute for experience, careful planning, assessment and analysis.

Lighting accounts for between 5 and 15% of residential energy use and up to 30% of commercial building energy
use, and continues to increase. In certain business types, for example the retail sector, lighting can account for up
to 80% of energy use. This is due to long operating hours and the need to “keep things bright” and stand out
from the competition.
Greater sustainability can be achieved by making a conscious decision to reduce the amount of electricity used
through appropriate lighting design (including the use of natural light and design techniques to reduce the
amount of artificial lighting needed) and by selecting energy efficient luminaires and effective control systems.
The manufacturing process and the choice of materials to make luminaires alsohave a relatively small impact on
sustainability in comparison to operational energy consumption
 The Nature of Light
Light is one of the forms of energy known as electromagnetic radiation, which also includes heat, radio waves
and X-rays. Electromagnetic radiation travels outwards from its source in a waveform, like ripples in a pond.
Electromagnetic waves travel in space at approximately 300,000 kilometres per second. This is commonly
known as the speed of light, but it is the same for all electromagnetic waves.

The visible spectrum

The visible spectrum extends from a wavelength of
approximately 360 nanometres to 780 nanometres

Introduction to Photometry
Light sources emit electromagnetic waves in the Ultra Violet (UV), visible and infra-red spectrum.
Measurement of all these is called radiometry. Photometry is a special branch of radiometry in which we
only
measure visible light.
Four terms are used to describe light:
• Luminous Intensity (candela)
• Luminous Flux (lumen)
• Illuminance (lux)
• Luminance (candela/m2)
What is the purpose of electric lighting?
• To extend the useful hours in the day
• To assist the performance of a visual task
• To display or reveal something
• To control how something appears
• To attract attention
All of these elements are present in a good lighting design, but the relative importance of each will vary according
to the nature and purpose of the space being illuminated. The selection of the lighting equipment is not the
lighting design; it is simply the selection of the tools to achieve the design. Too often, selection of the luminaires
is the first stage of the process and the lighting design is never done.
“Lighting” is good lighting when it provides adequate illuminance to enable the task to be performed efficiently,
is perceived as comfortable, and people have a high level of satisfaction. Good lighting design is not simply about
achieving a required illuminance on the working plane, it is about creating and controlling the lit environment.
Standards often specify lighting in terms of the illumination on the horizontal plane, which is the amount of light
falling onto a horizontal surface. (ref Figure 1) This is because it is easy to measure and easy to calculate. It is not
a good indicator of the visual environment however, as people generally judge the adequacy of the lighting by the
luminance or relative brightness of the vertical surfaces.
The luminance is the amount of light that leaves a surface, either by transmission through the material or, more
commonly, reflection from the surface. (ref Figure 2) In simple terms, the luminance is the product of the
illuminance and the reflectance of the surface divided by π.
The eye sees luminance rather than illuminance. Therefore with the same
illumination, by changing the surface reflectance, the luminance of the surface
changes proportionally.
The terms luminance and brightness have similar meanings but are not
interchangeable. Luminance is a physical measurement of the amount of light that is
leaving the surface. Brightness on the other hand is relative and is often closer
related to the visual perception of the space. A surface with a specific luminance can
look brighter depending on the relative luminance of the surrounding surfaces.
In most cases the lighting does not need to be a feature, but good lighting design can
control the environment in a subtle manner, without it being obvious to the occupant
that what they are seeing is being controlled. Good lighting may not necessarily be
noticed, but poor lighting is a proven dissatisfier. The occupant usually cannot
determine or articulate the specific problems with the lighting beyond complaints of
headaches, tiredness and inability to concentrate. In work environments, complaints
of insufficient or excessive lighting are often a result of gloom, glare or poor
luminance distribution in the immediate field of view, rather than a significant
variation from the recommended illuminance. In extreme cases poor control of the
visual environment can even trigger aggressive behaviour.
Interior and exterior lighting are very different in nature and as a result there is little commonality in the design
requirements. With external lighting, the contrast ratios are much higher, as you are generally dealing with a
black background. As a result the glare from luminaires will be greater and the shadows from obstructions
sharper and deeper. For this reason these comments have been confined to interior lighting.
Considerations
In creating a visual environment there are many factors that must be taken into account. The design is a
balancing act between multiple requirements which are often conflicting. To this is added the practical
limitations of the performance of the light sources and lighting equipment available, energy efficiency, running
costs, maintenance and available funds.
At this stage, we will only consider the aspects that relate to the quality of the visual environment and not the
practicalities of lighting equipment.
Light Sources
Colour Rendering – This is the accuracy with which a light source reveals colours. The common method of
measuring the colour rendering is the Colour Rendering Index (CRI). The method has some limitations, but is a
reasonable indication of the performance of various light sources. It used to be considered that an average
colour rendering was acceptable for normal environments and higher colour rendering was only required in
areas where specific colour rendering was required. In recent times it has been shown that although relatively
high colour rendering may not be required for the specific task being performed, the visual environment and
level of user satisfaction is significantly improved with higher colour rendering sources. This is probably due to
the better rendering of skin tones and the general increase in colourfulness of the space.
Energy efficient lighting is not simply the minimising of energy input through higher equipment efficiency, or
reducing illuminance levels to the minimum that is tolerable. If the user comfort is increased, then there is less
likelihood for people to require increased illuminance levels to compensate for other lighting problems. There is
no advantage in a lower colour rendering for general illumination. Ideally all installations would have colour
rendering indices of 100. The only limits are those of efficacy, life and cost that may accompany a high colour
rendering source. On that basis, with current lighting technology, I believe there is little justification for lighting
any interior with a colour rendering index of less than 80.
The Task
Task Illuminance
The requirements of the task vary with the function of the space and the location. In industrial situations, the
task may be very specific and the lighting can be tailored to suit. In the case of commercial offices, the task may
be varied in nature and location, and in many instances the task specification may be more general. In a museum
or a retail application the task may be the effective display of an object or product.
Surround luminance
The task is not seen in isolation. The near peripheral and peripheral vision have an effect on the ability to see and
concentrate on the task. The treatment of the immediate surround is important in maintaining concentration
and the reduction of fatigue.
If the contrast between the task and the surround luminance is too great, the eyes are continually changing their
adaptation level and fatigue results. In addition, as the eye tends to be attracted to the brightest part of the field
of view, over-bright tasks inhibit the ability to relax, while overbright surrounds make it difficult to concentrate
on the task.
Similarly, if the background of a speaker or presenter is too bright, the audience will have difficulty concentrating
on their face and will tend close their eyes to relieve their eyes - with consequential effects.
Similar distracting effects can be caused in the surround
area due to high colour contrast with the task, or complex
patterns in the surround area. It is then difficult to
maintain concentration on the task. The design should also
avoid moving objects in the surround area, as the eye is
attracted to movement and it is difficult to concentrate on
the task.
The design of task oriented lighting cannot simply be
confined to the selection and placement of lights.

In the traditional office work situation, the task was

normally horizontal and the surround was the desk. With
uniform lighting, a suitable selection of desk reflectance
could generally control the surround luminance and as the
eyes were directed downwards, there was less impact from
bright source, movement or complex details in the
remainder of the office. It is also important that the eyes
are able to relax. In the traditional office task, the person
could raise their eyes to the horizontal plane and focus at
infinity. This would help to relax their eye muscles and
reduce fatigue. Figure
In the office situation the vertical task brings a whole new
set of problems. Although the problems are vision related,
they are not necessarily lighting related and the solution
must involve the whole visual environment
With visual display units (VDUs), the surround is not in
the same plane as the task and therefore has a different
focus distance. It is not necessarily lit with the same
lighting as the task. The task is also luminous, while the
surround is generally reflective. Depending on the
location of the task, the surround can be a blank wall, an
outside view, or a view of a large office with people
moving around.
Although the eye seems to be more tolerant of changes in
illuminance and brightness resulting form daylight, a
VDU should not be located with an outside view as the
surround. Even with low transmission glass, the outside
luminance will be too high for the VDU and the variation
is uncontrollable
Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:
• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of electric current
through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp
include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap.
• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which follows exactly
the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp maintenance free
and output efficient.
• Gas discharge lamps:
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or elliptical
outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
• Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
• Mercury Vapour Lamps
• Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Metal Halide Lamps
Luminous Intensity
The luminous intensity is a measure of how much flux (lumens) is emitted within a small conical angle in a
particular direction from a light source (lamp) or luminaire. Its unit of measurement is the Candela.
The symbol for candela is symbol is I. The intensity of light sources used to be referred to as candle power.
If a source emits the same luminous flux in all directions, then the luminous intensity is the same in all
directions. For most sources, however, the flux emitted in each direction is not the same.
For example the luminous intensity of a spotlight varies with angle. Similarly, the flux emitted from a luminaire
(light fitting) also varies with angle.
If these candela values are plotted in graphical form, then a polar
distribution diagram can be produced for a luminaire or reflector
lamp, as shown below.

Most reflector lamps will have a light output stated in candela.

This value is the peak intensity, usually quoted at 0 degrees or
directly below the lamp in the vertical position as shown above.
Total Luminous Flux
Candelas indicate how bright a light is in a given direction. The term luminous flux is used to measure the visible
light output of lamps, where light is not directional. It refers to the visible light emitted in all directions at any
given moment (whereas radiant flux is the total radiation (ultraviolet, visible and infrared) being emitted from a
light in all directions). The symbol for luminous flux is F or Φ (phi).
Lumens
It is impractical to use the watt as a measure of light because of the variation in sensitivity of the eye with
wavelength. Instead we use the LUMEN which is a measurement of the rate of flow of the luminous energy, or
the LUMINOUS FLUX as it is more often called. One lumen of luminous flux at 555 nanometres corresponds
to a radiated power of 1/680th of a watt, but at 400 nanometres, 3.5 watts of radiated power is equal to one
lumen.
This relationship between the watt and the lumen is important as it is possible to calculate the luminous flux a
particular lamp will produce by considering the radiated power at each wavelength and the corresponding eye
sensitivity (as defined by the CIE) at that wavelength. This can be done mathematically or by means of specially
corrected photocells with a response identical to that of the CIE standard observer.
For example, a low pressure sodium lamp emits practically all its light at wavelengths 589 & 589.6 nanometres.
As this is very close to the peak photopic sensitivity of the eye, it is very efficient in terms of the number of
lumens produced for each watt of power. Therefore if is possible to make a lamp which will produce 160 lumens
for each watt of power. However being mono-chromatic light, the results are often undesirable.
The lumen (lm) is equal to the flux emitted by a uniform point source of 1 candela in a solid angle of 1 steradian.
A steradian is the standard unit solid angle in three dimensions. As an example, the total luminous flux of a 60W
GLS lamp is 710 lm. These 710 lumens are emitted in every direction from the lamp.
Lumen Maintenance
When a lamp is new its light output is at a maximum. As it burns through its life, the output declines. The term
used to describe how the light output declines is lumen maintenance. It is usually shown in graphical form

Lumen maintenance information is important for those who are responsible for maintaining or designing the
lighting levels in buildings etc. It makes it possible to schedule replacement of lamps before the light level
becomes too low. This is referred to as planned maintenance and often includes the cleaning of luminaire
reflectors and diffusers. The lumen depreciation of discharge lamps (fluorescent and HID) and LEDs is much
greater than that of incandescent or tungsten lamps.
Illuminance
When a ray of light hits a solid surface, the process is known as ILLUMINATION. In the same way we have
lumens to measure luminous flux, we need a measurement for the quantity of illumination or ILLUMINANCE.
The illuminance E at a point on a surface is defined as the luminous flux F (lumens) incident upon a small
element of the surface divided by the area A (m2) of the element.
E=F/A
In the SI or International System of units, the basic unit of illuminance is the Lumen per square metre or LUX,
For example, if an area of 0.1 square metres in size receives a luminous flux of 20 lumens, the illuminance
which is usually given the symbol E, will equal 20 divided by 0.1, that is 200 lux,
Although the lux is the metric measurement, sometimes the imperial measurement of lumens per square foot
is referred to which is also called the FOOTCANDLE in the USA. One of these imperial units is equal to
10,761ux by virtue of 10.76 square feet being equal to one square metre.
Some typical examples of illuminance levels are shown below.
In practice, when designing lighting schemes and predicting illumination levels it is necessary to have
information not just about the lamps, but also the luminaire in which the lamp will be used. A technical
specification sheet of the luminaire, showing the polar distribution diagram of the luminaire using a specific
lamp, is essential to determine the light distribution and performance levels of the luminaire.

Inverse square law

the illuminance E equals I, the intensity of the light source, divided by the distance squared.
E = I / d²
E = I / d² Cos A
These calculations have only referred to one light source.
But when there are several, the illuminance is calculated in the same way for each source in turn, and then these
are added together for the total illuminance.
This is the basis for computer aided lighting design software which calculates the illuminance contribution
from all luminaires in a room and adds them together through a series of point by point calculations and
interreflectance assumptions.
High pressure discharge light sources normally conform to the inverse square law when calculating illuminance,
but fluorescent fixtures are larger and need to be dealt with separately.
For most practical applications, the inverse square law can be used with reasonable precision if the point of
illuminance is more than five times away in distance than the maximum dimension of the light source.
In the case of a 600 millimetre (2ft) fluorescent tube, the inverse square law is sufficiently accurate at distances
of 3 metres (10 ft) or more.
Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various Tasks / Activities / Locations
Recommendations on Illuminance
Scale of Illuminance: The minimum illuminance for all non-working interiors, has been mentioned as 20 Lux (as
per IS 3646). Afactor of approximately 1.5 represents the smallest significant difference in subjective effect of
illuminance. Therefore, the following scale of illuminances is recommended.
20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000, … Lux
Illuminance ranges:
Because circumstances may be significantly different for different interiors used for the same application or for
different conditions for the same kind of activity, a range of illuminances is recommended for each type of
interior or activity intended of a single value of illuminance. Each range consists of three successive steps of the
recommended scale of illuminances.
For working interiors the middle value (R) of each range represents the recommended service illuminance that
would be used unless one or more of the factors mentioned below apply.
The higher value (H) of the range should be used at exceptional cases where low reflectances or contrasts are
present in the task, errors are costly to rectify, visual work is critical, accuracy or higher productivity is of great
importance and the visual capacity of the worker makes it necessary.
Similarly, lower value (L) of the range may be used when reflectances or contrasts are unusually high, speed &
accuracy is not important and the task is executed only occasionally.
Recommended Illumination
The following Table gives the recommended illuminance range for different tasks and activities for chemical
sector. The values are related to the visual requirements of the task, to user's satisfaction, to practical experience
and to the need for cost effective use of energy.(Source IS 3646 (Part I) : 1992).
(refer to Illuminating Engineers Society Recommendations Handbook)
Luminance
Luminance is the measure of the amount of light emitted from a surface. This surface can be as small as a pixel
(or LED surface) or as large as a wall or even the sun. It is measured as luminous intensity (candela) per unit
area of light emitting surface.
This is usually candelas per square metre (cd/m2) and the symbol is L (sometimes B). Whereas brightness is
qualitative (it depends on our eye adaption at the time), luminance is an absolute value. Some examples of
luminance for common light sources are shown below.

In simple terms, the luminance is the product of the illuminance arriving on the surface and the reflectance of
the surface. The eye sees luminance rather than illuminance. Therefore with the same illumination, by changing
the surface reflectance, the luminance of the surface can change proportionally.
As an example, if we have one large object, an internally illuminated sign - 40m x 10m and a small object such as
a small floodlight. The intensity in a direction at right angles = 5000 candela in both cases.
Efficacy
The word 'efficacy' is now an established lighting term used when describing how efficiently a lamp converts
electrical energy into visible light. Its unit of measurement is lumens per Watt, usually written as lm/W.
For example, as previously mentioned, the total luminous flux of a 60W GLS lamp is 710 lm. Therefore the
efficacy is 710 / 60 = approximately 12 lm/W.
The efficacy of a fluorescent lamp includes the power losses of the ballast. So a 36 watt T8 fluorescent lamp
produces 3450 lumens, and a low loss ferro-magnetic ballast has a hot watts loss of 5 watts.
Therefore the efficacy is 3450 / (36 +5) = 84.14 lm/W.

Reflector Lamps
Reflector lamps are designed to perform without the need of an
additional reflector (which would normally be built into a luminaire).
In assessing the performance of reflector lamps we need to know the
extent to which they distribute their light.
This is measured in terms of:
• Beam angle
• Illumination levels
• Polar distribution (candela values in a particular direction)
Typical reflector lamps:
Polar distribution
Polar distribution diagram, also called a polar curve, is a graph showing how luminous intensity values vary
with increasing angles from the imaginary axis of the lamp.
It is sometimes customary to show the curve for only one half of the distribution because in nearly all cases
the other half would be an exact mirror image (i.e. the polar curve is symmetrical about the lamp axis).
An example of a polar distribution curve and the intensity table from where it is derived, is show below.
Colour
The three primary colours are red, green and blue. They are called primary colours because the colour sensitive
components of the retina (the cones) are sensitive to red, green and blue.
Any other colour can be derived from a combination of the three primary colours.
When the brain processes the signals from the retina of the eye, it collates and processes the individual light
colours received by the eye into the colour actually seen.
For example, if red and green light is focused on the retina, yellow light is seen. If blue and red light is focused,
then violet (magenta) is seen etc.
Colour and objects
We see objects because of the light reflected from them. Objects reflect only their own colour, and absorb all
other colours falling upon them. For example, a red post box appears red because it absorbs all colours other
than red, which it reflects.
When light passes through an object all colours are absorbed, except for the colour of the object itself. An
example is a blue lamp. When light from a lamp filament passes through its blue glass bulb, all colours apart
from blue are absorbed. The blue glass does not convert all the light to blue, as is often thought.
Colour in relation to lamps
Natural sunlight (daylight) contains all the colours in the visible spectrum. However, this is not true for all
lamps.
Lamps have two properties which describe their colour performance:
1. Colour appearance describes the colour the lamp appears to be when lit, or the general ambience of the light it
provides.
2. Colour rendering indicates to what extent its light is capable of making objects appear their true colour.
Ultraviolet radiation
Just beyond the violet end of the visible range of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum is ultraviolet radiation.
This radiation occurs naturally from the sun. It affects pigments and is responsible for colour bleaching and sun-
tanning of the skin.
Ultraviolet (UV) is also artificially created in small amounts by all light sources, usually as an unwanted and
mostly harmless by-product. However, some products are designed to produce UV, examples being sun-bed
tubes and lamps for curing plastics and erasing certain types of computer micro-chip.
Infrared radiation
Just beyond the red end of the visible electromagnetic radiation spectrum is infrared (IR), which is heat. Like
UV, infrared occurs naturally from the sun and is created to a greater or lesser extent by all artificial light
sources. All lamps except LEDs give out more energy as infrared than they do as visible light.
Some lamps are designed to redirect the infrared content of their output, so that less heat is directed onto users
or displays. This is the purpose of the dichroic coatings on some lamps. These lamps are said to give a cool beam
or cool light, because the dichroic coating reduces the heat in the beam by up to 66% (this removal of heat should
not be confused with colour temperature or colour appearance).
Colour Appearance / Colour Temperature
Colour appearance describes the ambience that a lamp provides, i.e.
how 'warm' or 'cool' the light from a lamp makes the room feel. The
lighting industry has adopted terms like 'Warm White' and 'Cool
White' to describe this effect.
However, in practice, colour appearances of lamps can be difficult to
judge. Sometimes, particularly with fluorescent tubes, colour
appearance can be assessed by looking at the lamp which will appear
'cold' or 'warm' in line with the light being emitted.
Other light sources are too bright to look at directly.
In these cases it is best to assess the colour appearance by
illuminating a white background.
From a design perspective, it should also be noted that the ambience
of a room can also be due to decor, rather than lighting.
Because the terms 'warm' and 'cool' are associated with temperature,
a more technical description of a lamp's colour appearance is it’s
colour temperature.
The colour temperature of a light source is the temperature of a "black body" radiator having the same colour
appearance. If we heat a tungsten filament it ‘glows’ red hot. The hotter it becomes, the whiter it becomes to the
extent that the hottest objects have a bluish white appearance.
The usual temperature scales of Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F) are not used for colour temperature
measurement. Instead, the more scientific 'absolute temperature scale', which is measured in Kelvin is used.
Kelvin is not quoted in degrees or °K, but simply K or Kelvin. The unit ‘size’ of the Kelvin and Celsius are the
same. Water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C. The equivalent Kelvin temperatures are 273.16K and 373.16K.
The warmer a lamp (or light emitted from it) appears, the lower its colour temperature. The cooler (bluer) it
appears, the higher the colour temperature. This is the opposite of heat measured on a thermometer.
For example, a typical GLS lamp produces much of its light in the red wavelengths, giving it a 'warm' yellowish
appearance, but its colour temperature is low, only around 2,700K whereas a daylight fluorescent tube having
a high colour temperature (6,500K) has a cool bluish appearance because it produces more of its light in the
blue wavelengths. General classifications of colour appearance and temperature:
Colour Rendering
The extent to which a light source is capable of making objects appear their true colour is known as colour
rendering and it is determined by the spectral power distribution or spectrum of the light source.
Only those colours that fall onto a surface can be reflected from it. For example, when buying an item of
clothing, people instinctively take it close to a window as they know that it will make it appear its true colour,
without distortion.
In other words, daylight has excellent colour rendering ability.
Lamps vary in their ability to render colours correctly. For example, incandescent lamps emit all colours of the
spectrum. Therefore they will render almost all colours accurately. On the other hand, low pressure (SOX)
sodium lamps give out nearly all their light in the yellow/orange part of the spectrum, so will only render
yellow/orange colours properly.
Other colours appear dull and lifeless under SOX lighting. Low pressure
sodium lights are often chosen for tasks that do not require good colour rendition, such as security, roadway
and tunnel lighting, because of their high efficacy.
2.4.6.1 The CRI or Ra scale
The colour rendering ability of lamps is measured on the Colour Rendering Index (CRI) or Ra scale (pronounced
ar-ray). The scale ranges from 0 to 100, where lower values indicate poor colour rendering and higher ones good
colour rendering. One hundred being as good as a black body radiator of the same colour temperature.
To make comparing the colour rendering qualities of light sources easier, the Australian Standards (based on
CIE international standards) group the Colour Rendering Index (CRI or Ra) for lamps as shown below:
Spectral power distribution
The colour rendition of a lamp (and hence its CRI or Ra rating) is directly influenced by its 'spectral output'. It is
conventional to show this as a graph.
The graphs' two axes are power and wavelength. The wavelengths are shown in nm (nanometres) as usual.
The power axis is known as 'radiated power', which is measured in Watts (W) or milliWatts (mW). In this
graph the power is measured for a light output of 1000 lumens for every 5nm step, i.e. mW/5nm/1000lm.
The resulting line on the graph is called the Spectral Power Distribution Curve, and shows how power is
distributed across the visible spectrum.
 Natural Light

 Sunlight that enters the house through

windows, doors, skylights, etc.
 Natural Light is the first light source to consider
 North or East—Cool, bluish cast
 Place bedrooms east
 Northern provides even light
 South or West—Warm, orange tones
 Southern provides steady light
 Amount of light is controlled by size, number,
and arrangement of windows…also type of
window treatments and placement of windows
 Can produce harsh shadows and glare
 Window Treatments to Control Natural Light

 Draperies
 Used to control the amount of
light in a horizontal slide fashion
– Align draw - open and close at the
center
– One-way draw -draperies pull as one
unit across the entire window area
– Tier drapes - use a number of short
drapes to control the amount of light
in a room These drapes are center draw
– Sheer casement drapes - are opaque
light filters
to allow for control of light
and access to the French
doors
 Window Treatments to Control Natural Light

 Curtains
Shirred
– Allow for light to filter through
Café Curtains
– Used to cover half a window from
the middle to the bottom
– Allows for light to come into the
room from the top of the window

This window has drapes and sheer curtains that allow

light to enter
 Window Treatments to Control Natural Light

 Shades
– Used to control light
– Can completely block light when
closed
There are many types
 Roller Shades

 Roman Shades

 Austrian Shades

 Pleated shades
 Window Treatments to Control Natural Light

 Blinds
– Horizontal blinds and
vertical blinds include
nearly complete control of
light
 Window Treatments to Control Natural Light

 Shutters
– Provide control of light
 Sliding panels and screens
– Can be used for different levels
of lighting in a room
– Completely block light or allow
a filter
 Other treatments
– Stained glass and etchings
Daylighting Controls
§131(c) A substantial fraction of electric lighting energy can be saved if lights are turned off whenever there is
sufficient daylight.
§131(c) has a series of mandatory requirements for the control of electric lighting in daylit areas. These control
requirements range from separate manual switching of lights near windows to skylights when the daylit area is
greater than 250 ft2.
There are mandatory control requirements for prescriptive measures such as the requirement for automatic
controls when the daylit area under skylights is greater than 2,500 ft2.
Although prescriptive compliance requires skylights in large spaces, this requirement can be traded-off against
other building features using the performance method.
If skylights are installed to meet prescriptively requirements or where skylights with automatic daylighting
controls are modeled for compliance under the performance method, there are mandatory automatic daylighting
control requirements that must be met to assure energy savings are realized.
In those spaces where skylights are not required but are installed for other reasons and the daylit areas are less
than 2,500 square feet, there are no mandatory control requirements for automatic daylighting controls;
however, if automatic daylighting controls are installed in the space, those controls must meet the mandatory
requirements of §119, §130, and §132.
If the daylit area is greater than 2,500 square feet, the automatic daylighting controls must be installed
Automatic daylight control devices include stepped dimming, continuous dimming, and stepped switching
devices.
The “Daylit Area” near Windows and under Skylights
The daylit area near a window extends back a distance of 15 ft perpendicular to the glazing, or to the nearest 60-
inch or higher permanent partition, whichever is less.
The width of the daylit area is the width of the window plus either 2 feet on each side, the distance to a
permanent partition, or one half the distance to the closest skylight or vertical glazing, whichever is least.
The daylit zone under skylights is the “footprint” of the skylight opening with the edge of the daylit area
expanding by 70% of the ceiling height from each edge of the skylight footprint outward, unless it impinges
upon: the daylit area under another skylight, the daylit zone from vertical glazing or the light is blocked by a
permanent partition that is 5 ft tall or taller (see Figure 1-6). See special skylight cases Question 5-11 and 5-12.
The architect in cooperation with the electrical engineer or lighting designer should draw the daylit area on the
lighting plans so that it is easy to see which luminaires must be on separate daylit area circuits.
The only exception to the requirement of providing the separate control to daylit areas is when there is not
enough daylight. This is decided in one of two ways:
1. When the daylight to a window or skylight is so obstructed by adjacent structures or natural objects that the
effective use of daylighting is not reasonable. This determination must be made by the local enforcement agency.
2. When the effective aperture of the window is less than 0.1 (or of the skylight is less than 0.006). A low effective
aperture prevents usable daylight from entering the area; it is caused by small glazing area, low transmission
glazing materials, or a combination of both.
Calculation of the effective aperture is necessary only if you have a very small window or skylight area and you
don’t want to put in separate control of lights in the daylit area. The skylight effective aperture is used to
calculate the credit when multilevel daylighting controls are used.
Effective Aperture (EA) for windows equates to the visible light transmittance (VLT) times the window wall ratio.
The EA for windows is calculated for each room with daylighting. For the purpose of calculating effective
aperture and calculating the Power Adjustment Factor for photocontrols in daylit areas sidelit by windows, the
window to wall area ratio (WWR) is the window area divided by the area of that portion of the wall containing
windows adjacent to the daylight area as seen from inside the room. This wall area includes the window areas in
the wall and is calculated as the floor to ceiling height (as opposed to floor-to-floor as used in envelope
calculations) multiplied by the horizontal length of the wall(s) containing window(window(s) adjacent to the
daylit area. The effective aperture for a window, EAWindow, is:

Effective Aperture (EA) for a Skylight System

EASkylight, is the product of the well efficiency (WE), the transmittance of the glazing and accessories (Glazing
VLT), an 85% dirt factor and the skylight area to daylit area ratio. The Glazing VLT is the product of the visible
light transmittance of the skylight glazing and all components in the light well that might reduce light
transmission such as louvers, diffusers etc. The visible light transmittance of movable accessories (such as
louvers, shades, etc.) is rated in the full open position.
Equation 5-4 – Effective Aperture of Skylights
Visible Light Transmittance (VLT)
Visible Light Transmittance (VLT) is a property of the glass or plastic glazing material. It is the ratio of the light
transmitted to the light incident on the glazing at normal incidence. The value of VLT for a given material is
found in the manufacturer’s literature, or ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume, Chapter 30, Table 24.
VLT is the property of the glazing material and does not include the effects of the framing. By contrast, NFRC
ratings are based on Visible Transmittance (VT), which includes the effects of the framing; consequently, VT
values are always lower than VLT values. For power adjustment factor (PAF) calculations (Table 146-A), VT
values may be substituted for VLT. However, for daylit area calculations of §131(c) only VLT values must be used.
Well Efficiency
Well efficiency, as used to calculate effective aperture of skylights, is shown in the nomograph in Figure 146-A of
the Standards. This figure is reproduced below. It is the ratio of the amount of visible light leaving a skylight well
to the amount of visible light entering the skylight well and shall be determined from the nomograph in
Standards Figure 146-A based on the weighted average reflectance of the walls of the well and the well cavity
ratio (WCR), or other test method approved by the Energy Commission. The overall well efficiency is the product
of the vertical well efficiency and the splayed well efficiency.
The area weighted average reflectance [of the walls of the well (R)] is the average calculated by the area of
reflectance of all surfaces associated with a skylight. Typical reflectance values are given in Table 5-1 below.
However, the submission shall use reflectances of the surfaces from the product manufacturer if they are
available. Both paint and acoustic tile manufacturers publish reflectance values for their products. For skylight
wells that are a combination of a splayed well and a vertical wall well, the overall well efficiency is the product of
the vertical well efficiency and the splayed well efficiency, where each well efficiency is based on the dimensions
at the bottom portion with similar wall angles.
Well Cavity Ratio (WCR)
The well cavity ratio (WCR) is determined by the geometry of the skylight well and shall be determined using
either equation below.
Equation 5-5 – Well Cavity Ratio for Rectangular Wells

Equation 5-6 – Well Cavity Ratio for Non-rectangular-shaped Wells:

Where the length, width, perimeter, and area are measured at the bottom of the well.
Question
A room has a window area of 80 ft². The exterior wall that is adjacent to the daylit area has an area of 260 ft²
(wall vertical height measured floor to ceiling; wall area includes openings). The window glazing has a visible
light transmittance (VLT) of 0.50. Do the daylit area switching requirements apply in this room?
Answer
Yes. The window wall ratio (WWR) for the room is 80 ft² / 260 ft² = 0.31.
The effective aperture, EA = 0.31 x 0.50 = 0.155, which is greater than 0.1 (exception for inadequate daylight does
not apply). Daylighting control credits are available for the room if automatic daylighting controls are installed
(see §146).
Example 5-8
Question
A large room has 4’ by 8’ skylights spaced on 40-foot centers. The skylight glazing has a visible light
transmittance of 50% and has 3-foot deep vertical light wells with a surface reflectance of 80%.
The ceiling height is 20 feet. What is the effective aperture of the skylighting system?
Answer
As shown in question 4-6, the daylit area under a single skylight is 36 by 32 feet, for a daylit area under a single
skylight of 1,152 ft2. Since the spacing is greater than the daylit area dimensions, there is no overlap of daylit
areas under skylights and calculations of effective aperture can be performed on a single representative skylight.
From the equation below, the remaining piece of information is the well efficiency.

From looking at the nomograph in Figure 5-8 and plotting on the 80% reflectance line that corresponds to a 5.6
well cavity ratio, one finds that the light well has a 75% well efficiency. Thus the effective aperture of the
skylights is:

Since the effective aperture is greater than 0.006, requirements for skylighting controls will apply to this system.
Example 5-9
Question
How close together do the skylights in the previous question have to be to have an effective aperture of 0.011?
Answer
To have a higher effective aperture for the same skylight dimensions, ceiling height etc, the daylit area under
skylights must overlap so there is more total skylight area per total daylit floor area under skylights. To solve this,
calculate the previous effective aperture equation keeping constant skylight area, glazing transmittance and
setting Effective aperture to 0.011.

Thus if the skylights are spaced 30 ft apart in one dimension and less than (927)/(30) = 30.9 ft in the other
direction the effective aperture will be greater than 0.011.
This calculation can be used to estimate maximum spacing of skylights in large open spaces to comply with the
minimum effective apertures prescriptively required in §143(c).
Example 5-10
Question
A 4’ by 4’ skylight having a glazing transmittance of 82% is placed
on top of a light well that has a 4 foot tall vertical section with a
95% reflectance which is above a diffuser with 92% transmittance
and a 3’ deep 45° splayed light well with 80% reflectance. Also in
the light well is a louver with an 85% transmittance when it is full
open. What is the overall well efficiency and the overall glazing
VLT including accessories? What is the daylit area under the
skylight if the suspended ceiling height is 10 feet?
Answer
The overall well efficiency is the product of the vertical well
efficiency and the splayed well efficiency. The well cavity ratio
(WCR) of the vertical well is calculated by:

For a WCR of 10 and a reflectance of 95%, the well efficiency taken from the nomograph in Figure 146-A in the
Standards is 85%. This nomograph is reprinted above in Figure 5-8.
The calculation of WCR of the splayed well is based upon the width and length at the bottom of the well which for
a 45° splay is 10 ‘ by 10’. Thus the WCR for the splayed well is:

For a WCR of 3 and a reflectance of 80%, the well efficiency taken from the nomograph in Figure
146-A in the Standards is 87%.
The overall well efficiency is 0.85 x 0.87 = 74%.
The overall glazing VLT is the product of the glazing, diffuser and louver transmittances. The louver
transmittance is measured in the full open position. The overall transmittance is 0.82 x 0.92 x 0.85 = 64%.
Since the splay opens wider than 0.7 feet out for each foot of height, the daylit zone is measured from the
transition between the vertical well and the splayed well. Since this transition is 13 feet above the floor the
footprint of the skylight is increased on all sides by 0.7 x 13 ft = 9.1 feet. Thus the daylit area is 9.1+ 4 + 9.1 = 22.2
feet on a side for a total area of 492 ft2.
Example 5-11
Question
Each of the two rooftop monitors as shown in the below figure, has four 14 ft long by 4 ft tall windows with a
visible transmittance of 60%. Each monitor sits on top of a light well 60 ft long, 5.5 feet wide and 3.75 ft tall with
surface reflectance of 80%. The two light wells are 8 feet apart and the ceiling height is 10 feet. The lighting
power density of general lighting is 1.5 W/ft2. What is the daylit area, effective aperture, well cavity ratio and the
power adjustment factor (PAF) associated with the rooftop monitors?
Answer
Since the rooftop monitor sits on top of a light well, the
monitor would be treated like a skylight. See
plan view of skylights and daylit area below. In this case
the light well opening beneath the monitor
is 60 ft long, 5.5 ft wide and 3.75 ft tall.

Daylit Area
The daylit area is the footprint of the light well opening
plus 70% of the ceiling height in each
direction. Since the ceiling height is 10 feet, the daylit
area is the light well opening plus an additional 7 feet in
each of the four directions.
The best way to evaluate the daylit area under skylights
is to plot on a roof plan the skylight openings and then
around these openings to designate the daylit area. The
dotted line designating the edge of the daylit area is
offset from the skylight opening by 70% of the ceiling
height, in this case 7 ft. This plan representation of the
daylit area is also useful for electrical contractors so
they can readily see which luminaires need to be on
manual or automatic daylighting controls.
In this example, the light wells are closer together than 14’ and
thus the daylit areas of the two light wells overlap. The overall area of this overlapping daylit area is
given by the following:

Width = (0.7 x 10’) + 5.5’ + 8’ + 5.5’ + (0.7 x 10’)

Width = 7’ + 5.5’ + 8’ + 5.5’ + 7’ = 33 feet
Length = (0.7 x 10’) + 60’ + (0.7 x 10’)
Length = 7’ + 60’ + 7’ = 74ft
Daylit Area = 33 ft x 74ft = 2,442 sf

Effective Aperture and Wall Cavity Ratio

The effective aperture is the fraction of light entering the space as compared to the amount of sunlight on the roof
above the daylit area.
For this situation the total glazing area is equivalent to the total skylight area. The visible light transmittance of
the glazing was given as 60% and the daylit area was calculated above as 2,442 sf. The remaining piece of
information needed to calculate the effective aperture is the well efficiency. The well efficiency is obtained by
looking it up on the nomograph in Figure 5-10 as a function of average well surface reflectance and the well cavity
ratio of the light well. The well cavity ratio (WCR) is given by:
For the skylight well with a length of 60’ a width of 5.5 feet and a height of 3.75 feet, the well cavity ratio is:

As shown in Figure 5-10, the well efficiency nomograph has well efficiency on the vertical axis, a series of curves
for each well reflectance and the well cavity ratio on the horizontal axis. The skylight well is painted with white
paint with a reflectance of 80%. Locating the point on the 80% reflectance curve directly above a well cavity ratio
of 3.72 corresponds to a well efficiency of 0.82 on the vertical axis of the graph.
Given the well efficiency one can calculate the effective aperture for the daylit area underneath the two rooftop
monitors.

The total glazing area (skylight area) is the 4 pieces of glass 14 feet by 4 feet in each monitor times the two
monitors for a total glazing area of:
Glazing area = (4 windows/monitor) (4 ft x 14 ft) (2 monitors) = 448 ft2

Thus the effective aperture is:

Since the effective aperture is greater than 0.006, daylighting controls are required (§131(c) Exception 1).
However, the daylit area is less than 2,500 ft2, and automatic daylighting controls are not required, but separate
control of lights in daylit areas from lights in non-daylit areas is required (§131(c)1.
If daylighting controls are installed and the system meets certain criteria, a power adjustment factor (PAF) is
available which treats the installed lighting as if there are less installed watts.
Power Adjustment Factor
Calculating the Power Adjustment Factor (PAF) for Multi-level Daylighting Controls Under Skylights:
From the example above with the general lighting in the space having a lighting power density of 1.5
W/ft2, the PAF is:

This power adjustment factor is very high and reflects that the space is fully daylit almost all daytime hours. The
power adjustment factor cannot be greater than 1 as it reduces the installed lighting power of the controlled
lighting by this fraction.
To obtain this Power Adjustment Factor (PAF) credit, the system must meet two criteria:
1) The control system must be an automatic multi-level daylighting control system as defined in §119(i), §131(b),
and §131(c).
2) The glazing or diffuser must be diffusing as defined by having a haze rating greater than 90% as defined in
§143(c). Products that have such a rating include prismatic diffusers, laminated glass with diffusing interlayers,
pigmented plastics and the like. The purpose of this requirement is to assure the light is diffused over all sun
angles.
Other methods of diffusion that result in sufficient diffusion of light over the course of the entire year would also
be acceptable in lieu of using diffusing glazing. Acceptable alternatives are baffles or reflecting surfaces that
ensure over all sun angles encountered during the course of a year that direct beam light is reflected off of a
diffuse surface prior to entering the space. This alternative method of diffusion would have to be documented by
the designer and approved by the code authority in your jurisdiction
Separate Switching near Windows and under Skylights
The control of electric lighting in the area where daylighting enters a building through windows or skylights is
addressed in the Standards. It falls under the mandatory requirement for separate switching in daylit areas, and
may receive credit under the optional automatic controls credits. Under the mandatory measures, where an
enclosed space is greater than 250 ft2, the electric lighting within daylit area must be switched so that the lights
can be controlled separately from the non-daylit areas. It is acceptable to achieve control in the daylit area by
being able to shut off at least 50% of the lamps within the daylit area. This must be done by a control dedicated to
serving only luminaires in the daylit area. If there are separate daylit areas for windows and skylights, they
must be controlled separately.
Daylighting Controls and Multi-Level Switching
The daylit area switching requirements are in addition to the multi-level switching requirements. Taken together,
there are at least three ways to comply. See Figure 5-9. Daylight switching must be applied to a fixture if any
portion of that fixture is within the daylit area.
Daylit Areas under Skylights Exceeding 2,500 SF
Although the skylight requirements of §143 (c) are prescriptive, once skylights are installed, it triggers mandatory
automatic controls for skylights. When the daylit area under skylights in any enclosed space (room) is greater
than 2,500 ft2, then the general lighting in the daylit area must be on an automatic multilevel control.
The minimally compliant control is a multi-level astronomical time switch as described in §119(h). The
alternative control is a multi-level photocontrol as described in §119(i) – this multi-level photocontrol can also
qualify for a power adjustment factor in §146(a)4E in the Standards.
A multi-level time switch must reduce lighting power while maintaining a reasonable amount of lighting
uniformity. This can be achieved by switching alternating lamps or luminaires or rows of luminaires in response
to the amount of time that has elapsed since sunrise or the amount of time remaining before sunset. The
automatic switching control must have at least one step that is between 50% and 70% of rated power and a
minimum step that is less than 35% of rated power. Complying controls include but are not limited to a 2/3’s
controlled on/off or ½ + off controls as shown in Figure 5-11.
The designer should designate on the reflected lighting plan, the location of skylights and their associated daylit
areas as shown in Figure 5-10 (rectangles with diagonals are skylights, circles are low bay fixtures, lettering
designates circuits for each luminaire and dotted lines indicate the daylit areas).
This helps prevent fixtures from being wired to the wrong circuit, something that is expensive to correct after the
fact. Note that there are three circuits in the daylit areas as designated by circuits A, B and C. The circuiting has
been organized so that the luminaires on circuit A are closer than the luminaires on circuits B and C. At relatively
low daylight levels circuit A can be switched off. Since 2/3’s (67%) of the luminaires in the daylit zone will still be
on when circuit A is switched off, this meets the requirement of §131(b) that lighting can be reduced
to be between 70% and 50% of rated power.
At higher daylight levels circuits B and C can be
shut off. In this diagram if conduit is running
from top to bottom, the conduit only carries two
circuits of wiring (C&D, A&E, and B&D).
Note that the areas outside of the daylit areas
have two circuits.
This is required by multi-level control
requirements of §131(b). If skylight spacing is
reduced so that the entire space is in the daylit
area, less lighting circuits are needed.
Artificial lighting
Introduction
Artificial lighting is being used more and more in the world. The usage is quite non-homogeneous.
In developing countries, we can still find a widespread use of fuel based lighting but nowadays the situation is
changing and the demand for electric based lighting is growing. Electric lighting consumes about 19% of
the world total electricity use. So, we should remember and consider that the improvement in energy efficient
lighting will also be helpful for the progress in developing countries. Every change in technologies, in
customers’ consumption behaviour, even in lifestyle, has influences on global energy consumption and
indirectly, on environment. Therefore, energy saving in lighting, and the methods of achieving this goal
should be considered at different levels (state, region, town, enterprise) and by supranational organisations, too.
People stay in indoor environment for most of the day. Characteristics of light in indoor environment
are much different than that of natural outdoor environment. On the other hand people do not stop activities
after sunset. The artificial lighting has therefore impact on their well-being. The needed artificial light has to
be provided in energy efficient and environmentally conscious way. It is important to search for the
technological solutions which meet human needs with the lowest impact on the environment during operation,
when most of the impacts take place. The environmental impacts also include production and disposal of lamps,
and related materials.
Artificial lighting is based on systems: lamps, ballasts, starters, luminaires and controls. Ballasts are needed
for discharge lamps to connect the lamp to the mains. Lamps, ballasts and starters are mounted in the
luminaire with the wiring and lamp bases, reflectors distribute and redirect the light emitted from the lamp
and louvers shield the user from glare. Control systems interact with the building where they are
installed.
This means that the spider net of interactions and impacts is related with the architecture of the
building (shape, space orientation etc. have influence for daylight contribution), with the supply network and
with the different equipment installed, e.g. the heating, ventilation, cooling or electronic devices. Last, but not
least, lighting systems are made for human beings who have individual needs and behaviours. User habits
can be supported by automatic controls (for example, occupancy sensors), but the user habits cannot be
overridden, and here education plays a major role. First of all, the perfect lighting system offering the best
solution for every application does not exist. Every technology, including the more innovative and trendy
ones, has its own limitations and its full potential is mainly related to specific application field.
Furthermore, the best lamp, if used with poor or incompatible luminaire or ballast, loses most of its advantages.
Combining good lamp, ballast and luminaire in a wrong installation may not meet the user needs or provide
lighting service in an inefficient way. Combination of a good lighting system in a well designed installation
takes strong advantage from control devices, to drive the lighting system according to, for instance, on
daylight availability and occupancy. In the case of new buildings the integration of daylight is important in
order to reduce the energy consumption.
Light sources
Overview
Following characteristics are to be considered when choosing a lamp for an application.
a. Luminous efficacy
― Luminous flux
― Lamp power and ballast losses
b. Lamp life
― Lumen depreciation during burning hours
― Mortality
c. Quality of light
― Spectrum
― Correlated color temperature (CCT)
― Color rendering index (CRI)
d. Effect of ambient circumstances
― Voltage variations
― Ambient temperature
― Switching frequency
― Burning position
― Switch-on and restrike time
― Vibration
e. Luminaire
― Lamp size, weight and shape
― Luminance
― Auxiliaries needed (ballast, starter, etc.)
― Total luminous flux
― Directionality of the light, size of the
luminous element
f. Purchase and operation costs
― Lamp price
― Lamp life
― Luminous efficacy
― Lamp replacement (relamping) costs
― Electricity price and burning hours are
not lamp characteristics, but have
an effect on operation costs.

The diagram shows the main lamp types for

general lighting:
Table 5-1. compares the main lamp types
and gives the first indication of possible
application fields.
LAMPS
The name lamp is the generic term for a device that creates light either by thermal emission or by discharge
radiation. Light can be produced from electricity in many ways, of which the following are the most important
in lighting engineering.
i. Incandescence or thermo-luminescence is the production of light from heat. Light from a
filament lamp is produced in this way; electricity is used to raise the temperature of the filament until it is
incandescent.
ii. Electrical Discharge is the production of light from the passage of electricity through a gas or
vapour. In lamps using this principle the atoms of the gas are agitated or excited by the passage of the electric
current and this atomic excitation produces visible radiation, ultra-violet and infra-red energy.
iii. Phosphorescence & Fluorescence are the processes of converting the invisible ultra-violet
energy emitted normally from an electrical discharge, into visible light. Material called phosphors cause
ultraviolet energy to make the transition into visible light.
Incandescent lamp
In incandescent lamp, which is also called General Lighting Service Lamp (GLS), light is produced by leading
current through a tungsten wire. The working temperature of tungsten filaments in incandescent lamps
is about 2700 K. Therefore the main emission occurs in the infrared region. The typical luminous efficacy of
different types of incandescent lamps is in the range between 5 and 15 lm/W.

Advantages of incandescent lamps:

― inexpensive
― easy to use, small and does not need auxiliary equipment
― easy to dim by changing the voltage
― excellent color rendering properties
― directly work at power supplies with fixed voltage
― free of toxic components
― instant switching
Disadvantages of incandescent lamps:
― short lamp life (1000 h)
― low luminous efficacy
― heat generation is high
― lamp life and other characteristics are strongly dependent on the supply voltage
― the total costs are high due to high operation costs.
The traditional incandescent lamps will be progressively replaced with more efficient light sources.
Tungsten halogen lamp
Tungsten halogen lamps are derived from incandescent lamps. Inside the bulb, halogen gas limits the
evaporation of the filament, and redeposits the evaporated tungsten back to the filament through the so called
halogen cycle. Compared to incandescent lamp the operating temperature is higher, and consequently the
color temperature is also higher, which means that the light is whiter.

Color rendering index is close to 100 as with incandescent lamps. Also, lumen depreciation is negligible. Their
lifetime spans from 2000 to 4000 hours, and luminous efficacy is 12-35 lm/W.
Halogen lamps are available in a wide range of models, shapes (from small capsules to linear double
ended lamps), with or without reflectors.

There are reflectors designed to redirect forward only the visible light, allowing infrared radiation to escape
from the back of the lamp. There are halogen lamps available for mains voltages or low voltages (6-24V), the
latter needing a step-down transformer. Low voltage lamps have better luminous efficacy and longer lamp life
than the high voltage lamps, but the transformer implicates energy losses in itself.

The latest progress in halogen lamps has been reached by introducing selective-IR-mirror-coatings in the bulb.
The infrared coating redirects infrared radiations back to the filament. This increases the luminous efficacy by
40–60% compared to other designs and lamp life is up to 4000 hours.
Advantages of tungsten halogen lamps:
― small size
― directional light with some models (narrow beams)
― low-voltage alternatives
― easy to dim
― instant switching and full light output
― excellent color rendering properties

Disadvantages of tungsten halogen lamps

― low luminous efficacy
― surface temperature is high
― lamp life and other characteristics are strongly dependent on the supply voltage

Tips
Consider the choice of a halogen lamp if you need:
― instant switch on and instant full light
― excellent color rendering
― easy dimming
― frequent switching and, or short on-period
― directional light
― compact size of the light source.
Single ended halogen lamps
Single ended halogen lamps have a compact filament inside a quartz envelope, which can be clear or 'frosted'
(achieved by sandblasting the outer surface of the envelope). They have caps to fit domestic lamp holders,
e.g. E27, B15d and B22d.
These come in a variety of shapes including traditional pear (GLS) shape.–
Double ended halogen lamps
Double ended halogen lamps are tubular lamps with a contact at each end. These contacts are attached to a
short pin emerging from the pinch seal, and recessed into a ceramic insulator.
Fluorescent lamps
A fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure gas discharge light source, in which light is produced predominantly
by fluorescent powders activated by ultraviolet radiation generated by discharge in mercury. The lamp, usually
in the form of a long tubular bulb with an electrode at each end, contains mercury vapour at low pressure
with a small amount of inert gas for starting. The majority of the emission (95%) takes place in the ultraviolet
(UV) region and the wavelengths of the main emission peaks are 254 nm and 185 nm. Hence, the UV
radiation is converted into light by a phosphor layer on the inside of the tube. Since one UV-photon
generates only one visible photon, 65% of the initial photon energy is lost as dissipation heat. On the other
hand, the final spectral distribution of emitted light can be varied by different combinations of phosphors.
Correlated color temperatures (CCT) vary from 2700 K (warm white) and 6500 K (daylight) up to 17 000 K
and color rendering indices (CRI) from 50 to 95 are available. The luminous efficacy of the latest T5
fluorescent lamp is up to 100 lm/W (without ballast losses). Dimming is possible down to 1% of the normal
luminous flux, and with special high voltage pulse circuits down to 0.01%.
Fluorescent lamps display negative voltage-current characteristics, requiring a device to limit the lamp
current. Otherwise the ever-increasing current would destroy the lamp. Pure magnetic (inductive) ballast
needs an additional starting element such as a glow switch. Electronic control gear incorporates all the
equipment necessary for starting and operating a fluorescent lamp.
Compared to conventional magnetic ballasts which operate lamps at a line frequency of 50 Hz (or 60 Hz),
electronic ballasts generate high frequency currents, most commonly in the range of 25-50 kHz.
High frequency operation reduces the ballast losses and also makes the discharge
itself more effective.
Other advantages of the electronic ballasts are that the light is flicker-free and there is
the opportunity of using dimming devices.

Advantages of fluorescent lamps

― inexpensive
― good luminous efficacy
― long lamp life, 10 000 – 16 000 h
― large variety of CCT and CRI

Disadvantages of fluorescent lamps

― ambient temperature affects the switch-on and light output
― need of auxiliary ballast and starter or electronic ballast
― light output depreciates with age
― contain mercury
― short burning cycles shorten lamp life
Types of fluorescent tubes
‘T’ Designation
Different types of fluorescent tubes are identified by their diameter and length (as well as their wattage).
Although the European lamp manufacturers specify lamp dimensions in millimetres, the original (American)
system of specifying diameter in the number of eighths of an inch and the length in feet, still persists in the
lamp/electrical industry today.
Because T8 and T12 tubes date back several decades, they still tend to be specified by their T designation
and by their nominal length in imperial measurement (tube lengths are specified from end to end):

The linear fluorescent lamps have enhanced their performance and efficacy with time. From the old, bulky
T12, passing through T8, to the present T5 lamps not only the diameter is reduced. The T5 has a very good
luminous efficacy (100 lm/W), the same lamp surface luminance for different lamp powers (some lamps), and
optimal operating point at higher ambient temperature. T5 lamps are shorter than the correspondent T8
lamps, and they need electronic ballasts. Dedicated luminaries for T5 lamps may reach a better light output
ratio (LOR), as the lamp diameter is smaller thus allowing the light to be redirected in a more effective way.
The performance of a fluorescent lamp is sensitive to the ambient temperature. T5 lamps perform best at the
ambient temperature of 35°C, and T8 lamps at 25°C. A temperature of 35°C inside the luminaire is more
realistic for indoor installations. There are also amalgam lamps whose performance varies less with the
temperature.

Tips
― Ideal for general lighting in most working places (including shops, hospitals, open spaces, etc.), but also
in some residential applications
― The choice of the lamp is always related to the application. Always consider the correlated color
temperature and the color rendering index.
― Halophosphate lamps have very poor light quality and will become obsolete. (Fluorescent lamps without
integrated ballast shall have a color rendering index of at least 80 (EC 245/2009)
― The five-phosphor lamps, with their excellent color rendering, are particularly suitable in art galleries,
shops, and museums but have lower luminous efficacy than the corresponding triphosphor lamps.
― By using lamps of different CCT in the same luminaire and proper dimming, it is possible to have
dynamic light, where the color is selected by the user by reproducing preset cycles (e.g. during day)
― Correct disposal of these light sources, which contain mercury, is very important
― As some T5 lamp types have the same luminance for different powers, it is very easy to build "continuous
lines".
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
The CFL is a compact variant of the fluorescent lamp. The overall length is shortened and the tubular
discharge tube is often folded into two to six fingers or a spiral. For a direct replacement of tungsten filament
lamps, such compact lamps are equipped with internal ballasts and screw or bayonet caps. There are also
pin base CFLs, which need an external ballast and starter for operation.
The luminous efficacy of CFL is about four times higher than that of incandescent lamps.
Therefore, it is possible to save energy and costs in lighting by replacing incandescent lamps with CFLs.

Today, CFLs are available with:

― different shapes, with bare tubes or with an external envelope (look alike for incandescent lamp)
― different CCT (warm white, cool white)
― instant ignition (some)
― diminished sensitivity to rapid cycles
― dimmable (some)

Advantages of compact fluorescent lamps

― good luminous efficacy
― long lamp life (6000-12 000 h)
― the reduced cooling loads when replacing incandescent lamps
― contain mercury
Types of CFLs
There are two types of CFLs:
• Pin-based CFLs - with pin base connections for operation from control gear that is separate
from the Lamp
• Integral ballast CFLs - where the control gear is an integral part of the lamp and housed in the
base of the CFL
Disadvantages of compact fluorescent lamps
― expensive
― E-27 based are not dimmable (apart from special models)
― light output depreciates with age
― short burning cycles shorten lamp life
― the current waveform of CFLs with internal electronic ballast is distorted

― The advantage of pin base lamps is that it is possible to replace the burnt lamp while keeping the ballast in
place
― A physical limit of the CFLs is that a really instant ignition is incompatible with long life
― CFLs are ideal for situations in which long burning times are expected
― Care should be taken in the choice of the proper luminaire. It is very easy to unscrew a traditional
incandescent lamp and replace it with a screw based CFL, but the result may be unsatisfying. This is because
how the light is distributed around the CFL is very different compared to traditional incandescent lamps.
High Intensity Discharge lamps (High Pressure)
Without any temperature limitations (e.g. melting point of tungsten) it is possible to use gas discharges
(plasmas) to generate optical radiation. Unlike thermal solid sources with continuous spectral emission,
radiation from the gas discharge occurs predominantly in form of single spectral lines. These lines may be used
directly or after spectral conversion by phosphors for emission of light. Discharge lamps generate light of
different color quality, according to how the spectral lines are distributed in the visible range. To prevent
runaway current and ensure stable operation from a constant voltage supply, the negative current-voltage
characteristics of gas discharge lamps must be counterbalanced by a circuit element such as conventional
magnetic or electronic ballasts. In all cases, higher voltages are needed for igniting the discharge.

The power conversion per unit volume in high pressure arc discharge lamps is 100 to 1000 times higher than
that of low pressure lamps, which leads to considerable thermal loadings on the discharge tube walls. The
wall temperatures may be in the region of 1000°C. The discharge tubes are typically made of quartz or PCA
(polycrystalline sintered alumina: Al2O3). The arc discharge is provided with electrical power via tungsten pin
electrodes. In most cases the main constituent of the plasma is mercury. To reach operating pressures of 1-10
bars, the vaporization of filling materials requires a warm-up time of up to 5 minutes after ignition. For starting
high pressure lamps (except mercury lamps) superimposed pulses of some kVs from external ignition
circuits or internal ferroelectric capacitors are used. An immediate re-start after short power break demands
voltages of more than 20 kV. Many types of high pressure discharge lamps can not be dimmed, others only in a
power range of 50% to 100%.
Metal halide lamps
To increase the luminous efficacy and CRI of mercury high pressure lamps, it is useful to add mixtures
of metal components to the filling of the discharge tube. These additives emit their own line spectra in the arc
discharge, leading to an enormous diversity of light color. For sufficient vapour pressure, it is better to
use metal halides (compounds with iodine or bromine) instead of elemental metals. When the vapour enters
the high temperature region of the discharge, molecules dissociate, metal atoms are excited and radiation is
emitted.

The applications of metal halide lamps reach from electric torches (10 W miniature variants) to diverse
purposes in indoor and outdoor lighting (wattages up to 20 kW). The lamps are available with luminous
efficacy typically from 50 to 100 lm/W, CCT value from 3000 to 6000 K and CRI from 70 to over 90. The lamp
life is typically from 6000 h to 12 000 h.

Advantages of metal halide lamps

― Good luminous efficacy
― Alternatives with good color rendering available
― Different color temperatures available.
Disadvantages of metal halide lamps
― Expensive
― Starting and re-starting time 2-5 min
― Differences in CCT between individual lamps and changes of CCT during burning hours. These
differences are much reduced with ceramic metal halide lamps.

Applications
With their daylight quality white light and excellent colour rendering capabilities, metal halide lamps find more
uses than any of the other HID lamps. Typical applications include:
• Display lighting (shops, showrooms, museums, exhibitions etc.)
• Stadium lighting (ideal for televised sports events)
• Floodlighting of buildings (especially modern structures with large areas of glass)
• DIY sheds
• Warehouse lighting
• Amenity lighting
• Road lighting (being assessed for lighting of accident black-spots)
Coloured metal halide lamps, with a special halide content to produce green, blue or magenta-coloured light,
give an intense and saturated light that is particularly effective for attractive floodlighting and special display
applications
Mercury Lamps
In mercury lamp light is produced with electric current passing through mercury vapour. An arc discharge
in mercury vapour at a pressure of about 2 bars emits five strong spectral lines in the visible
wavelengths at 404.7 nm, 435.8 nm, 546.1 nm, 577 nm and 579 nm.
The red-gap is filled up by a phosphor-layer at the outer bulb. Typical values of these lamps are luminous
efficacy 40-60 lm/W, CRI between 40 and 60 and CCT 4000 K. The lamp life is 12 000 h.
Mercury lamps will be banned from European market after 2015. (EC 245/2009)

HWL - Mercury Tungsten Blended Lamps

Versions of high pressure mercury lamps that operate directly from the mains supply without the need for
control gear have a coiled tungsten filament connected in series with the mercury arc-tube. These are the
HWL lamps and are referred to as 'blended' lamps as they blend together incandescent lighting with mercury
discharge lighting. The high resistance of the filament acts as the current limiting device for the arc-tube
(taking over the function normally performed by the external ballast).
Applications
High pressure mercury lamps find applications where white light is preferred, colour rendering is of secondary
importance but long service life is necessary to avoid the expense of frequent lamp replacement.
Typical applications include:
• Industrial lighting
• Sign illumination e.g. motorway signs
• DIY store lighting (though being gradually superseded by metal halide lamps)
• Warehouse lighting
• HWL versions for longer life replacements for high wattage incandescent lamps
High pressure sodium lamps
In a high pressure sodium lamp light is produced by sodium vapour, the gas pressure being about 15 kPa. The
golden-yellowish emission spectrum applies to wide parts of the visible area. The CRI is low (≈ 20), but the
luminous efficacy is high. The most common application today is in street and road lighting. Luminous efficacy
of the lamps is 80-100 lm/W, and lamp life is 12 000 h (16 000 h).
The CCT is 2000 K.

An improvement of the CRI is possible by pulse operation or elevated pressure but this reduces the luminous
efficacy. Color improved high pressure sodium lamps have CRI of about 65 and white high pressure sodium
lamps of more than 80. Their CCT is 2200 and 2700, respectively.

Advantages of high pressure sodium lamp

― very good luminous efficacy
― long lamp life (12 000 h or 16 000 h)
― high luminous flux from one unit for street and area lighting
Low pressure sodium lamps
Low pressure sodium lamps generate their light by the excitation of sodium metal in a discharge through a
mixture of neon and argon gas at very low pressure. With their characteristic deep orange light, these lamps are
the most luminous efficient of all HID lamps. All have clear tubular outer bulbs with a bayonet base.
However, they have additional insulation between the contact plates to protect against the very high voltages
needed to start these lamps.
SOX lamps require a high voltage to start them (sometimes in excess of 600V). They also need to have ballast in
series with the lamp to control the lamp current. The normal control gear for SOX lamps is a special transformer
that provides the initial high voltage to ignite the lamp and then changes the way it operates to act as a series
ballast for controlling the lamp current.
Low pressure sodium (SOX) lamps produce light from the excitation of sodium atoms in an electrical discharge
through a mixture of neon and argon gas at very low operating pressure of only about 1% of atmospheric
pressure - hence the description ‘low pressure’. Because molten sodium is extremely corrosive to both quartz
and normal glass, a special sodium-resistant glass has to be used for the arc-tube which is Ushaped and
contained in a tubular glass outer bulb - the lengths of which varies according to wattage of the lamp.
Only about 33% of the input power comes out as visible light, the rest being potentially lost as heat (infrared
radiation).
Electrodeless lamps
The burning time of discharge lamps is normally limited by abrasion of electrodes. It is possible to avoid this by
feeding electrical power into the discharge inductively or capacitively. Although the principles of electrodeless
lamp have been understood for over a hundred years, electrodeless lamps were not introduced into the
commercial market until the past decades. The main reasons were the lack of reliable and low cost electronics,
and avoidance of electromagnetic interferences. With the great development in electronics and consequently
introduction of electronic ballasts, the electrodeless lamp has become ready to be introduced to commercial
market for the general purpose lighting.

Induction lamp
The induction electrode-less fluorescent lamp is fundamentally different from the traditional discharge
lamps, which employ electrodes as electron source. The operating frequency of induction lamp is usually in the
range of hundreds of kHz to tens of MHz. A special generator or ballast is needed to provide high frequency
power. Without electrodes, energy coupling coils are needed for the energy coupling into the plasma. A long
lamp life and good lumen maintenance can be achieved with these lamps because of the absence of electrodes.
The filling of the discharge vessel consists of mercury (amalgam) and low pressure krypton. Like in fluorescent
lamps, the primary emission (in UV-region) is transformed with a phosphor coating into visible radiation.
Typical parameters are:
lamp wattages 55-165 W, luminous efficacy of systems 60-80 lm/W, CCT 2700-4000 K, CRI 80.
The long lamp life of even 100 000 h is useful for applications in inaccessible locations (road tunnels,
factory halls).
Compact fluorescent lamps (electrodeless)
Some models of CFLs are electrodeless lamps. Their advantages over common CFLs are instant switching
and good performance with switching cycles.

Halogen incandescent lamps

Halogen lamps are also a type of incandescent lamp. They are more expensive to buy but last up to 10,000 hours.
They can be either 240V lamps, which are usually tubular and are often used in up lighters and outdoor
floodlights or low voltage lamps (typically 12 volt). They are generally bi-pin capsule lamps or MR16 (50mm)
dichroic lamps, used in down lighting.
Tungsten halogen lamps are marginally more efficient than traditional tungsten incandescent lamps. However
they cannot compete with fluorescent lamps for efficiency.
Tungsten halogen and tungsten incandescent lamps are discouraged for general purpose illumination, except for
special effects such as highlighting.
Low voltage halogen reflector lamps are a poor choice for general purpose illumination – large quantities of
lamps are required to light open spaces. In modern homes this is a common error, resulting in poor lighting
quality and very poor overall efficiency.
For retrofit purposes, high performance 30W and 35W IRC lamps are available which, together with electronic
transformers, can reduce energy consumption by up to 40%
Some halogen lamps require special light fittings. Low voltage halogen lamps are slightly more efficient than
normal lamps of the same wattage but they use a transformer that can consume from 10% to 30% of lamp energy,
reducing the efficiency gain.
Auxiliaries
Energy efficiency of the lighting system depends not only to the luminous efficacy of lamps but also on the
efficiency of the auxiliary equipment. This equipment include ballasts, starters, dimmers and transformers.

Ballasts
Ballast providing a controlled current to the lamps is an essential component of any discharge lighting
system. The amount of energy lost in the ballasts can be reduced considerably by using efficient ballasts.
European Directive 2000/55/EC divides ballasts into six categories shown in the
Table 5-3. Several types of ballasts are excluded from the directive:
― ballasts integrated in lamps,
― ballasts designed specifically for luminaries to be mounted in furniture and which form a non-
replaceable part of the luminaries and which cannot be tested separately from the luminaries,
― ballasts to be exported from the Community, either as a single component or incorporated in luminaries.
The purpose of the directive is to achieve cost-effective energy savings in fluorescent lighting, which
would not otherwise be achieved with other measures. Therefore, the maximum input powers of ballast-lamp
circuits are given in Annex III of the ballast Directive (EC 55/2000). Manufacturers of ballasts are responsible
for establishing the power consumption of each ballasts according to the procedures specified in the European
Standard EN 50294 (EN 1998).
There are seven classes of efficiency. Every class is defined by a limiting value of the total input power related to
the corresponding ballast lumen factor BLF (1.00 for high frequency operated ballasts and 0.95 for
magnetic ballasts). The classes are listed bellow:
― Class D: magnetic ballasts with very high losses (discontinued since 2002)
― Class C: magnetic ballasts with moderate losses (discontinued since 2005)
― Class B2: magnetic ballasts with low losses
― Class B1: magnetic ballasts with very low losses
― Class A3: electronic ballasts
― Class A2: electronic ballasts with reduced losses
― Class A1: dimmable electronic ballasts

Dimmable ballasts are classified as A1 if they fulfil the following requirements:

― At 100% light output setting the ballast fulfils at least the demands belonging to A3
― At 25% light output the total input power is equal to or less than 50% of the power at the 100% light output
― The ballast must be able to reduce the light output to 10% or less of the maximum light output
Electronic ballasts complying with CELMA energy efficiency scheme classes A1 and A2 are the major power
savers. They can even reduce the power consumption of ballast-lamp circuits to less than the rated power of the
lamp at 50Hz. This is caused by the increased lamp efficiency at high frequencies (>20 kHz), leading to about
10% reduction of lamp power and a decrease of the ballast losses.

The European Standard EN 50294 (EN 1998) defines the measuring methods for the total input power of
the ballast-lamp system. On the basis of this standard CELMA has defined energy classes and limit values for
the ballast-lamp combination of the most common fluorescent lamps (details are given in annexes to the
CELMA guide (CELMA 2007) – an example of class description in Table 5-5.
The EEI system comprises the following lamp types:
― Tubular fluorescent lamps T8
― Compact fluorescent lamps TC-L
― Compact fluorescent lamps TC-D
― Compact fluorescent lamps TC-T
― Compact fluorescent lamps TC-DD
Comparison of the electro-magnetic-ballasts and electronic ballasts
Electro-magnetic ballast produces a number of negative side-effects, such as:
― They operate at the 50 or 60Hz frequency of the AC voltage. This means that each lamp switches on and off
100 or 120 times per second, resulting in a possibly perceptible flicker and a noticeable hum,
― Operating at 50 or 60 Hz may cause a stroboscopic effect with rotating machinery at speeds that are a
multiples of those frequencies,
― They can give off excessive EMF (Electro-Magnetic Fields).

Advantages of the electronic ballasts:

― They operate at about 25 kHz. High frequency operation eliminates flicker and hum, removing any
associated health concerns.
― They are lightweight
― They generate very little heat
― They have better energy efficiency using 25-30% less energy.
― They can be built dimmable, enabling users to adjust light levels to personal needs resulting in energy
savings.

The positive features of electromagnetic ballasts are that they are very robust and have long lifetime. The
material recovery from them in the end-of-life is relatively easy and valuable metals can be recycled, while
electronic ballasts are more difficult to recycle.
Transformers
Halogen lamps are available with low voltage ratings. A transformer is needed to provide voltage supply from
either 110 V AC or 230 V AC mains to the lamps. Transformers are generally available with power ratings from
50 to 300 W. The transformer used in a low voltage lighting system may be either electronic or magnetic. The
electronic transformer ET represents an alternative means of power conversion to the more standard iron core,
bulky and heavy transformer operating at 50/60 Hz.
The advantages of the electronic transformer compared with the classical solution are
― The output power from the electronic transformer to the lamp can be varied, thus dimming control can
be added.
― It is possible to include protection against short circuit of the lamp filament.
― Weight can be reduced and the construction made more compact.
― Acoustic noise (mains hum) is eliminated.
Transformers usually have a minimum wattage (Farin 2008) which they must power before they work.
For example, it is not uncommon for a 60 W electronic transformer to require there to be at least 10 W of
lighting load and if there is only 5 watts of lighting load connected, the lighting system will not work. Low
voltage lighting systems require thicker wires due to higher currents. For example, a 300 W lighting system
operating at 12 V uses a 25 A current on the low-voltage side of the transformer, whereas this same transformer
may be powered by 230 V and 1.3 A current on the line voltage side of the transformer.
An AC (alternating current) electronic transformer should not be placed further than 3 m (10 feet) from the
lighting system in order to avoid lower voltages (voltage drop) and consequently lower luminous flux.
Also, the longer the distance
from the AC electronic
transformer to the lighting
system, the greater the chance
that it might create radio
frequency interference (RFI) with
other electronic components in the
area.

A DC (direct current) electronic

transformer may be placed up to
about 16 m (50 feet) from the
lighting system. The DC output
significantly reduces radio
frequency interference (RFI) and
virtually eliminates the possibility
of voltage drop (the drop in voltage
over a long circuit).
Starters
Starters are used in several types of fluorescent lamps. When voltage is applied to the fluorescent lamp, the
starter (which is a timed switch) allows current to flow through the filaments at the ends of the tube. The current
causes the starter's contacts to heat up and open, thus interrupting the flow of current. The lamp is then
switched on. Since the arc discharge has low resistance (in fact negative voltage-current characteristics),
the ballast serves as a current limiter. Preheat fluorescent lamps use a combination of filament/cathode at
each end of the lamp in conjunction with a mechanical or automatic switch that initially connects the
filaments in series with the ballast and thereby preheat the filaments prior to striking the arc. These
systems are standard equipment in countries with voltage level of 230 V (and in countries with voltage level
110 V with lamps up to about 30 watts), and generally use a glow starter. Electronic starters are also sometimes
used with these electromagnetic ballasts.
The automatic glow starter consists of a small gas-discharge tube, containing neon and/or argon and fitted with
a bi-metallic electrode. When starting the lamp, a glow discharge will appear over the electrodes of the
starter. This glow discharge will heat the gas in the starter and cause the bimetallic electrode to bend
towards the other electrode. When the electrodes touch, the two filaments of the fluorescent lamp and the
ballast will effectively be switched in series to the supply voltage.
This causes the filaments to glow and emit electrons into the gas column. In the starter's tube, the touching
electrodes have stopped the glow discharge, causing the gas to cool down again. The starter additionally
has a capacitor wired in parallel to its gas-discharge tube, in order to prolong the electrode life. While all
starters are physically interchangeable, the wattage rating of the starter should be matched to the wattage
rating of the fluorescent tubes for reliable operation and long life.
The tube strike is reliable in these systems, but glow starters will often cycle a few times before letting the
tube stay lit, which causes undesirable flashing during starting.
Dimming
Dimmers are devices used to vary the luminous flux of incandescent lamps. By adjusting the root mean square
(RMS) voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp it is possible to vary the intensity of the light
output. Small domestic dimmers are generally manually controlled, although remote control systems are
available.

Modern dimmers are built from silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) instead of potentiometers or variable
resistors because they have higher efficiency. A variable resistor would dissipate power by heat (efficiency as low
as 0.5). Theoretically a silicon-controlled rectifier dimmer does not heat up, but by switching on and off 100/120
times a second, it is not 100% efficient. Dimming light output to 25%, reduces electricity consumption only
20%, because of the losses in the rectifier. Using CFLs in dimmer circuit can cause problems for CFLs,
which are not designed for this additional turning on and off of a switch 100/120 times per second.

Fluorescent lamp luminaires cannot be connected to the same dimmer switch used for incandescent lamps.
There are two reasons for this, the first is that the waveform of the voltage of a standard phase-control
dimmer interacts badly with many types of ballast, and the second is that it becomes difficult to sustain an arc in
the fluorescent tube at low power levels. Dimming installations require 4-pin fluorescent lamps and compatible
dimming ballasts. These systems keep the cathodes of the fluorescent tube fully heated even though the arc
current is reduced. There are CFLs available that work also in a dimmer circuit. These CFLs have 4 pins in the
lamp base.
Capacitor
The current restricting effect of the ballast prevents the alternating mains current from being synchronous with
the alternating mains voltage. The current is said to 'lag' behind the voltage and the magnitude of this 'lagging' is
referred to as the 'power factor' of the circuit.

A capacitor has the opposite effect in that it makes the alternating current 'lead' the alternating supply voltage.
By choice of suitable capacitor, connected across the L and N supply terminals, the 'lagging' effect of the ballast
can be completely offset by the 'leading' effect of the capacitor. Such capacitors are referred to as 'power factor
correction' capacitors (or PFC capacitors).Capacitors designed for power correction as part of fluorescent lamp
control gear come in varying shapes and sizes. Many now have a plastic body.

The ideal power factor is 1. Without a PFC capacitor, the power factor is usually less than 0.5 in a fluorescent
circuit. With a PFC capacitor, the power factor is restored to almost 1.
The fluorescent lamp circuit will operate normally without the PFC capacitor, but the power meter would register
less than half of the apparent power being transmitted - a situation not encouraged by the electricity generation
companies.
Solid-state lighting
5.3.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

Solid-state lighting (SSL) is commonly referring to lighting with light-emitting diodes (LED), organic
light-emitting diodes (OLED) and light-emitting polymers (LEP). At the moment there is still no official
definition for solid-state lighting, the expression “solid-state” refers to the semiconductor crystal where
charge carriers (electrons and holes) are flowing and originate photons (i.e., light) after radiative
recombinations.

Operation principle and light generation

An LED is a p-n junction semiconductor which emits light spontaneously directly from an external electric field
(electroluminescence effect). LEDs work similarly to a semiconductor diode, allowing current flow in one
direction only. The diode structure is formed by bringing p- and n-type semiconductor materials together
in order to form a p-n junction. P-type material is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor
material with acceptor impurities resulting in an excess of positive charges (holes). To produce an N-type
semiconductor, donor impurities are used to create an excess of negative charges (electrons).
The p and n materials will naturally form a depletion region at the junction, which is composed of ionized
acceptors in the p-side and ionized donors in the n-side forming a potential barrier at the junction. The applied
external electric field across the junction will allow electrons in the conduction band, which are more mobile
carriers than holes, to gain enough energy to cross the gap and recombine with holes on the other side of
the junction emitting a photon as a result of the decrease in energy from the conduction to the valence
band (radiative recombination).
Although radiative transitions can also occur in indirect bandgap semiconductors, their probability is
significantly lower than in direct bandgap semiconductors. Radiative recombinations are characteristic for
direct bandgap semiconductors. Therefore, direct bandgap semiconductor alloys are commonly used in
optoelectronic devices such as LEDs, where the highest radiative recombination rates are a desirable feature.
Examples of direct bandgap semiconductors that have bandgap energies within the visible spectrum are binary
alloys composed of elements in the groups
III and V of the periodic table (e.g., InP, GaAs, InN, GaN, and AlN). The present high-brightness LED-industry
is based on ternary and quaternary alloys containing a mixture of aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), and/or
indium (In) cations and either one of arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), or nitrogen (N) anions. The three main
relevant material systems for LEDs are AlGaAs, AlGaInP, and AlInGaN. For each of these systems bandgap
engineering is used during the epitaxial growth of the semiconductor wafers to create heterostructures that are
required for high levels of carrier injection and efficient radiative recombination. (Žukauskas, Shur et al. 2002)

Theoretically, it is possible that all free electrons injected into the active region of recombine to create a
photon. This suggests the high energy efficiency potential of LEDs. This energy efficiency potential is referred
to as radiant or wall-plug efficiency he, and defined as the ratio between the total emitted radiated power and
the total power drawn from the power source. The radiant or wallplug efficiency of an LED depends on several
internal mechanisms regulating light generation and emission processes in the semiconductor and LED
package. These mechanisms are commonly characterised by their efficiencies, commonly referred to as feeding
efficiency hf, external quantum efficiency hext, injection efficiency hinj, radiative efficiency or internal
quantum efficiency hrad and optical efficiency or light-extraction efficiency hopt. (Žukauskas, Shur et al. 2002).
Color-mixing by combining the emission of different colored LEDs is another approach to provide white light.
Usually only two colored LEDs are needed to produce white light. However, to achieve high color rendering
properties, at least three colored LEDs are usually required. Figure 5-9 represents the main approaches to
create white light.
LED characterization
Optoelectronic devices such as LEDs are commonly characterised by optical, electrical and thermal parameters
as schematically shown in Figure 5-10.

Electrically, an LED is characterised by its forward current (IF) and forward voltage (VF). Due to their typical
I-V curve, representing the forward current as a function of the forward voltage, LEDs are called current-
controlled devices. Along with the I-V curve, LED manufacturers provide the nominal and maximum
forward currents and voltages of the devices in their datasheets.
Several parameters are used to characterise LEDs optically. The main parameters depending on the LED type
(i.e., colored or white LED) are the spectral power distribution (SPD), spatial light distribution, viewing
angle, color rendering index (CRI), correlated color temperature (CCT), peak wavelength, dominant wavelength,
luminous flux, luminous intensity and luminous efficacy. The electrical and optical performance of an LED is
interrelated with its thermal characteristics. Due to the inefficiencies resulting from the imperfections in the
semiconductor and in the LED package structure heat losses are generated. These losses have to be removed
from the device in order to keep the p-n junction operation temperature below the maximum allowed
value and avoid premature or catastrophic failure of the device. The heat losses are firstly conducted to the
exterior of the LED package throughout an included heat slug. Next, the heat is realised to the ambient
throughout convention and radiation. In some applications the utilisation of an exterior cooling system
such as a heatsink is required to facilitate the released of the heat to the ambient. Thus, the main parameter
characterising the thermal performance of an LED is the thermal resistance between the p-n junction and the
soldering-point. The variation of p-n junction temperature of the LED influences the optical and electrical
properties.
Other important parameters characterising LED operation are the temperature coefficient of the forward
voltage and the dominant wavelength temperature coefficient, given respectively by mV/°C and nm/°C. These
coefficients show the interdependence between optical, thermal and electrical parameters. These
parameters are responsible for optical and spectral dissimilarities between different LED types. AlInGaP
LEDs (e.g., red, amber and yellow) are more sensitive to junction temperature variations than InGaN-
based LEDs (e.g., blue, cyan, green and phosphor-converted white). These thermal behaviour dissimilarities
are represented in Figure 5-11.
Luminous efficacy of 400 lm/W is reachable with three LEDs, but in that case the CRI will remain under 50.
Zukauskas et al. (2008) have also shown that using phosphor-converted white LEDs good color rendering can
be attained at different color temperatures, while maintaining luminous efficacies relatively high (i.e., 250
to 280 lm/W). Future lighting systems will require more intelligent features. In this regard LED-based
lighting systems have an important advantage due to their easy controllability. Intelligent features combined
with the inherent high energy-saving potential of LEDs will be an unbeatable combination in a wide range of
applications.
Advantages of LEDs:

― Small size (heat sink can be large)

― Physically robust
― Long lifetime expectancy (with proper thermal management)
― Switching has no effect on life, very short rise time
― Contains no mercury
― Excellent low ambient temperature operation
― High luminous efficacy (LEDs are developing fast and their range of luminous efficacies is wide)
― New luminaire design possibilities
― Possibility to change colors
― No optical heat on radiation

Disadvantages of LEDs:

― High price
― Low luminous flux / package
― CRI can be low
― Risk of glare due to high output with small lamp size
― Need for thermal management
― Lack of standardisation
OLEDs - Organic light-emitting diodes
Similarly to inorganic light-emitting diode, the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) promises highly
efficient large area light sources.
Recent developments have reported luminous efficacies of 90 lm/W at luminances of 1000 cd/m2 with
improved OLED structure combining a carefully chosen emitter layer with high-refractiveindex substrates
and outcoupling structure (Reineke, Lindner et al. 2009). This efficacy level is already very close to that
of fluorescent lamps which are the current benchmark for efficient and high quality white light sources used in
general lighting.
The basic materials of OLEDs are products of carbon chemistry.
Typically an OLED is composed by one or several organic emissive
materials sandwiched between two metal contacts (cathode and anode)
as shown in Figure 5-14.
One of these contacts has to be transparent while the other has
reflective properties. Multi-layer-structures are deposited onto
transparent substrates like glass or polycarbonate.
Another essential difference is that the conduction properties of the
materials do not depend on doping as inorganic LEDs, but are
instead inherent characteristics of the organic molecule.
White OLEDs have been made by piling three thin layers, emitting
the red, green and blue light respectively.
The special characteristics of OLEDs are:

― Light emission from large areas

― Simplicity of processing techniques
― Limited luminances (e.g. 1000 cd/m2)

Applications range from lighting to flat-panel displays with high resolution. Transparent variants (TOLEDs)
may be integrated into car windshields or similar equipment to combine window and display functions.

OLEDs are extremely thin with no restrictions on the size or shape. The main advantages of OLED technology
are the simplicity of processing techniques, the availability of a wide range of organic luminescent materials and
emitted colors, and the possibility of producing large and flexible surfaces.
OLED technology has three specific characteristics: transparency, flexibility and whitelight emission.

The energy efficiency potential of OLEDs is equally high as with inorganic LED technology. Both technologies
share similar problems such as the relatively low external quantum efficiency.
Theoretically, internal quantum efficiencies close to 100% are achievable by using phosphors.
However, to produce highly efficient devices, the external quantum efficiency has to be increased by helping a
larger fraction of the internally produced photons to escape to the exterior of the device.
Electronic Control Gear
Electronic Control Gear (ECG) is a one-piece unit that combines starting (or igniting), operating the lamp at
the correct voltage and current, has virtually unit power factor and safely shuts down the lamp as it approaches
the end of its useful life.
The use of miniaturised electronic circuits instead of large heavy pieces of iron wound around with 'miles' of
copper wire, make ECGs very compact in size and lightweight.
 LED Applications
Successfully used today for many markets
• Signs & Traffic signals (most common)
• Displays (change colors for attention)
• Exit Signs (most common)
• Indicators and Flashlights
• Under Counter & Coves
•Parking Garage & Outdoor
• Accent
• Downlights
• Food Freezers
Reflector Lamps
Coating part of the bulb with a reflective material such as aluminium causes a lamp to have a directional output.
Design of reflector lamps is a science and involves tailoring the glass envelope into a shape which disperses light
in the required fashion.
Blown glass reflector lamps
The glass bulbs for most reflector lamps are made by blowing soda-lime glass into a mould which produces the
characteristic reflector shape. Consequently they are known as 'blown glass reflector lamps'. These reflector
lamps are referred to by a short alpha-numeric code. Prefixed with 'R', the numbers indicate the lamp diameter
in millimetres at its widest point e.g. R95, R80, R63 etc.
PAR reflector lamps
PAR reflector lamps are not blown but moulded in two pieces - the reflector and the front glass. The two parts
are sealed together by heating their edges to a molten state during production. The lamps are known as 'sealed
beam reflector lamps' or more commonly 'PAR lamps' (pressed glass aluminised reflector).
The borosilicate glass (similar to Pyrex) used to make PAR lamps is thicker and heavier than that of GLS lamps.
This results in lamps able to withstand higher temperature and thermal shock, making them suitable
for outdoor use.
The reference for sealed beam reflector lamps is different to blown glass reflectors. The prefix is PAR, but the
number (e.g. 38 in PAR38) refers to the lamp diameter in multiples of 1/8 inch, i.e. a PAR38 lamp is 38 x 1/8
inches in diameter.
Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or more lamps.
The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves.
In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary circuit auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting
them to the electric supply. The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are reflection, absorption,
transmission and refraction.
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:
• Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps.
In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.
• Ignitors:
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.
Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of surface containing
the point, by the area of that element.
The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a
specified plane. In most cases, this plane is the major plane of the tasks in the interior and is commonly called
the working plane. The illuminance provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the
appearance of the space.
Lux (lx)
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly distributed over a surface area of
one square metre. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)
This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. It is a reflection of
efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.
Colour Rendering Index (RI)
Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given light source confirm to those of
the same surfaces under a reference illuminent; suitable allowance having been made for the state of Chromatic
adaptation.
8.3 Lamp Types and their Features
The Table 8.1 shows the various types of lamp available along with their features
Definition of a luminaire
A luminaire is a device forming a complete lighting unit, which comprises of a light source and electric
operating devices (transformer, ballast, ignitor, etc.). It also includes the parts for positioning and
protecting the lamp/s (casing, holder, wiring), and connecting the lamp/s to the power supply, and the
parts for distributing the light (optics). The function of luminaire (if not a pure decorative fitment) is to
direct light to desired locations, creating the required visual environment without causing glare or
discomfort. Choosing luminaires that efficiently provide appropriate luminance patterns for the application is
an important part of energy efficient lighting design.
Different lamp technologies require different luminaire construction principles and features. For example,
a metal halide lamp HCI 150 W (extreme high power density, very small, luminance 20 Mcd/m2, bulb
temperature ca. 600°C) compared to a T8 fluorescent lamp HO35W (diameter 16mm, 1.5m length, surface
temperature 35°C, luminance 20000 cd/m2) require completely different luminaire types.
Luminaires can be classified by their different features such as:

― Lamp type (incandescent, tungsten halogen, FL, CFL, HID,etc.)

― Application (general lighting, downlight, wallwasher, accent light, spotlight,etc.)
― Function (technical, decorative or effect luminaires)
― Protection class (e.g. ingress protection IP-code)
― Installation (suspended, recessed or surface-mounted, free standing, wall mounted, etc.)
― Type of construction (open, closed, with reflectors and/or refractors, high-specular louvers, secondary
optics, projectors, etc.).

Technical luminaires are optimized for a certain function (e.g. a special luminous intensity distribution
according to the task, prevention of glare, etc.), whereas decorative luminaires are designed with the
focus on aesthetical aspects.

There are various types of luminaires available. One main group comprises decorative luminaires, where
outward appearance is more important than the light they produce. We will not be dealing with this type of
luminaire in depth.
There is a wide range of luminaire types, which can be classified according to differentcriteria. For our
purposes we have divided these into three main groups: stationary luminaires, movable luminaires and light
structures.
Stationary luminaires
Stationary luminaires are an integral part of the architecture. Occasionally it is possible to vary light direction,
but rigid mounting usually means that the light direction is also fixed. Stationary luminaires can be further
subdivided according to luminaire characteristics and design.
Downlights
As the name implies, downlights direct light predominantly downwards. Downlights are usually mounted on the
ceiling. They may be recessed, which means that they are hardly visible as luminaires and only effective through
the light they emit.
Downlights are, however, also available as surface or pendant luminaires. A special version, which is found more
in hallways or exterior spaces, is the wall-mounted downlight.
In their basic form downlights therefore radiate light vertically downwards. They are usually mounted on the
ceiling and illuminate the floor or other horizontal surfaces. On vertical surfaces – e.g. walls
– the light patterns they produce have a typical hyperbolic shape (scallops).
Downlights are available with different light distributions. Narrow-beam downlights only light a small area, but
give rise to fewer glare problems due to their steep cut-off angle. Some downlight forms have supplementary
louvre attachments in the reflector aperture as an extra protection against glare. In the case of downlights with
darklight reflectors the cut-off angle of the lamp is identical to the cut-off angle of the luminaire, thereby
producing a luminaire with optimal wide-angle light distribution and light output ratio.
Double-focus downlights have similar properties to conventional downlights, but the special form of the
reflector allows high luminous efficiency even though the ceiling aperture is small.
Washlights have asymmetrical lighting distribution, which not only directs the light vertically downwards,
but also directly onto vertical surfaces. They are used to achieve uniform illumination over wall surfaces as a
complement to horizontal lighting. Depending on the type used washlights are designed to illuminate a section of
a wall, the corner of a space or two opposite sections of wall.
Air-handling downlights are available
as air-return and air-handling luminaires.
They represent a dual function solution comprising
lighting and air-conditioning andmake for harmonious
ceiling design.
Air-handling luminaires can be provided with connections
for fresh air supply, for air return or for both air-supply
and airreturn.
Downlights are available for a wide range of lamps.
Those most frequently used are compact light sources such
as incandescent lamps, halogen lamps, high-pressure
discharge lamps and compact fluorescent lamps.
Uplights
In contrast to downlights, uplights emit light upwards. They
can therefore be used for lighting ceilings, for indirect lighting
by light reflected from the ceiling or for illuminating walls using
grazing light.
Uplights can be mounted on or in the floor or wall.
Up-downlights combine a downlight and an uplight in one
fixture.
These luminaires are applied for the simultaneous lighting of
floor and ceiling or for grazing lighting over a wall surface.
They are available in wall and pendant versions. .
Sectional drawing of a recessed
floor luminairefor halogen
Reflector lamps.

Mounting options for uplights

and combined uplight/downlight:
wall mounting, floormounting,
recessedfloor mounting.
Louvred luminaires
Louvred luminaires are designed for linear
light sources such as fluorescent lamps or
compact fluorescent lamps.
Their name derives from their anti-dazzle
attachments that may be anti-glare louvres,
light controlling specular reflectors or
prismatic diffusers.
Being fitted with linear light sources of low
luminance louvred luminaires produce little or
no modelling effects.
They generally havewide-beamlight
distribution, with the result that louvred
luminaires are predominantly used for lighting Louvred luminaire for
wide areas. fluorescent lamps with
Louvred luminaires are usually long and darklight reflector and involute
rectangular in shape (linear fluorescents); upper reflector.
square and round versions are also available Louvred luminaires can be
for compact fluorescent lamps. rectangular, square or round.
Similar to downlights, they are available for
recessed or surface mounting or as pendant
fixtures.
Comparison of shapes and sizes of
louvred luminaires for different
lamps.
In their basic form louvred luminaires have axially symmetrical light distribution. They are available with cut-off
angles of 30° to 40° and a variety of beam characteristics, so light distribution and glare limitation can be
selected to suit the respective requirements.
If a reduction in reflected glare is required, louvred luminaires with batwing distribution can be used.
They emit light at predominantly low angles with the result that very little light is emitted in the critical reflecting
range.
Direct glare caused by louvred luminaires can be controlled in a number of ways.
The simplest is the application of anti-dazzle louvres to limit the distribution angle.
Enhanced luminaire efficiency is best achieved by light-controlling louvres.
These louvres can have a highly specular
or matt finish.
Louvres with a matt finish provide
uniform surface luminance in line with the
luminance of the ceiling.
In the case of highly specular reflectors,
the louvre within the cut-off angle can
appear to be dark, but they do sometimes
lead to unwanted reflections in the louvre.
A furthermeans for controlling light in
louvred luminaires is by using prismatic
diffusers.
Asymmetric louvred luminaires
predominantly radiate light in one direction
only.
They can be used for the uniform lighting of walls
or to avoid glare caused by light projected onto
windows or doors.

Asymmetric louvred luminaires (from the top

down): the wall can be lit by tilting the symmetrical
reflector, lighting using a wall washer with an
elliptical side reflector.
Lighting without a wall component (e.g. in the
vicinity of a window) using a luminaire with a flat
side reflector.
Direct-indirect louvred luminaires are
suspended from the ceiling or mounted
on the wall. They produce a direct component
on horizontal surfaces beneath the luminaire
and at the same time light the ceiling and
provide diffuse ambient lighting.

Typical light distribution curves for louvred

luminaires: direct luminaire, direct-indirect
luminaire with a predominantly direct
component, directindirect luminaire with
a predominantly indirect component, indirect
luminaire.
Air-handing louvred luminaires are designed
to handle supply air and return air and provide a more
harmonious ceiling layout.
Air-handling louvred luminaires can be provided with
connections/outlets for supply air, return air, or both
supply air and return air.

Louvred luminaires with air-return component for negative

pressure ceilings, for funnelling return air off into extract air
ducts and for combined supply air and return air handling.
Washlights
Washlights are designed to provide uniform lighting over extensive
surfaces, mainly walls, ceilings and floors, therefore.
They are included in the group downlights and louvred luminaires,
although washlights do have their own luminaire forms.
Wallwashers illuminate walls and – depending on how they are
designed – also a part of the floor.
Stationary wallwashers are available as recessed and surface-mounted
luminaires.
* Wallwasher for compact fluorescent lamps.
* Wallwasher with ellipsoidal reflector for halogen lamps.
* Wallwasher with sculpture lens and reflector attachment
for reflector lamps.
* Wallwasher for fluorescent lamps. The direct light
component is cut off, the reflector contour produces
especially uniform lighting over the wall surface. In the
diagram below a supplementary prismatic diffuser below
ceiling level provides light directly from the top of the wall.
* Cantilever-mounted wallwasher
Ceiling washlights are designed for
brightening or lighting ceilings
and for indirect ambient lighting. They
are installed above eye height on
the wall or suspended from the ceiling.
Ceiling washlights are generally equipped
with tungsten halogen lamps for mains
voltage or with high-pressure discharge
lamps.
Floor washlights are mainly used for
lighting hallways and other circulation
zones. Floor washlights are mounted
in or on the wall at relatively low levels.

Wall-mounted floor washlight.

The direct light component is restricted,
the reflector shape produces uniform
lighting of the floor.
Integral luminaires
Some forms of lighting use the architectural elements
as controlling components of the lighting.
Typical examples are luminous ceilings, cove lighting
or concealed cornice lighting.
Standard luminaires, e.g. for fluorescent lamps or
high-voltage tubular lamps can be used for such
applications.
As a rule, lighting that is integrated into the
architecture is inefficient and, from a lighting
engineering point of view, difficult to control.
For this reason it does not play a significant role in
the effective lighting of spaces.
Luminaires can be integrated into the architecture in
order to accentuate architectural elements, e.g.
to reveal contours.
For this purpose they are excellent.

Luminaires integrated into the architecture, e.g.

suspended ceiling elements, coffered ceilings
and vaulted ceilings and in wall constructions.
Movable luminaires
In contrast to stationary luminaires movable luminaires can be used in a variety of locations; they are generally
used in track systems or in light structures. Movable luminaires usually also allow changes in light direction, they
are not confined to a fixed position, but can be adjusted and repositioned as required.
Spotlights
Spotlights are the most common form of movable luminaires. They illuminate a limited area, with the result that
they are rarely used for ambient lighting but predominantly for accent lighting. In view of their flexibility with
regard to mounting position and light direction, they can be adjusted tomeet changing requirements.
Spotlights are available in a variety of beam angles. Their narrow-beam light distribution provides for the
lighting of small areas from considerable distances, whereas the wider light distribution inherent in wide-beam
spotlights means that a larger area can be illuminated using a single spotlight.
Spotlights are available for a wide range of light sources. Since the aim is generally to produce a clearly defined,
narrow beam, designers tend to opt for compact light sources such as incandescent lamps, halogen lamps and
high-pressure discharge lamps, occasionally also compact fluorescent lamps. Wide-beam spotlights are mainly
designed for larger lamps, such as double-ended halogen lamps and high-pressure discharge lamps or compact
fluorescent lamps, whereas point sources, such as low-voltage halogen lamps or metal halide lamps provide an
especially concentrated beam of light.
Spotlights can be equipped with reflectors or reflector lamps. Some models can be equipped with converging
lenses or Fresnel lenses to vary the beam angle.
Spotlights with projecting systems allow a variety of different beam contours by the use of projection of masks or
templates (gobos).
In the case of spotlights
designed for accent
lighting the beam angle
can be varied by selecting
from a range of reflectors
or reflector lamps.
A distinction
is made between narrow
beam angles of approx.
10° (spot) and wide-beam
angles of approx. 30°
(flood).
An especially wide beam angle of
approx. 90° is characteristic for
floodlights designed for the lighting of
wall surfaces.

Another characteristic of spotlights is that they can be equipped with a wide range of accessories or attachments,
such as flood or sculpture lenses, colour filters, UV or infrared filters and a range of antidazzle attachments, such
as barn doors, anti-dazzle cylinders, multigroove baffles or honeycomb anti-dazzle screens.
Spotlights for low voltage
halogen lamps can be
operated on low-voltage
tracks; the transformer can
be mounted on the ceiling
or be in an exposed position
on the track (above).

When operating on mains

voltage tracks the
transformer is usually
integrated into the adapter
or mounted on the
luminaire (below).
Wallwashers
Wallwashers are not only available as stationary
luminaires, but also as movable luminaires.
In this case it is not so much the light direction that
is variable, but the luminaire itself.
On track, for example, movable wallwashers can
provide temporary or permanent lighting on vertical
surfaces.
Movable wallwashers are generally equipped with
halogen lamps for mains voltage, metal halide lamps
or with fluorescent lamps (linearand compact types).
Energy aspects
The luminaire is an important part of the electricity-luminance – chain (lamp including ballast,
luminaire, room). It is decisive for the energy efficiency of the lighting installation. The energy efficiency
of a luminaire (ζLuminaire) is characterized by the light output ratio (LOR), which is given by the ratio between
the total luminous flux of the lamp when installed on the luminaire (fLuminire) and the lamps alone (ØLamp).

LED Luminaires
LEDs will revolutionise the lumininaire practices and market in the near future. The long lifetime, color mixing
possibility (flexible color temperature Tf), spectrum (no infrared), design flexibility and small size, easy
control and dimming are the benefits of LEDs. These features allow luminire manufacturers to develop new
type of luminires and designers to adopt totally new lighting practices.
Further benefits include safety due to low-voltage operation, ruggedness, and a high efficacy (lm/W)
compared to incandescent lamps. Due to the low prices and high lumen output, fluorescent lamps are
the most economic and widely used lamps. Today, more than 60% of the artificial light is generated by this
lamp type (IEA 2006) Compared to fluorescent lamps, LEDs are expensive (costs/lumen output) and offers
today a much lower light output per one unit.
The gap between conventional light sources and LEDs is decreasing but still exists at the moment.
In residential lighting incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps are the most widely used lamps in spite of
their very low luminous efficacy and short lifetime (<4000h). LEDs are an economic alternative to
incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps. Up to now, the LED general lighting market has been mainly
focused on architectural lighting.
Other barriers for mainstream applications of LEDs are the missing industrial standards (holders, controls
and ballasts, platines, etc.), the required special electronic equipment (drivers, controls), short innovation
cycles of LEDs, and required special optics different from the conventional metal fabrication.
The spectral distribution and intensity of the LED radiation depends strongly on its temperature, LEDs
being much more sensitive to heat conditions than conventional lamps.
It is therefore essential to care for an optimal heat transport to keep the LED’s p-n junction temperature as low
as possible.
Energy savings, lighting quality and costs
Daylight is a free and sustainable source of light and the supply of daylight is typically at its highest during the
hours with peak electrical energy loads. Usually, there is enough daylight to meet the demand for lighting
of a building during most of the working hours. Daylight is, however, also associated with negative factors
such as glare and increased cooling loads. The challenge is to control daylight in a way that the light is
utilized without glare, and the heat is kept out.
Studies have shown that benefits of daylighting are not only energy savings but also improved satisfaction,
motivation of the occupants and productivity of the workers (Hartleb and Leslie 1991, Figueiro et al. 2002).

Costs can be reduced by integrating the components and utilizing the same materials for capturing,
transportation and delivery of daylight and electrical lighting. Costs can also be reduced by combining
the control systems for daylighting and electric lighting. In order to achieve cost effectiveness over its
lifecycle, a functional hybrid system needs to be combined with an inexpensive actuation system.
Its design has to be compatible with standard construction techniques.
Examples
Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL)
Daylight is collected by a heliostat (sun tracking light collector). A transportation system (here: optical
fibers) is used to distribute the collected sunlight throughout the building interiors.
Lightshelf systems
Daylight is collected and distributed to the ceiling by a reflector (lightshelf) positioned in the upper
part of the window, completed by an integrated electric lighting.
Lightpipes
Sunlight is collected by fixed mirrors or by sun tracking mirrors (heliostats) and transported into the building
through lightpipes which can also transport and distribute the electrical lighting from a centrally located
electrical light source.

Summary
Hybrid (integral) lighting systems (not to be confused with daylight systems) are niche applications, their market
penetration is too small to play a role in lighting and energy, but they attract attention, thus they are important
signs increasing the awareness of energy and daylighting.
Lighting design
Good lighting design is often the most overlooked aspect of lighting efficiency, and vice versa.
A lighting installation cannot be efficient AND attractive, without careful consideration of ALL the aspects of
lighting design. This includes choice of lamp, control gear and luminaire, along with luminaire placement, use
of day lighting and intelligent control such as motion detectors and automatic dimming.
Irrespective of whether you are designing a lobby or dining room for a 6-star hotel, an office, or an industrial
facility, lighting design must take an holistic approach that not only provides illumination, but creates a
comfortable, stimulating and interesting environment.
An efficient and effective lighting system will:
• Provide a high level of visual comfort
• Make use of natural light
• Provide the best light for the task
• Provide controls for flexibility
• Have low energy requirements
Simply achieving the required illuminance does not guarantee a satisfactory lighting installation, and over
illumination will not necessarily act as a safety margin. As long as there is adequate illuminance to perform a
task, some variation in the level will not generally make a significant change to the level of visual performance.
Other aspects of the visual environment such as glare, contrast and user satisfaction will have greater impact
on whether a lighting installation is perceived to be successful.
It is therefore important that the quality aspects of the space are addressed in parallel with the illuminance
level, namely:
• Correct luminance distribution on the vertical surfaces
• Rational glare control
• Careful treatment of the task surround luminance
• Colour rendering
• Visual interest
Therefore, designing a lighting installation to provide a successful visual environment is a balancing act
between multiple requirements which are often conflicting. Add to this the practical limitations of the
performance of the light sources and lighting equipment available, energy efficiency, running costs,
maintenance and available funds.
Regrettably, the lighting installation is sometimes among the last items to be considered when budgeting a
building project, with the result that often cheaper alternatives are chosen just to keep total expenses within
financial limits. The outcome may then be less than adequate, giving sub-optimal lighting conditions and low
user satisfaction. Proper initial investment in a well designed lighting installation usually repays itself not just
in higher return-of-investment but also in lower total cost of ownership during its lifetime.
The right light – traditional and new quality criteria
Traditional quality criteria
– Glare limitation New quality criteria
– Good modelling – Changing lighting situations
– Correct light colour – Personal control
– Avoidance of reflections – Energy efficiency
– Harmonious brightness distribution – Daylight integration
– Sufficient illumination level – Light as an interior design element
– Appropriate colour rendering
Lighting design process
To achieve the best overall outcome in a lighting installation, it is important to avoid the tendency of rushing
straight into luminaire selection before determining more broadly what is required from the system. The use
of a structured design process helps to avoid this. The key steps in the design process are:
1. Identify the requirements
2. Determine the method of lighting
3. Select the lighting equipment
4. Calculate the lighting parameters and adjust the design as required
5. Determine the control system.
6. Check that the fittings to be installed are those that the design was based on
7. Inspect the installation upon completion and, if possible, a few months after occupation, to determine what
worked and what didn’t. This is the only way to build up experience to apply to future designs.
The five initial stages are considered in more detail in the following sections.
Identifying the requirements
This involves gaining a full understanding of what the lighting installation is intended to achieve. This includes:
• Task Requirements Illuminance Glare
• Mood of the space
• Relation to shape of space
• Things to be emphasised
• Things to hide
• Direction of light
• Interaction of daylight
Determine the method of lighting
At this stage, consideration is given to how the light is to be delivered, e.g. will it be recessed, surface mounted,
direct or indirect, or will up-lighting be used, and its primary characteristics, e.g. will it be prismatic, low
brightness or mellow light. Consideration should be given at this stage to the use of daylight to minimise the
need for artificial light.

Select the lighting equipment

Once the method of lighting has been selected, the most appropriate light source can then be chosen followed
by the luminaire. The following attributes should be studied when choosing the light source:
• Light output (lumens)
• Total input wattage
• Efficacy (lumens per Watt)
• Lifetime
• Physical size
• Surface brightness / glare
• Colour characteristics
• Electrical characteristics
• Requirement for control gear
• Compatibility with existing electrical system
• Suitability for the operating environment.
A number of factors also affect luminaire choice:
• Characteristics of the light source and control gear (see above)
• Luminaire efficiency (% lamp light output transmitted out of the fixture)
• Light distribution
• Glare control
• Finish and appearance
• Size
• Accessibility of components for maintenance
• Ability to handle adverse operating conditions
• Aesthetics
• Thermal management

Calculate the lighting parameters

Lighting calculation methods fall into three broad categories:
• Manual calculation methods
• Three dimensional modelling
• Visualisation
Photometric data for light sources and luminaires is commercially available to contribute to these calculations.
Manual calculation methods
There are a wide range of manual computation methods for the calculation of different lighting aspects.
These include complex methods for calculating the illuminance from a wide variety of shapes of luminous
objects. The majority of these have now been superseded by computer programs.
The Lumen Method was the mainstay for interior lighting and has remained in use as a quick and relatively
accurate method of calculating interior illuminance. The Lumen Method calculates the average illuminance at
a specific level in the space, including an allowance for the light reflected from the interior surfaces of the room.
The calculation method has a set of assumptions that, if followed, gives a reasonable visual
environment. Inadequate attention to the assumptions will produce poor results. The basic assumptions are:
• All the luminaires in the room are the same and have the same orientation
• The luminaires do not have a directional distribution and are aimed directly to the floor
• The luminaires are arranged in a uniform array on the ceiling and have the same mounting height
• The luminaires are spaced less than the maximum spacing to mounting height ratio nominated in the
coefficient of utilisation tables
The average illuminance produced by a lighting installation, or the number of luminaires required to achieve a
specific average illuminance, can be calculated by means of utilization factors, a UF being the ratio of the total
flux received by a particular surface to the total lamp flux of the installation.
 Lumen method formula
The average illuminance E(h) over a reference surface s can be calculated from the "lumen method" formula.

Utilization factors can be determined for any surface or layout of luminaires. The "UF" symbol is normally
shown followed by an extra letter in brackets, to denote the surface, for example, UF(F) is the utilisation factor
for the floor cavity and UF(W) is the utilisation factor for the walls.
Utilization factors are, in practice, only calculated for general lighting systems with regular arrays of luminaires
and for three main room surfaces. The highest of these surfaces, the C surface (for ceiling cavity), is an
imaginary horizontal plane at the level of the luminaires having a reflectance equal to that of the ceiling cavity.
The lowest surface, the F surface (for floor Cavity), is a horizontal plane at normal working height (i.e. table
height), which is often assumed to be O.85m above the floor. The middle surface, the W surface (for walls),
consists of all the walls between the C and F planes.
Although the lighting designer can calculate utilization factors, lighting companies publish utilization factors for
standard conditions for their luminaires. The standard method of presentation is shown below. To use this
table, it is only necessary to know the Room Index and the effective reflectance of the three standard surfaces
(floor cavity, walls and ceiling cavity).
Room Index
The Room Index is a measure of the angular size of the room, and is the ratio of the sum of the plan areas of
the F and C surfaces to the area of the W surface. For rectangular rooms the room index is given by:

Where:
L = the length of the room
W = the width of the room
Hm = the height of the luminaire plane above the horizontal reference plane.
If the room is re-entrant in shape, for example L shaped, then it must be divided into two or more non reentrant
sections, which can be treated separately.

Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio

The Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio (SHR) is the spacing between luminaires divided by their height above
the horizontal reference plane. It affects the uniformity of illuminance on that plane. When the UF tables are
determined, for a nominal spacing to height ratio SHR NOM, the maximum spacing to height ratio SHR MAX
of the luminaire is also calculated, and is a value that should not be exceeded if the uniformity is to be
acceptable.
Example 1
Using the data supplied below and in table 2 calculate the number of luminaires required, and suggest a
suitable layout.
Using the surface reflectance values provided and the RI value we can now select the
Utilisation Factor (UF). In this case the UF lies approximately in the centre between
0.59 and 0.62, therefore, select a UF value of 0.605.

Now, apply the Lumen Design formula:

Let us now try a layout
28 luminaires try 4 rows of 7 luminaires:
Total lamp length per row is 7 x 2 m = 14 m, therefore, remaining space = 4 m.
In both cases the SHR is less than the maximum SHR of 1.85, therefore, this layout is suitable.
Three dimensional modelling
Although it was possible to calculate the luminance of all the surfaces in a room, the calculations were extremely
laborious and could only be justified in the most special cases. However, the advent of computer modelling
enabled a more flexible approach to lighting design and significantly increased the information available to the
designer.

Choice of Luminaire
The performance of a luminaire should be considered just as carefully as its cost. In the long term a well
designed, well constructed luminaire will be cheaper than a poor quality unit; and the salient features of a good
quality luminaire are:
* Sound mechanical and electrical construction and a durable finish
* Adequate screening of high luminance lamps to minimise discomfort and glare
* Adequate heat dissipation to prevent over-heating of the lamp, wiring and ancillary equipment
* High light output ratio with the appropriate light distribution
* Ease of installation, cleaning and maintenance
Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study
A step-by-step approach for assessing energy efficiency of lighting system is given below:
Step–1: Inventorise the Lighting System elements, & transformers in the facility
In case of distribution boards (instead of transformers) being available, fuse ratings may be inventorised along
the above pattern in place of transformer kVA.
Step–2: With the aid of a lux meter, measure and document the lux levels at various plant
locations at working level, as daytime lux and night time lux values alongside the number of lamps "ON" during
measurement.
Step–3: With the aid of portable load analyzer, measure and document the voltage, current,
power factor and power consumption at various input points, namely the distribution boards or the lighting
voltage transformers at the same as that of the lighting level audit.
Step–4: Compare the measured lux values with standard values as reference and identify locations
as under lit and over lit areas.
Step–5: Collect and Analyse the failure rates of lamps, ballasts and the actual life expectancy levels
from the past data.
Step–6: Based on careful assessment and evaluation, bring out improvement options, which could
include :
i) Maximise sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc.
ii) Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due consideration to luminiare,
color rendering index, lux level as well as expected life comparison.
iii) Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due consideration to life and
power factor apart from watt loss.
iv) Select interior colours for light reflection.
v) Modify layout for optimum lighting.
vi) Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for illuminance control)
b. Group control switches / units
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
vii) Install input voltage regulators / controllers for energy efficiency as well as longer life expectancy for lamps
where higher voltages, fluctuations are expected.
viii) Replace energy efficient displays like LED's in place of lamp type displays in control panels /
instrumentation areas, etc.
Some Good Practices in Lighting
Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of "Conventional" fluorescent lamps.
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder technology.
They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high luminous efficacy.
Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.
Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage incandescent lamps.
These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The average rated lamp life is 10,000 hours,
which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent lamps. CFL's are highly suitable for places such as
Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars, Restaurants, Pathways, Building entrances, Corridors, etc.
Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.
Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury & sodium vapour lamps.
These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the choice for colour critical applications where,
higher illumination levels are required. These lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line,
inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is
more critical.
Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical.
High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering property of HPSV is
very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications such street lighting, yard lighting, etc.
Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.
Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling, etc.
Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following disadvantages:
• High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
• Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 1,000 hours)
• Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations Recently, the conventional filament lamps are being replaced with
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.
• Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)
• Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
• Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.
Light distribution
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient luminaires along
with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-optic luminaires with a high output ratio
and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.
For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics appropriate for the
task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should ensure that discomfort glare and
veiling reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable luminaires, depends upon the height - Low, Medium &
High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity discharge lamp are classified as follows:
• Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.
• Medium bay, for heights between 5 – 7 metres.
• High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficiency. This also varies from
application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height and usage of mirror optic luminaries
leads to energy efficiency.
Light Control
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On-Off“ switch. The initial
investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs may be high. This does not provide
the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in lighting level,
when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at design stage:
Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control
Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.
• Installation of microprocessor based controllers
Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching circuits. The
lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which can take pre-programme
commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control system uses movement detectors or
lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.
• Optimum usage of daylighting
Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with electric lighting.
This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual environment. Usage of day lighting
(in offices/air conditioned halls) will have to be very limited, because the air conditioning load will increase on
account of the increased solar heat dissipation into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable
reduction of electric light in the window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.
• Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting
In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by the lighting
equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations.
Hence, the lighting equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage
regulation for the lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency of
the lighting system.
• Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder
Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo stabilizer can be
installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the lighting equipment. The performance
of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improved due to the stabilized voltage.
This set up also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder.
In many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side. During this period,
voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the illumination level.
• Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts
New high frequency (28–32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the traditional magnetic
ballasts:
• Energy savings up to 35%
• Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
• Lights instantly
• Improved power factor
• Operates in low voltage load
• Less in weight
• Increases the life of lamp
The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, out weigh the initial investment (higher costs when compared with
conventional ballast).
In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in
Indian Industries was high.
Recently, many manufacturers have improved
the design of the ballast leading to drastic
improvement in their reliability.
The life of the electronic ballast is high especially
when, used in a lighting circuit fitted with a
automatic voltage stabiliser.
The Table 8.6 gives the type of luminaire, gear
and controls used in different areas of industry.

Location Source Luminaire Gear Controls

Plant HID/FTL Industrial rail reflector: Conventional/low Manual/electronic High bay loss electronic Medium
bay ballast Low bay
Office FTL/CFL FTL/CFL Electronic/low Manual/auto loss Yard HID
Allowed Lighting Power
The prescriptive approach for lighting involves a comparison of the building’s allowed lighting power with its
actual lighting power (as adjusted for controls). The actual power shall be less than the allowed power.
There are three methods to determine the allowed lighting power using the prescriptive approach: the complete
building, the area category, and the tailored method. The lighting allotment must be based on area intended only
for occupancy, or complete lighting plans must be submitted.
A. Complete Building Method
The complete building method can only be applied when all areas in the entire building are complete (i.e.,
lighting will be installed throughout the entire building under the permit for which the Title 24 compliance is
prepared). The building must consist of one type of use for a minimum of 90% of the floor area of the entire
building (in determining the area of the primary type of use, include the following areas if they serve as support
for the primary type of use: lobbies, corridors, restrooms and storage closets). Retail and wholesale store
buildings shall use this method only if the merchandise sales function area is 70% or greater of the building area.
There cannot be any unfinished areas. The retail and wholesale store type of use lighting power allowance shall
be used only for single tenant retail and wholesale buildings, or for buildings with multiple tenants if it is known
at the time of permit application that the buildings will be entirely made up of retail and wholesale stores. To
qualify for retail and wholesale power allowances, documentation must be provided at the time of permitting
indicating that the actual tenants are Retail Merchandise Sales and/or Wholesale Showroom tenants.
The allowed indoor lighting power density for conditioned and unconditioned spaces, such as parking garages
and conditioned spaces, shall be separate allotments, which shall be met separately without tradeoffs between
the separate allotments.
To determine the allowed lighting power, multiply the complete building conditioned floor area (see definition of
conditioned floor area in §101 of the Standards) times the lighting power density for the specific building type, as
found in Standards Table 146-B.
Note: High-rise residential and hotel/motel buildings cannot use the complete building method.
Example 5-13
Question
A 10,000-ft² medical clinic building is to be built. What is its allowed lighting power under the complete building
approach?
Answer
From Table 146-B in the Standards, medical buildings and clinics are allowed 1.1 w/ft2. The allowed lighting
power is 10,000 x 1.1 = 11,000 W.
B. Area Category Method
The area category method is more flexible than the complete building method because it can be used for multiple
tenants or partially completed buildings. For purposes of the area category method, an "area" is defined as all
contiguous spaces that accommodate or are associated with a single primary function as listed in Standards Table
146-C. Areas not covered by the current permit are ignored. When the lighting in these areas is completed later
under a new permit the applicant may show compliance with any of the lighting options except the complete
building method.
The area category method divides a building into primary function areas. Each function area is defined under
occupancy type in §101 in the Standards. The allowed lighting power is determined by multiplying the area of
each function times the lighting power density for that function.
Where areas are bounded or separated by interior partitions, the floor space occupied by those interior partitions
shall be included in any area. The total allowed watts is the summation of the allowed lighting power for each
area covered by the permit application.
When using this method, the public and common areas of Multifamily refers to exercise rooms, hallways,
lobbies, corridors, and stairwells. The Transportation Function refers to the ticketing area, waiting area, baggage
handling areas, concourse, or other areas not covered by primary functions in Table 146-C in an airport terminal,
bus or rail terminal or station, subway or transit station, or a marine terminal.
Chandeliers and Sconces (*)
Certain function areas use decorative lighting in the form of
ornamental chandeliers or sconces. Areas shown in Table
146-C in the Standards, with a single asterisk (*) qualify for
an additional lighting allotment of up to 1.0 w/ft².
The additional power for chandeliers and/or sconces is a
use-it-or-loose-it allowance that may be added to the allowed
lighting power under the area category method. Ornamental
chandeliers are ceiling-mounted or suspended decorative
luminaires that use glass crystal, ornamental metal or other
decorative materials. Sconces are wall mounted decorative
lighting fixtures.
Specialized Work Tasks (**)
The spaces in Table 146-C in the Standards that are marked with two asterisks (**) may qualify for additional
lighting power if the plans clearly identify special visual tasks and special lighting equipment is shown on the
plans to provide illumination for these tasks. Tasks that are performed less than two hours per day or poor
quality tasks that can be improved are not eligible for this specialized task work allowance.
The additional allowance is either 0.5 w/ft² times the area of the task space required for an art, craft assembly or
manufacturing operation; or the actual design wattage of the luminaire(s) providing illuminance to the
specialized task area. The area or location of each specific task must be shown on the plans.
This is a use-it-or-lose-it allowance.

Precision Commercial and Industrial Work (***)

The spaces in Table 146-C in the Standards that are marked with three asterisks (***) may qualify for additional
lighting power if the plans clearly identify special visual tasks and special lighting equipment to provide
illumination for these tasks. Tasks that are performed less than two hours per day or poor quality tasks that can
be improved are not eligible for this specialized task work allowance.
The additional allowance is either 1.0 W/ft² times the area of the task space required for the precision work or
the actual design wattage of the luminaire(s) providing illuminance to the specialized task area. The area or
location of each specific task must be shown on the plans. This is a use-it-or-lose-it allowance.
Example 5-14
Question
A small bank building has the following area distribution:
Corridors 800 ft2
Main Entry Lobby 200 ft2
Financial Transactions 1,200 ft2
Manager’s Office 200 ft2
What is the allowed lighting power for this building under the area category method?
Answer
The following Lighting Power Densities apply (from Table 146-C in the Standards):
Space LPD Area Allowed Watts
Corridors 0.6 W 800 ft2 480
Main Entry 1.5 W 200 ft2 300
Financial Transactions 1.2 W 1200 ft2 1440
Manager’s Office 1.2 W 200 ft2 240
Total 2460 W
Financial Transactions in this example are assumed to include all the spaces in which financial transactions for
the public are taking place. The allowed lighting power for this building is 2460 W.
Example 5-15
Question
A 10,000-ft2 multi-use building is to be built consisting of:
A) 500 ft2 main entry lobby,
B) 2,000 ft2 corridors and restroom,
C) 3,000 ft2 grocery store,
D) 2,500 ft2 retail, and
E) 2,000 ft2 future development.
What is the allowed lighting power under the area category method?

with 2,000 ft² for future development.

Example 5-16
Question
What is the wattage allowance for a
10 cubic foot chandelier with 5-50
W lamps in a 300 ft² bank entry
lobby?
Answer
The wattage based on the task space is 1 W/ft² x 300 ft² = 300 W
The wattage based on actual design watts is 250 W.
The wattage allowance for the chandelier is the smaller of the two values, or 250 W.
§146(b)3 Tailored Method
For occupancies such as retail merchandise sales and exhibit/museum, the maximum allowed lighting power is
determined for each space or activity when the tailored method is used. In general, the tailored method can only
be used for spaces whose combined area does not exceed 30% of the entire building that is otherwise using the
area category method. However, the tailored method may be used for up to 100% of the entire building area of
retail merchandise sales and exhibit/museum. Also, if a single function area within the building exceeds 30% of
the floor area of the entire building, the tailored method may be used for that entire function area alone, with the
remaining spaces using the area category method. To qualify for a tailored power allowance, documentation
must be provided at the time of permitting to indicate the actual building or tenant space occupant and their type
of business or activity.
The tailored method and the area category method cannot be used for the same floor area. The floor area for
calculations based on the tailored method must be subtracted from the floor area for the remainder of the
building lighting calculations. Trade-offs of lighting power between the tailored method and area category
methods are not allowed.
The difference between the tailored method and the area category method is that the tailored method takes into
account each task activity in each enclosed space or task area as the basis for determining the lighting power
allotment (as opposed to functional areas, which may have several different tasks). Because the tailored method
is based on task activities, this method requires the most detail on the plans, and in some cases, requires
documentation of the actual lighting tasks. The tailored method may allow more lighting power than the other
two methods.
Exit Way and Egress Lighting
Lighting that is required for exit signs subject to the California Building Code and has an input power rating of
five watts per illuminated face or less, and exit way or egress illumination that is normally off and that is subject
to the California Building Code, is exempt from lighting power calculations. Exit way and egress lighting systems
are regulated by Article 700 of the State Electricity Code (Title 24, Part 3), which specifies that:
• Emergency systems are those systems legally required and classed as emergency by municipal, state, federal,
other codes, or by any governmental agency having jurisdiction.
• These systems are intended to automatically provide illumination to designated areas in the event of failure of
normal power supply.
• These systems must be separately switched from the general lighting systems.
• These systems shall be so arranged that only authorized persons have control of the emergency lighting.
• These systems have an emergency power supply independent of the general lighting power supply, or are
equipped with two or more separate and complete systems with independent power supply, each system
providing sufficient current for emergency lighting purposes.
Note that §131(a) in the Standards, the area controls of the mandatory measures, specifies that lighting in areas
within a building that must be continuously illuminated for reasons of building security or emergency egress
are exempt from the switching requirements of the area controls of the mandatory measures for a maximum of
0.5 w/ft2. These lights must be installed in areas designated as security or emergency egress areas on the plans,
and must be controlled by switches accessible only to authorized personnel. The remaining lighting in the area,
however, is still subject to the area switching requirements.
When applying lighting power adjustment factors to luminaires in a space, exit way, emergency, and egress
lighting systems that are on a separate circuit and are not controlled by a qualifying control device, are not
eligible for these credits.
Common Lighting Systems
This section describes a simplified application of the area category method that can be used for compliance.
This method can only be used for area category method function areas for which the lighting power densities
are 1.0 watts per square foot and higher. This easy method allows 1.0 W/ft² or less for installing common
lighting systems like those described in Table 5-9. Designing systems to these specifications will result in a
system that uses less than 1.0 W/ft².
One type of Luminaire: Luminaires must consist of any one type of luminaire, plus exit signs,
installed as described in Table 5-9. Spacing measurements are taken from the plan view center of the luminaire.
Luminaires must be mounted at least 1/3 of the indicated mounting distance away from any ceiling-high
partition.
More than One Type of Luminaire: If there is more than one type of luminaire (excluding exit
signs) located within one space enclosed with ceiling high partitions, the spacing between different luminaires
shall be the larger of the required spacing for the two luminaires in Table 5-9.
This method is cannot be used if any of the following luminaire types exists in the building:
• Luminaires employing Edison base line voltage sockets.
• Luminaires exceeding 75 W designed for low voltage lamps, incandescent or halogen.
• Track lighting systems or other flexible lighting systems which allows the addition or relocation of luminaires
without altering the wiring of the system of any kind or voltage.
• Line voltage monopoints permitting the installation of track luminaires.
Normally off emergency lighting systems required by code and not used except under a power outage or in
emergency conditions are not included in power allowance computations.
Up to 5% of the total luminaires of the project (by count) may be hardwired luminaires of any type (except track
lighting, which is not appropriate) rated not more than 150 W.
For compact fluorescent luminaires with permanently installed ballasts that are capable of operating a range of
lamp wattages, the highest operating input wattage of the rated lamp/ballast combination must be use for
determining the luminaire wattage.
For luminaires with modular components that allow conversion between screwbased and pin-based sockets
without changing the luminaire housing or wiring, it shall be assumed that an incandescent lamp of the
maximum relamping wattage available for that system will be used.
Permanent Lighting: A complete and permanent lighting system must be installed.
Additional lighting, such as lighting within furniture systems, shall not be installed in the space. Undercabinet
luminaires are allowed, however, when attached to the underside of modular furniture overhead cabinets, bins or
shelves and complying with the requirements for undercabinet luminaires in Table 5-9.
Performance approach: applicable when the designer uses an Energy Commission certified computer program
to demonstrate that the proposed building's energy consumption, including lighting power, meets the energy
budget. The performance approach incorporates one of the three previous methods which sets the appropriate
Allowed Lighting Power Density used in calculating the building’s custom energy budget. The performance
approach may only be used to model the performance of lighting systems that are covered under the building
permit application.
Example 5-36
Question
If the figure below is a new building, what is the allowed
lighting power for the entire building?
Procedure
Using the flowchart in Figure 5-20:
1. Is the lighting compliance for an entire building? Yes.
2. Does the building have one of the types of uses that makes up 90% of the floor area of the
building? No (the largest type of use category is Retail which occupies 38% of the floor area of the entire
building).
Calculate the allowed lighting power by the area category method.
Area Category Method:

Answer
The allowed lighting power is 19,790 W.
Minimum Skylight Area for Large Enclosed Spaces is discussed in [§143 (c)]
applies to low-rise conditioned or unconditioned enclosed spaces that meet the following conditions:
• Greater than 25,000 ft2
• Directly under a roof
• Ceiling heights greater than 15 feet
• A lighting power density for general lighting equal to or greater than 0.5 w/ft2
At least half of the floor area must be daylit under skylights. Minimum Skylight Area is defined in Table 143-F.
Additional discussions about Minimum Skylight Area can be found in Chapter 3 of the Manual, Building
Envelope (Section 3.2.4 Skylights in Large Enclosed Spaces), and this chapter in Section 5.13.2, Prescriptive
Measures, Additions, Lighting Systems Installed for the First Time.
Though Section 143(c) requires that at least half of the floor space be daylit and that the ratio of skylight area to
daylit area be 3%, there are maximum skylight area requirements whenever the skylights are above conditioned
spaces.
Section 43(a) 6 limits skylight area to 5% of the gross roof area in most cases and to 10% of the roof area for atria
over 55 feet. The thermal transmittance (Ufactor) and solar heat gain (SHGC) of skylights are also limited to the
appropriate climate zone specific values in Tables 143(a-c). In general these requirements require the use of
double glazed skylights.
When the skylights are above unconditioned spaces there is no limitation placed on skylight area or its U-factor
or SHGC. In such cases, single glazed skylights will comply with the code requirements as long as they are
sufficiently diffusing [i.e. the glazing or diffuser material has a haze rating greater 90% as defined in §143(c)].
Products that have such a rating include prismatic diffusers, laminated glass with diffusing interlayers,
pigmented plastics etc. The purpose of this requirement is to assure the light is diffused over all sun angles.
Other methods of diffusion that result in sufficient diffusion of light over the course of the entire year would also
be acceptable in lieu of using diffusing glazing. Acceptable alternatives are baffles or reflecting surfaces that
ensure over all sun angles encountered during the course of a year that direct beam light is reflected off of a
diffuse surface prior to entering the space. This alternative method of diffusion would have to be documented by
the designer and approved by the code authority in your jurisdiction.
5.12 Acceptance Requirements
Acceptance tests are used to verify that lighting controls were installed and calibrated correctly. These tests
require that a responsible party certify that controls are installed and calibrated properly. This responsible party
is typically the contractor who installed the lighting controls. To verify that they are calibrated properly, the
responsible party must conduct a test and make modifications to the control until it passes the test. The test
results must be recorded on acceptance test forms and are part of the building documentation.
These forms must be filled out before the building authority grants a certificate of occupancy.
The Standards have acceptance test requirements for:
• Manual daylighting controls
• Automatic daylighting controls.
• Occupancy sensors.
• Automatic time-switch controls.
 Types of Lighting

 General/Ambient
 Overall lighting
 Provides an even level of brightness
 Fundamental to a house
 Can be direct (strongest illumination) or
indirect (reflects light back into a room)
 Task
 Lighting a small space to perform a specific
task; reading, cooking, eating. This church has all three types:
General is found in the ceiling, task is
 Accent/Decorative
found through the track lights that
 Used to draw attention to specific areas or
objects. light up the podium area and accent
is found on the walls to highlight the
area.
Can you find the three types of lighting in this kitchen?
 Continued…

 In a room, a balance of general and task lighting is needed

 Accent lighting adds drama
 The amount of illumination produced by a room’s light source is
measured in foot-candles (the amount of illumination produced by a
standard plumber’s candle at a distance of one foot)
 Halogen and fluorescent light sources provide more light per watt than
incandescent
 Light is reflected from smooth surfaces and light colors, but absorbed by
textured surfaces and dark colors
 Continued…

 Colored light is less intense than white light

 Warm light, such as red and yellow, will make a room appear
warmer and brighter
 Cool colored lights, such as blue or blue green, will make a room
appear open
 White light shows a room at its truest color values and produces
the most illumination
 Homework!

 Go home and take a tally of all the general, task and accent sources in
your home.
 Also, make note of what rooms these sources are found.
 Selection and Placement

 Lighting fixtures
 Should provide adequate light for activities and blend with décor
 Size and scale of the fixtures should be proportionate to other items in a room
and blend with the room
 Easy to clean and easy to replace bulbs
 Structural fixtures are permanently built into the home
 Luminous ceilings are made of transparent or translucent panels lighted from above
 Can be part of or the whole ceiling, uses fluorescent bulbs and is general lighting
 Continued…

 Recessed lights are small, circular lights

that are installed in the ceiling
 Can be flush or project from ceiling
 Accent or general

 Tracklighting is mounted in a metal strip

that allows fixtures to be placed anywhere
along the strip
 Can swivel or rotate
Lighting can be changed as needed
 Continued…

 Living rooms should have general lighting from several sources

 Recessed or track lights can wash entire areas with light to highlight
 Task lighting should be provided for reading and conversation
 Accent lighting should highlight collectables and paintings

 Family and recreation rooms

 Flexible lighting
 3 way bulbs
 Continued…

 Dining rooms need local lighting over the table

 Hanging lights or chandeliers
 Use a dimmer to control lighting
 Task lighting for serving area
 Accent lighting for china cabinet
 Bedrooms need diffused general lighting as well as task lighting
 Adequate lighting for closet and grooming areas
 Home offices need to be free of harsh contrasts and distracting glares
 Task and accent
 Bathrooms usually have strip lighting around the mirrors for task
lighting
 Continued…

 Portable fixtures can be changed and moved

 Lamps are the most common
 1 lamp=task
 2 lamps=general

 Must fit the function, be the proper height, and fitted with the correct shade
 Attachable under-cabinet and under-shelf fixtures provide task and
accent lighting
 Usually fluorescent
 Lighting Areas of the Home

 Entryways and foyers

 Must be well lighted as to locate the lock and see the house number and guest
 Bathrooms
 General and task lighting
 Kitchens
 Safety and efficiency
 Task lighting, under the cabinet, and hanging lights
 Utility areas
 General
 Special purpose rooms
 Lighting to fit the task
 Stairs and hall
 Safety lighting, bright enough to illuminate each step, switches at top and bottom of stairs
 Recessed lights are popular in a hallway
 Continued…

 Exteriors
 Outside of home
 Enhance the style of a house and provide
safety
 Patios, pools, and terraces require light for
activities
 Lighting controls
 Used to control the intensity and effect of
light
 Changes the mood of the room
 Technology has allowed us to control light
systems with remotes, computers and
phones
 Types of Lighting Fixtures

 Recessed (Can Lights)

 Track Lights
 Ceiling fixtures
 Flush
 Semi Flush
 Chandeliers
 Hanging Lights
 Floor Lamps
 Novelty Fixtures
 Usually seen as nightlights
 Wall Sconces
 Under the Cabinet This “lava lamp” would
be considered a novelty
light
Direct lighting
– Highly directional
– Strong glare reduction at
certain angles
– Dark ceiling (cave effect)
– Limited flexibility of
workstation layout
– Energy efficiency on the
task level
Indirect lighting
– Diffuse lighting conditions
– Room gains in height
– Glare-free
– Workstations can be
positioned anywhere
– Low energy efficiency
Indirect/direct lighting
– Pleasant room impression
– High user acceptance
– Good contrast ratios
– Flexible workstation layout
(indirect component > 60 %)
Mellow Light
– Recessed direct/indirect
solution
– Workstations can be
positioned anywhere
– Glare-free
– Reduced luminance levels
at all viewing angles
– Gives impression of daylight
in room
Room-related lighting concepts
take neither individual task
areas nor different visual
tasks into account. They are
based on the most demanding
task performed in the room.
The position of the workstation
is not defined, the entire room
disposes of a uniform
lighting quality.
Lighting focussed onto
individual visual task areas
provides for varied light design
in the
room. By illuminating walls, for
instance, rooms can be designed
to be much more open
and attractive; dynamic lighting
situations can enhance their
visual quality.
Standard values for lighting of indoor and outdoor
workplaces and sports facility lighting
Tables and figures were taken from the European standards.
“Lighting of indoor workplaces”,
EN 12464-1 (June 2011)
“Lighting of outdoor workplaces”,
EN 12464-2 (October 2007)
“Sports facility lighting”, EN 12193
(April 2008) Example for an office task area
The following limits have been specified in the tables:
Illuminance levels must not fall below the Ēm maintenance values in the visual task area.
If the precise location is not known, the limit should be applied to the whole room or a specific working area.
The maintenance factors can be determined on a case-by-case basis, according to the manufacturer’s
specifications .
Where no individual maintenance data is available, the following values are recommended as reference
maintenance factors for modern technology and three-yearly maintenance: 0.67 in a clean atmosphere,
and 0.50 in very dirty environments.
EN 12464 specifies that the lighting designer must document the maintenance factor and maintenance schedule.
UGRL is the upper limit for direct glare. The UGR value calculated in the design process must lie below this.
Uniformity UO is the ratio between the lowest (Emin) and the mean illuminance level (Ē) in the area to be
evaluated. The result is a minimum level. Ra is the lower limit for the colour rendering index.
The Ra of the selected lamp must be equal to or greater than this value.
Energy Tips and Recommendations
1. Go through your house and make a list of which lights are on the most. The most-used lights are the best
candidates for replacement with compact fluorescent lights. Compact fluorescent lights require special dimming
ballasts and lamp holders in order to be used in dimming circuits.
2. Measure the light fixtures for those most used lights and then go to a lighting store or hardware store that
carries a selection of compact fluorescent lights.
Check the dimensions of the various types of compact fluorescents and buy one or two (don’t buy a lot until you
have made sure they will fit in your fixtures).
3. For situations where you need the highest quality light focused on a very specific area, consider tungsten
halogen lights – either standard or low-voltage. Avoid using halogen lights in torchiere floor lamps – they can
be a fire hazard.
4. Make use of natural daylighting whenever possible, especially in rooms that are used a lot during the daytime.
In some situations you may need to rearrange your furniture to position your work-space by a window or under a
skylight. In an upstairs room, you might want to consider putting in a skylight. (If you have an unheated attic
above the ceiling, you will have to construct a light-well with insulated walls to allow the light to get down into
the room.)
5. If you choose to continue using incandescent bulbs, use one high-wattage bulb in place of multiple low wattage
bulbs wherever possible. A 100-watt light bulb produces as much light as two 60-watt bulbs. Use incandescent
bulbs that are energy efficient and avoid long-life bulbs.
6. If you tend to keep outdoor lights on all the time, buy and install a photo-sensor or motion-detector. Most
hardware stores and building supply stores now carry these; if you can’t find what you need there, try an
electrical equipment dealer.
7. Utilize lighting controls and install timers, dimmers, and occupancy sensors in appropriate rooms.
8. If you need a lot of outside illumination (for a tennis court or swimming pool, for example), consider replacing
incandescent lights with HID lights (either high-pressure sodium or metal halide).
9. Call your electric utility company to see whether they offer any incentives or assistance for purchasing
compact fluorescent lights.
10. Use task lighting, which is focusing light on the area that you need light and avoid lighting up the entire
room.
11. Turn off lights when not in use.
12. Clean fixtures, lamps, and lenses annually to remove dust and dirt that is preventing proper illumination and
minimizing lighting efficiency.
13. Dispose of all fluorescent light bulbs properly.
14. Look for the Energy Star label when purchasing new lighting products.
Sports facilities
The following details apply to
competition class I (lower
requirements apply to classes II
and III)
Ēm and Ra data according to
European Standard EN 12193
General school sports data from
EN 12464
An Ra level of 80 should be
preferred
For lighting for training purposes,
usually an UGRL level of 22
should be observed
The ELI Ergonomic Lighting Indicator considers as many as five criteria of ergonomic quality.
Individual criteria are evaluated on the basisof specific checklists.
The more individual aspects are fulfilled, the higher the rating.
EMERGENCY AND EXIT LIGHTING.
5-6.1 Introduction.
\2\ Mark and illuminate means of egress in accordance with NFPA 101. /2/ The purpose of emergency lighting is
to ensure the continuation of illuminance along the \2\ means /2/ of egress from a building and provide
adequate light for the orderly cessation of activities in the building. The purpose of exit lights is to identify the
\2\ means /2/ of egress. Both types of lighting must be powered from both a normal power source and an
emergency source, with automatic switching from one to the other.
5-6.2 In some specific situations, emergency lighting might be required for specific spaces or work areas that are
not on the \2\ means \2\ of egress. There are often areas where work of a critical nature must continue
regardless of loss of normal power, such as a computer \2\server /2/ room. In health care facilities, including
hospitals, skilled nursing homes, and residential custodial care facilities, lighting for the \2\ means /2/ of egress
(including exit signs) and elevator cabs is considered “life safety” lighting and must be connected to the life safety
branch of the facility’s emergency power system. Task illumination at anesthetizing locations, patient care areas,
laboratories, intensive care units, recovery rooms, and other locations as required by NFPA 70, Article 517 are
considered “critical” lighting and must be powered from the critical power branch of the facility’s emergency
power system. In applications where the loss of light, even momentary, would endanger personnel or risk other
loss or damage, provide lighting systems to maintain constant illumination through the use of an uninterruptible
power supply of sufficient capacity to permit an orderly cessation of activity. This lighting is in addition to \2\
means of egress /2/ lighting.
Emergency lighting legislation lays down specific
requirements for the design and performance of
exit signage. All Thorn emergency exit signs are
designed to comply with these regulations
When designing an emergency lighting scheme, levels
of glare must be carefully considered.
This hypothetical application gives examples of
areas that require emergency lighting. It also
includes a brief list of requirements that different
types of emergency lighting must satisfy.
IDA in Partnership with NOAO, NSF and IYA Dark Skies
Awareness
 Define Nightscape

 For many centuries the nightscape was the

moon and stars. During a full moon it
would be relatively bright and during a
new moon, rather dark.
 For urban dwellers over the last 100 years
it has come to be described as lighting
buildings, streets, and open spaces.
 Could there be a compromise?

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 History

 Street lighting as we know it began

approximately 300 years ago.
 These were oil lamps placed on wooden poles
 By the early 18th century oil lamps were still
used but the poles and lamps were made of
cast-iron fixtures.
 The beginning of the 19 saw gas lamps come
th
into use.
 By the 20th century electric lamps were in
wide use.

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 What is outdoor lighting now?

 Street lighting
 Roadway lighting
 Parks
 Stadiums
 Parking lots
 Landscaping
 Residential
 Buildings
 Pedestrian and Bicycling Pathways

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 Purpose of outdoor lighting

 Provide a safe and secure environment

at night.
 Extend the use of parks and walkways
into the night.
 To enhance historic/notable features
 To enhance travel on the roads and at
intersections.

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Awareness
 What is light pollution?
 It is wasted light that performs no function or task
 Such as sky glow
 Glare
 It is artificial light that goes where it’s not supposed to go
 Neighbor’s window
 Into the sky

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 Outdoor Lighting

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 Outdoor lighting should…
 Enhance visibility, not impede it
 Not produce glare
 Be a part of the total nightscape,
not all of it
 Not allow light trespass on other’s
property
 Have a master plan

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Awareness
 Outdoor lighting should…

 Provide a safe and secure environment

 Create safe routes for traffic, cyclists and pedestrians
 Facilitate the extended use of outdoor spaces

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Awareness
 Shielded Luminaires

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Awareness
 Importance of Shielding Light

 Unshielded lights produce

 Sky Glow
 Glare

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Awareness
 The Issues

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Awareness
 Unshielded Luminaires Waste Energy
 Light that spills out, away from the task it needs to be used for is wasted energy,
and wasted money.
 Environmentally responsible outdoor lighting reduces this waste and costs no
more than earlier manufactured light fixtures.
 Below- the Escondido Education Center before on the left and after on the right.
Unnecessary lights on the roof only added to their light bill, not to the safety of
the parking lot.

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Awareness
 Non-shielded lights are unsafe
 The glaring lamp to the right of the path was installed to protect students at night.

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 Where did the student go?

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 Negative Impact on Wildlife

 Animals and plants live by a rhythm

based on a 24 hour cycle. Wildlife and
fish can become disoriented by too much
artificial light at night.
 It interferes with migration, mating,
foraging for food, and sleep.

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Awareness
 Negative Impact on Human Health

 Light trespass into

bedrooms disrupts sleep
patterns.
 Glare in our eyes can be
blinding and reduce our
night vision.
 New research is being done
to discover the impact to
our biological clocks.
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Awareness
 Negative Impact on Astronomy

 Light pollution negatively affects

one of our greatest natural
laboratories, the night skies.
 This is an important industry that
has given us
 Cell phone technology
 X-rays, MRI’s, and medical imaging
 Satellite communications

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Awareness
 Solutions

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Awareness
 Solutions
 Outdoor lights should be “full cut-
off” or “fully shielded.” That means
no light above the 90 degree angle.
 Fully shielded lighting can be
purchased or retrofitted
 Use timers, dimmers, and motions
sensors.
 Motion sensors in a parking lot or on
a house provide an alert to after
hours activity that a dusk to dawn
sensor does not.

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Awareness
 Lamps

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 Types of Lamps

 There are four basic types:

 Incandescent
 Fluorescent
High-Pressure
 High-intensity discharge Sodium

CFL

 Including: Mercury Vapor, Metal Halide, High Pressure Sodium and Low Pressure
sodium
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 LED technology is still relatively new

Low-Pressure Sodium

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 Incandescent

 Most common in homes

 It uses electric current to heat a tiny coil of
tungsten metal inside a glass bulb to
produce light.
 Have short lives
 Convert most of their energy into heat
rather than light

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Awareness
Fluorescent

 Used mostly in commercial

settings
 It produces light when electric
current is conducted through
mercury an inert gases.
 3 to 4 times more efficient than
incandescent, and lasts 10
times longer
 Produces up to 100/lumens per
watt (approximately)

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High-Intensity Discharge

 Used mainly for large area applications

 Provide higher efficacy and longer
service life
 Most common types are mercury vapor
(MV), metal halide (MH), and high-
pressure sodium (HPS)
 MetalHalide – 100/lumens per watt
 HPS – up to 150/lumens per watt
 MV – being phased out

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Awareness
 HID continued
Low-Pressure Sodium
 Also considered a high intensity discharge
lamp, but it has some unique characteristics.
 Used in outdoor applications
 Most efficient form of artificial lighting
 Maintain their light output better than other
lamps
 Older technology, not many manufacturers
producing new product
 Produces up to 200/lumens per watt

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LED vs. HPS

442
 Types of Luminaires

 Column mounted fittings: used for streets,

car parking, cycle tracks and pedestrian
areas (pictured: Pacific Lighting model TRL)
 Wall mounted lanterns: used most
commonly for security (pictured: Lighting by Brandford model
Glarebuster)

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 Types of Luminaires

 Lighting bollards: used for pathway and

area lighting (pictured: Architectural Area Lighting model Concrete
bollard)

 Recessed fittings: used for pathways, or

where buried in the ground for uplighting
structures, trees and other incidents. (pictured:
Deck-Lighting model deck light)

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Awareness
 Following six slides show shielded and
unshielded outdoor lighting examples

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 Recessed lighting done
badly, and
Recessed lighting done well.

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 Fully shielded lighting at an airport

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 Unshielded lighting at an ATM

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A typical un-shielded mercury vapor luminaire

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Awareness
 How shielded lighting reduces glare
 The image below is a test site
for fully shielded street lights.
To the right; the same lights
shown in comparison to the
un-shielded existing lights.

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Awareness
 Design & Measurements

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 Designing a Lighting Audit

 We need to be familiar with some more

terms before we go on:
 Area lighting: lighting provided to illuminate
open areas uniformly
 Annual operating costs: cost per year of
electricity, maintenance including replacement
parts & labor
 This contributes to how much energy we want to save
 Illumination: the distribution of light on a
horizontal surface, measured in footcandles

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 More things to consider

 Luminance: The photometric quantity most

closely associated with the perception of
brightness.
 Lumens is the overall output of the luminaire.
 Energy Use: The product of power (watts) and
time (hours).

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Awareness
 Power Density or Light Footprint
 Power density is a measure of electrical power per unit
area, measured in watts per square foot or square meter.
Many building codes prescribe maximum power density
values for various areas of use in an effort to promote
the use of energy-efficient products.
 Unit Power Density is the energy for lighting, divided by
the outside area. Unit Power Density (W/sq.ft.) = Total
System Input Wattage (W) ÷ Total Area (Square Feet)

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Awareness
 Pole Mounting Height

 Luminaires on poles can provide

illumination in every direction at
distances of two to two and half
times the mounting height from
the pole. Thus, luminaires on a
single pole can serve an area of
about four times the mounting
height - squared. For example, a
50-ft pole can cover about
40,000 sq ft and a 150-ft pole
about 369,000 sq ft.
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Awareness
IDA in Partnership with NOAO, NSF and IYA Dark Skies
Awareness
IDA in Partnership with NOAO, NSF and IYA Dark Skies
Awareness
IDA in Partnership with NOAO, NSF and IYA Dark Skies
Awareness
Standards, Codes and Regulations
When designing lighting systems, there are some specific standards and codes that must be taken into
account. These provide useful advice and guidance as well as specifying any mandatory requirements.
Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) already apply to certain pieces of equipment in the lighting
industry. This ensures that when these items are manufactured they meet the performance standards.
In May of 2006 the Australian Government introduced a mandatory section for maximum energy requirements
in new buildings through the Building Code of Australia. The particular reference to lighting is in Section J6
and details the maximum values of lumens per watt (lm/w) and watts per square metre (w/m2) allowable for
certain building classes and tasks performed.
Building classes are listed below
The Deemed-to-Satisfy provisions are based on a maximum power density for different lighting tasks.
o Classes 2, 3 and 9c are Lamp Power Density (LPD) and defined as watts /m2 (lamp wattage only)
Classes 5,6,7,8, 9a & 9b are Illumination Power Density (IPD) and defined as watts /m2 (lamp wattage
and control gear losses included) The brief precis below from the BCA shows some of the IPD’s required:
Exterior Artificial Lighting must:
i. Be automatically switched off when daylight is available; and
ii. When the total external lighting load exceeds 100 watts
A. Have an average light source efficacy of not less than 60 lumens per watt; or
B. Be controlled by a motion detector in accordance with Specification J6
iii. When for decorative purposes, such as facade lighting or signage lighting, have a separate
time switch
The requirements of the code do not apply to artificial lighting used for the purposes listed in J6.2 (d) i.e.
• Emergency Lighting in accordance with part E4
• Signage and Display lighting within cabinets and display cases
• Safe movement in accordance with part F4.4
• Accommodation and Residential section of a detention centre
• Bathroom heating
• Lighting of theatrical or musical performances
• The permanent display and preservation of works of art or objects in a museum or gallery but not for retail
Factory Lighting
This case study contains a “standard” and a “high efficiency” design for a 500m2 factory or
warehouse. The “high efficiency” design is suitable for new installations or for retrofitting of existing
installations. The lighting design was undertaken with the aid of a lighting design software package.
The “high efficiency” designs utilises efficient luminaires which have a higher light output ratio (as
discussed in the Design chapter).

The high efficiency option would result in a slight increase in costs

(primarily for high quality luminaires).
For the 500m2 factory/warehouse, an additional cost of $5000 has
been estimated, which would pay back in less than 1 year.
Greenhouse gas emissions savings of around 44 tonnes per annum
would result from the high efficiency option, which is the equivalent
of taking 11 cars off the road.
Use of daylight dimming will achieve further significant
energy savings. Note that motion detectors are not suitable for
HID lamps, due to the long re-strike time.
Residential Living Room
For a 6m x 6m living room, this case study compares a poor standard design to an efficient new design, as well
as a simple retrofit for the poor design.

This case study shows that considerable savings are achievable in residential lighting design, particularly by
moving from 50W down lights to appropriate CFLs.
Note that there is a slight reduction in light level, which is considered acceptable as ELV halogen lamps tend to
over-light most applications in order to provide uniformity.
The cost of the simple retrofit has been estimated at $500, which would pay back in around 3 years.
Outdoor Security Lighting
This case study examines a single outdoor luminaire. Poor, good and high efficiency options are
considered.

The high efficiency option results in less light output, although it is

considered anecdotally that the
halogen floodlight will tend to over light most security applications.
The Good option still results in
significant power and cost savings.
The cost of the good and high efficiency options have been estimated at
$500, which would pay
back in the first year.
 Benefits from
Energy Efficient Lighting Retrofit
 Improved Controls
 Improved Color Rendition/Visibility
in Space  HVAC Savings
 Less Maintenance
 Tax Incentives
 Adjust to target light levels (IES)
 Incentive from Utility Rebate Programs
 Longer Lamp Life
 HID Upgrade to Fluorescent Lamps

• 400-Watt Metal Halide = 455 watts input

• 6-Lamp T8 Fixture = 234 watts
 Older Lighting Technology Subject to be Changed Out

•T-12 Fluorescent-4’ and 8’ Systems

•Fluorescent Magnetic Ballasts

•Incandescent

•Standard Metal Halide

•Mercury Vapor

•Neon

•Manual Controls
 New Energy Efficient Lighting Replacements

•T8, T5 and T5HO Fluorescent Systems

•Electronic Ballasts

•Halogen

•Pulse Start and Ceramic Metal Halide

•LED

•Bi-Level and Continuous Dimming Systems

•New Fixtures
 Change from Old to New
and Save Energy and $$
OLD TECHNOLOGY => NEW TECHNOLOGY

• T12 Fluorescent – 4’ and 8’ Systems • T8, T5 and T5HO Fluorescent Systems

• Magnetic Ballasts • Electronic Ballasts

• Incandescent • Halogen IR, MH & LED

• Halogen • Metal Halide and LED

• Probe Start Metal Halide • Pulse Start and

and Mercury Vapor Ceramic Metal Halide

• Neon •LED

• Manual Controls •Automatic Controls, Bi-Level and Continuous

Dimming Systems
 Fluorescent Change-out

•Existing: 4-lamp 2’x4’ Fixture with F34T12CWES lamps and EE magnetic ballasts – lowest efficiency
allowed by code today.

•Replacement: 4-lamp 2’x4’ Fixture with F32T8/835 lamps and electronic ballasts BF=0.88 (standard
BF)

•What is wrong with this energy efficient change-out?

We did not use correct new technology to Maximize Energy
Savings and meet target light levels!

•Best options for replacing 34-watt T12 fluorescent systems:

•Low Power electronic ballasts (BF=0.78)
•Energy saving 4’ lamps (30,28, or 25w)
•Less lamps per fixture (3 instead of 4)

•Minimal additional cost and can Lock-in maximum energy savings with low power ballasts and fewer
lamps per fixture

•Use with Extra Performance or Energy Savings lamps ad correct ballast factor to meet target light levels
and maximize energy savings!
 “Super T8” Fluorescent System

•Older T8s called “700 series”

•Newer Super T8s called “800 series”
•3000K, 3500K, or 4100K versions
•30,000 hour lamp life @ 3 hours per start
•3100-3150 initial lumens
•Universal Voltage (120-277V)
•4-foot lamp: 30, 28 or 25 watts; Low input wattage (4-lamp: 93/89 watts)
•95% lumen maintenance @ 8000 hours
•Low Temperature Starting (0˚F)
•Lamp/Ballast System Warranty 5 Years
•85 CRI
•Program Start Ballasts
•TCLP-compliant
 Instant Start Super T8 vs. Standard T8

• 800-series Super T8s have 96% of system lumens of 700-series lamps with standard ballasts

•19% reduction in power

•Double lamp life (3 hrs. per start)

•Maximum life on occupancy sensors

25 Watt T8 Advantage Long Life Lamp from
Philips Lighting
•Long lamp life (40,000 hours of rated average life at 12 hours per start on Optanium™ Instant Start
ballasts and 46,000 hours of rated average life at 12 hours per start on Optanium™ Programmed Start
Ballasts)

•2400 lumens with 95 percent lumen maintenance

•Superior color rendering (a CRI of 85)

•Low mercury (Philips ALTO® lamps average 70% less mercury than the 2001 industry average for
fluorescent lamps up to 60 inches, which are not TCLP compliant) 1.7 mg Mercury per 4’ lamp
Fluorescent Lamp/Ballast Change-out vs. New
Fixture “Rules of Thumb”
•Install new fixtures when:
•Existing fixtures are over 20 years old
•Lamp holders are worn out
•Multiple components are failing
•Design requires change in fixture type

•Retrofit existing fixtures with lamps & ballasts when:

•Existing fixtures are less than 20 years old
•Lamp holders and other components are still good
•Budget is very tight
•Expensive/Difficult/Environmental Conditions Present
(i.e. asbestos or excessive piping and ducts in ceiling, etc.)
 T5 and T5HO Systems
•One T5HO lamp provides similar maintained lumen output to two T8 lamps
(4750 vs. 4669 maintained lumens)

•Maintained lumens are higher – fixtures are smaller

•Peak light output at 95˚F ambient air temperature instead of 77˚F with
T8 and T12

•Amalgam technology has been added to provide a more constant lumen output across a broad range of
ambient temperatures!
 T5 and T5HO
Systems

•Disadvantages

• T5 and T5HO lamp life is less than T8s

• The bulb wall surface of the T5 is very bright. Care must be exercised in using T5 lamp in direct
lighting applications.
• Costs higher than T8 – cost can be balanced by a reduction in the number of luminaries used.
• Lead times may be longer – T5s require compete fixture replacement.
• In cooler temperatures or high CFM air distribution the T5 or T5HO may not perform well (peak
light output at 95 °F).
• May not work well with occupancy sensors due to slow lumen run-up with cold start.
T5HO vs. T8 Application Rules of Thumb

•≤ 20’ – use T8

•≥ 20’ – use T5HO

•18’ to 25’ – either T8 or T5HO can be used successfully

•Over 50 types of 4’ T8 lamps available

•Two T5 lamps: 28w T5 and 54w T5HO

•To get T5HO performance out of T8 lamps, use high-lumen/high performance

T8 lamps

•Typical T8 electronic ballast factors range from 0.72 to 1.2.

T5HO vs. T8 for Warehouse Aisles Rule of
Thumb
•In general for warehouse aisles, T5HO will perform better in non-air-conditioned spaces and T8 performs
better in air-conditioned spaces.

•Reason: Ambient temperature of T5HO rating for peak performance is 35 degrees C (95F) and T8 is
rated at 25C (77F).

Source: Warehouse aisle lighting – p. 16 – LD&A Feb 2009-

article by Siva K. Haran, PE, LEED, AP, IES
 HVAC Savings from
Lighting Retrofit

•1 watt saved = 3,412 BTUs of heat removed

•Heat removed with Efficient Lighting is:

•A savings when cooling (A/C is on)
•A cost when heating is on

•Rules of Thumb to count HVAC savings

•Unitary Equipment: Lighting Savings x .1 to .2
•Chiller Equipment: Lighting Savings x .05 to .1

•Example: Lighting Savings = $2,000.00

$2,000 x .1 = $200 savings from Unitary HVAC

 An Increase in Quality Can Improve Worker Productivity

 1% increase in productivity is about

equal to one sick day

 Improve employee satisfaction and

reduce turnover/replacement
expenses
for new employees.

 Improves Company bottom line

 Indirect Lighting is preferred by

many today!
What’s the Most Efficient Light Source?
 Daylighting Advantages

Excellent light source for almost all interior

spaces – offices, homes, retail, schools and
more; People prefer it!

Field research indicates that with daylighting:

• Learning is enhanced
• Retail sales increase (Wal-Mart study)
• Employee satisfaction increases

Energy Savings is realized when controls are

used
 Conducting a Lighting Survey

Why Conduct a Lighting Survey? – to identify improvement opportunities. It is a systematic exam and
appraisal of building lighting systems.

Step 1 – Establish a base line of performance

Step 2 – Identify opportunities for improvement
Step 3 – Calculate savings and potential payback

The quality of the information collected in the survey has a direct impact on steps 2 and 3
 Suggestions for a Lighting Survey
•Ask the right questions to meet the client’s goals

•Gather ALL the right information

•Don’t assume – check the existing equipment to obtain accurate information

•Determine Economic Calculations Required

•Is a test installation needed?

•Lighting Fixtures
•Controls

•Consider all drivers to reduce the payback

•Use a pre-printed form or spreadsheet template

 Information and Data to Collect in a Lighting Survey
• Floor plan of the building/space with dimensions if available

• Electric bills for 1 year to determine average cost per kWh over the year

• Tasks being performed in each area – Talk to occupants in the area

• Type (fixture input wattage and lamps/ballasts type), quantity, mounting height, and control of fixtures in each
space

• Lighting operating hours per year and footcandle levels for each space

•Circuit Voltage

• Exit signs (light source)

• Talk with building occupants about operating practices and satisfaction with the level and quality of lighting

• Talk with maintenance staff about equipment condition and any recurring problems.
Thank You

 Good luck with your activities,

and remember “dark skies” does
not mean “dark ground.”
 You are now unofficial lighting
geeks.

IDA in Partnership with NOAO, NSF and IYA Dark Skies

Awareness