Electrical

FOUL TS
Electricity 101
&
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON COMPANY

PROTECTUTION
3
 Basic protection (protection against direct contact) is protection from contact with live parts provided by
basic insulation, or by barriers or enclosures. • Fault protection (protection against indirect contact) is
provided by protective earthing, protective equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection in case of fault.
In the event of a fault between a live conductor and an exposed-conductive part of equipment, sufficient fault
current flows to operate (trip or fuse) the overcurrent protection.
 The subject of protection in the electrical power industry is vast: it covers all aspects of safety for personnel,
and protection against damage or destruction of property, plant, and equipment.
 These different aspects of protection can be broadly classified according to the following objectives:
o Protection of personnel and animals against the dangers of overvoltages and electric shock, fire, explosions,
and toxic gases, etc.
o Protection of the plant, equipment and components of a power system against the stresses of short-circuit
faults, atmospheric surges (lightning) and power-system instability (loss of synchronism) etc.
o Protection of personnel and plant from the dangers of incorrect power-system operation, by the use of
electrical and mechanical interlocking. All classes of switchgear (including, for example, tap-position selector
switches on transformers, and so on...) have well-defined operating limits.
 This means that the order in which the different kinds of switching device can be safely closed or opened is
vitally important. Interlocking keys and analogous electrical control circuits are frequently used to ensure
strict compliance with correct operating sequences.
 It is beyond the scope of a guide to describe in full technical detail the numerous schemes of protection
available to power-systems engineers, but it is hoped that the following sections will prove to be useful through
a discussion of general principles.
 While some of the protective devices mentioned are of universal application.
Protection against electric shocks
 Protective measures against electric shock are based on two common dangers:
 b Contact with an active conductor, i.e. which is live with respect to earth in normal circumstances. This is
referred to as a “direct contact” hazard.
 b Contact with a conductive part of an apparatus which is normally dead, but which has become live due to
insulation failure in the apparatus. This is referred to as an “indirect contact” hazard.
 It may be noted that a third type of shock hazard can exist in the proximity of MV or LV (or mixed) earth
electrodes which are passing earth-fault currents. This hazard is due to potential gradients on the surface of
the ground and is referred to as a “step-voltage” hazard; shock current enters one foot and leaves by the other
foot, and is particular dangerous for four-legged animals. A variation of this danger, known as a “touch
voltage” hazard can occur, for instance, when an earthed metallic part is situated in an area in which potential
gradients exist.
 Touching the part would cause current to pass through the hand and both feet.
 Animals with a relatively long front-to-hind legs span are particularly sensitive to step-voltage hazards and
cattle have been killed by the potential gradients caused by a low voltage (230/400 V) neutral earth electrode
of insufficiently low resistance.
 Potential-gradient problems of the kind mentioned above are not normally encountered in electrical
installations of buildings, providing that equipotential conductors properly bond all exposed metal parts of
equipment and all extraneous metal (i.e. not part of an electrical apparatus or the installation - for example
 structural steelwork, etc.) to the protective-earthing conductor.
Direct-contact protection or basic protection
The main form of protection against direct contact hazards is to contain all live parts in housings of insulating
material or in metallic earthed housings, by placing out of reach (behind insulated barriers or at the top of poles)
or by means of obstacles.
Where insulated live parts are housed in a metal envelope, for example transformers, electric motors and many
domestic appliances, the metal envelope is connected to the installation protective earthing system.
For MV switchgear, the IEC standard 62271-200 (Prefabricated Metal Enclosed switchgear and controlgear for
voltages up to 52 kV) specifies a minimum Protection Index (IP coding) of IP2X which ensures the direct-contact
protection. Furthermore, the metallic enclosure has to demonstrate an electrical continuity, then establishing
a good segregation between inside and ouside of the enclosure. Proper grounding of the enclosure further
participates to the electrical protection of the operators under normal operating conditions.
For LV appliances this is achieved through the third pin of a 3-pin plug and socket.
Total or even partial failure of insulation to the metal, can raise the voltage of the envelope to a dangerous level
(depending on the ratio of the resistance of the leakage path through the insulation, to the resistance from the
metal envelope to earth).
Indirect-contact protection or fault protection
A person touching the metal envelope of an apparatus with a faulty insulation, as described above, is said to be
making an indirect contact.
An indirect contact is characterized by the fact that a current path to earth exists (through the protective
earthing (PE) conductor) in parallel with the shock current through the person concerned.
Case of fault on L.V. system
Extensive tests have shown that, providing the potential of the metal envelope is not greater than 50 V with
respect to earth, or to any conductive material within reaching distance, no danger exists.
Indirect-contact hazard in the case of a MV fault
If the insulation failure in an apparatus is between a MV conductor and the metal envelope, it is not generally
possible to limit the rise of voltage of the envelope to 50 V or less, simply by reducing the earthing resistance
to a low value. The solution in this case is to create an equipotential situation, as described in Sub-clause 1.1
“Earthing systems”.
Earth connection resistance
Insulation faults affecting the MV substation’s equipment (internal) or resulting from atmospheric
overvoltages (external) may generate earth currents capable of causing physical injury or damage to
equipment.
Preventive measures essentially consist of:
 Interconnecting all substation frames and connecting them to the earth bar
 Minimising earth resistance
Earthing
Introduction:
All modern electrical installation, both low-voltage and high voltage, must be provided with earthed
grounding systems.By a ground system is meant a number of grounding rods or electrodes which are in direct
contact, and the metal conductors which connect them grounded ports of electrical installation.

Types Of Earthing :
Operative or power earthing :
A grounding system which is especially designed to ground given points of an electrical circuit and is
necessary for the normal and emergency operation of such a circuit is termed an operative or power
grounding system.

Protective or safety earthen:

A protective ground connection is the term used to denote a ground circuit which connects the grounding
rods or electrodes to the metal parts of ah electrical installation, which or normally insulated from the line
parts, this circuit serving for protection against the appearance of a dangerous voltage on the equipment and
against hazardous surface or step potential.
Specifications require the carrying out of periodic checking of grounding rods or electrodes in particular.
The factors influencing the earth resistance of an electrode or combination of electrodes:
The composition of the soil in the immediate neighborhood.
The first four factors influence the resistively of the soil near the electrode, while the remaining two factors
depend on the type of electrode system used.
Grounding Systems
There are basically six (6) grounding systems in use. And they are:
1- Equipment grounds
2- Static grounds.
3- Systems grounds.
4- Maintenance grounds.
5- Electronic grounds.
6- Lightning grounds.
1-Equipment grounds
An equipment ground is the physical connection to earth of non-current carrying metal parts.
This type grounding is done so that all metal part of equipment that personnel can come into contact with
are always at or near zero (0) volts with respect to ground.
All metal parts must be interconnected and grounded by a conductor in such away as to ensure a path of
lowest impedance for flow of ground fault current. Typical items (equipment) to be grounded are; electrical
motor frames, outlet boxes, breaker panels, metal conduit, support structures, cable tray..ect.
2 -Static grounds
A static ground is a connection made between a piece of equipment and the earth for the purpose of draining off
static electricity charges before a flash over potential is reached.
This type grounding system is utilized in dry materials handling, flammable liquid pumps and delivery
equipment, plastic piping, and explosive storage facilities.
3- System grounds:
A system ground refers to the point in an electrical circuit that is connected to earth. This connection point is
typically at the electrical neutral. The sole purpose of the system ground is to protect equipment. This type
ground also provides a low impedance path for fault currents improving ground fault coordination. This ensures
longer insulation life of motors, transformers and other system components
TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS:
1. Ungrounded System
2. Solidly Grounded System
3. Resistance/Impedance Grounded System.
4- Maintenance grounds
This type ground is utilized for safe work practices, and is a temporary ground.
5- Electronic and computer grounds
Grounding for electronic equipment(called also Clean Ground) is a special case in which the equipment ground
and the system ground are combined and applied in unity. Electronic equipment grounding systems must not
only provide a means of stabilizing input voltage levels, but also act as the zero (0) voltage reference point.
Grounding systems for the modern electronics installation must be able to provide effective grounding and
bonding functions well into the high frequency megahertz range.
6 - Lightning protection
Lightning protection grounding requirements are dependent upon the structure, equipment to be protected, and
the level of lightning protection required of desired.
 Radial Earthing Method

Under Foundation buried Ring earthing

 Total Resistance of earthing rods Calculation
Net earthing method Total resistance of earthing rods

Resistance for earthing rod

Using Factor

Number of earthing rods

Design of earth electrode
Earth resistivity, ρ = 2πSR Ω-m , where S = distance between successive electrode in m, R = earth megger
reading in Ω.
Permissible current density for 3 sec;
Copper = 118 A/mm² Aluminum = 73 A/mm² Steel (GI) = 46 A/mm²

Current density permissible at an earth electrode,

where, t = duration of fault current (3 sec)
Electrode resistance:

(a) For pipe or rod electrode

where, d= dia of rod and l = length of rod/ pipe in cm

(b) For strip or round conductor

where, w= depth of burial of strip electrode in cm

and t = width of strip or twice the dia of circular conductor in cm.

(c) For plate electrode

where, A= area of both sides of plate in m²

Specification
• The earth rod shall be situated at a distance not less than 1.5 m from the building whose installation being
earthed
• The size of the continuity conductor shall be 2.9 mm2 (14 SWG) or half of the installation conductor size.
• The permissible value of earth resistance is,
o Large Power Station - 0.5 Ω
o Major Power Station - 1 Ω
o Small Substation - 2 Ω
o In all other cases - 5 Ω
o Earth continuity resistance - 1 Ω (between earth plate and any earth conductor)

Fault Level Calculations

where d = spacing between conductors and r = radius of conductor

DESIGN EXAMPLE:

Supply voltage – 11 kV, fault level at 11 kV side at substation – 350 MVA, length of 11 kV feeder from substation
to factory – 3 km, 11 kV conductor size – 95 Sq. mm, spacing of conductor – 1 m, resistance of line – 0.5 Ω/ km.
Rating of transformer at factory – 900 kVA, 11 kV/433 V, % impedance – 6 Ω (2 Nos in parallel). Soil resistivity,
ρ = 200 Ω-m
Solution:
Take base values: 100 MVA, 11 kV

Spacing between cond. = 1000mm

 % impedance of transformer at new base MVA
( ie,100 MVA) =

XL = 2π F L = 1.03 Ω, R = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5 Ω

since two transformers are in parallel the
effective impedance =

Total % impedance up to 433 V bus

= 40 + 333.33 = 373.33%

S/C MVA at 433 kV bus

Total % impedance up to factory = 150.4 + 28.5 = 178.97%
S/C MVA at 11 kV side at factory = (100 x 100)/ 178.97 = = 26.78 MVA
55.87%
Considering the future expansion (say new substation) in Corresponding fault current =
the source side , S/C MVA is taken as 250 MVA.
[Note: unless otherwise specified, a minimum fault level at
11 kV shall be taken as 250 MVA] = 35.71 kA
Earthing design:
Current density of copper – 118 A/mm² (for 3 sec)

Size of conductor at 11 kV side = = 111.2 mm²

Nearest standard size = 25 x 6 mm cu strip

Size of conductor at MV side = = 302.32 mm²

Nearest standard size = 63 x 6 mm cu strip

Permissible current density at electrode =

Plate electrode of 1.2 x 1.2 x 0.012m is used for earthing

Total area of both sides of plate electrode = 1.2 x 1.2 x 2 = 2.88 m²
Area required to dissipate fault at 11 kV side

Number of plate required

Therefore 15 plate electrodes are to be provided.

Supply systems require a safety electrical earthing facility. The manner in which this is effected will depend on
whether the supply is overhead or underground and the conductive property of the ground surrounding the
installation. Systems are classified in accordance with a letter coding:
First letter † type of earthing:
T - at least one point of the supply is directly earthed.
I - the supply is not directly earthed, but connected to earth
through a current limiting impedance. Not acceptable for public
supplies in the UK.
Second letter † installation earthing arrangement:
T - all exposed conductive metalwork is directly earthed.
N - all exposed conductive metalwork is connected to an earth
provided by the supply company.
Third and fourth letters † earth conductor arrangement:
S - earth and neutral conductors separate.
C - earth and neutral conductors combined.
Common supply and earthing arrangements are:
TT , TN-S and TN-C-S in addition to TI and TN-C
TT system:
Most used in rural areas where the supply is overhead. An earth terminal and electrode is provided on site by
the consumer. As an extra safety feature, a residual current device (RCD), generally known as a trip switch, is
located between the meter and consumer unit. The RCD in this situation should be of the time delayed type
TN-S Earthing System TN-C Earthing System
TN-C-S Earthing System TT Earthing System

IT Earthing System
ELCB Connection to TN-S system
Equipotential Bar

Important for TN systems

Insulation monitoring devices (IMDs)
Most of BS 7671: 2008’s rules (538.1) for insulation monitoring devices (IMDs) cover their use in IT systems (e.g.
for first fault conditions). This is a rare and specialist area. Some limited information can be found in BS EN
61557–8.
Residual current monitors (RCMs)
Still a relatively rare device, the residual current monitor (RCM) is similar to RCDs, but instead of tripping a
circuit, monitoring is provided. The monitoring can be visual or, at a pre-determined value of residual current, it
can create an audible signal or a signal for remote monitoring. RCMs are useful devices in main distribution
panels, and in this configuration monitor several circuits at once.
In a larger installation a three-phase RCM device positioned in the main distribution board will be extremely
useful. These devices can be widely used and Figure D 8.4 indicates examples of where RCMs are used in mains,
riser and final distribution board positions.
What is an RCD and what does it do?
 An RCD is defined, in BS 7671, as: ‘A mechanical switching device or association of devices intended to cause
the opening of the contacts when the residual current attains a given value under specified conditions’.
 An RCD is a protective device used to automatically disconnect the electrical supply when an imbalance is
detected between live conductors. In the case of a single-phase circuit, the device monitors the difference in
currents between the phase and neutral conductors.
 In a healthy circuit, where there is no earth fault current or protective conductor current, the sum of the
currents in the phase and neutral conductors is zero.
 If a phase to earth fault develops, a portion of the phase conductor current will not return through the neutral
conductor. The device monitors this difference, operates and disconnects the circuit when the residual current
reaches a preset limit, the residual operating current (IΔn).
 RCDs are used to provide protection against the specific dangers that may arise in electrical installations
including:
o protection against indirect contact
o supplementary protection against direct contact
o protection against fire and thermal effects
An RCD on its own does not provide protection against overcurrents.
Overcurrent protection is provided by a fuse or a miniature circuit-breaker (MCB).
However, combined RCD and MCBs are available and are designated RCBOs.
Types of RCDs
RCD is the generic term for a device that operates when the residual current in the circuit reaches predetermined
value. The table indicates the different types of RCD available, a description of each device and examples of how
the device is used.
2.1 Older installations with ELCBs
 Historically, two basic types of earth leakage circuit-breaker (ELCB) were recognised by the Regulations; the
 familiar current-operated type and the earlier voltage-operated type. The voltage-operated type ceased to be
 recognised by the Regulations in 1981 and today, only the current-operated type is recognised. The voltage
operated device can be distinguished by its two separate earthing terminals
 – one for the connection of the earthing conductor of the installation and the other for a connection to a means
of earthing. Such devices were often used on installations forming part of a TT system where the means of
earthing was an earth electrode. The major drawback with the voltage operated earth leakage circuit-breaker is
that a parallel earth path can disable the device.
 Recognised devices
 RCDs are manufactured to harmonised standards and can be identified by their BS EN numbers. An RCD
found in an older installation may not provide protection in accordance with current standards. The following
list identifies the applicable current standards:
 > BS 4293 : 1983 (1993) Specification for residual current operated circuit-breakers. (Replaced by BS EN
61008- 1: 1995, BS EN 61008-2-1: 1995 and BS IEC 61008-2-2: 1990). This Standard remains current
 > BS 7071 : 1992 (1998) Specification for portable residual current devices
 > BS 7288 : 1990 (1998) Specification for socket-outlets incorporating residual current devices. (SRCDs)
 > BS EN 61008-1 : 1995 (2001) Residual current operated circuit-breakers without integral overcurrent
protection for household and similar uses (RCCBs)
B.S (Sudan and UAE,Qatar)

→RCD (Residual Current Devices )

→ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)

NEC (KSA)
→ GFCI : Ground fault Circuit Breaker
Bonding Systems
 These should not be confused with Earthing Systems Bonding conductors are used to link conductive parts
together to ensure that any voltages between the system earthed equipment and extraneous earth paths are
minimized.
 These bonding conductors are intended to maintain potential and, unlike Earthing conductors, are not
intended to carry large currents. Extraneous earth paths are normally of high resistances compared to the
normal earth-return-path. Examples are: gas/water metallic pipelines-buildings’ concrete reinforced
foundation. These extraneous conductive parts are normally connected (or bonded) to the installation earth
terminal to maintain them at the same potential of the earth terminal. Typically the earth terminal is derived
from the armouring or sheath of supply cable. Alternatively, earth rods may be driven into the ground in the
locality of the building. As can be seen, bonding serves to minimize Touch voltage which is the voltage
difference a person is exposed to when in touch with two different conductive parts..
 Avoid Bonding Different Earthed systems
 Always use metal conduit or trunking as a cpc where it is installed.
 • If cable tray or ladder rack is used to support cables use it as a main bonding conductor.
 • Utilize as much of other services and constructional material as possible for bonding.
 • Utilize the structural steel for bonding
What is a voltage surge?
A voltage surge is a voltage impulse or wave which is This type of voltage surge is characterised by ( see Fig.
superposed on the rated J2):
network voltage (see Fig. J1). b The rise time (tf) measured in μs
b The gradient S measured in kV/μs
A voltage surge disturbs equipment and causes
electromagnetic radiation.
Furthermore, the duration of the voltage surge (T) causes a
surge of energy in the
electrical circuits which is likely to destroy the equipment
The four voltage surge types
There are four types of voltage surges which may disturb electrical installations and loads:
 Atmospheric voltage surges
 Operating voltage surges
 Transient overvoltage at industrial frequency
 Voltage surges caused by electrostatic discharge
Atmospheric voltage surges
Lightning risk – a few figures
Between 2,000 and 5,000 storms are constantly forming around the earth. These storms are accompanied by
lightning which constitutes a serious risk for both people and equipment. Strokes of lightning hit the ground at a
rate of 30 to 100 strokes per second. Every year, the earth is struck by about 3 billion strokes of lightning.
Throughout the world, every year, thousands of people are struck by lightning and countless animals are killed
• Lightning also causes a large number of fires, most of which break out on farms (destroying buildings or
putting them out of use)
• Lightning also affects transformers, electricity meters, household appliances, and all electrical and electronic
installations in the residential sector and in industry.
• Tall buildings are the ones most often struck by lightning
• The cost of repairing damage caused by lightning is very high
• It is difficult to evaluate the consequences of disturbance caused to computer or telecommunications
networks, faults in PLC cycles and faults in regulation systems.
Furthermore, the losses caused by a machine being put out of use can have financial consequences rising above
the cost of the equipment destroyed by the lightning.
Lightning strokes can be of two kinds. In the first, a charged cloud induces a charge of opposite sign in nearby
tall objects, such as towers, chimneys and trees. The electrostatic stress at the upper ends of these objects is
sufficiently great to ionize the air in the immediate neighbourhood, which lowers the resistance of the path
between the cloud and the object. Ultimately, the resistance is lowered sufficiently for a disruptive discharge to
occur between them. This type of discharge is characterized by the time taken to produce it, and by the fact that
it usually strikes against the highest and most pointed object in the area.
The second kind of stroke is a discharge which occurs suddenly when a potential difference between a cloud
and the earth is established almost instantly. It is generally induced by a previous stroke of the first kind; thus if a
stroke of this kind takes place between clouds 1 and 2 (Figure 14.1), cloud 3 may be suddenly left with a greater
potential gradient immediately adjacent to it than the air can withstand, and a stroke to earth suddenly occurs.
 This type of stroke occurs suddenly and is not necessarily directed to tall sharp objects like the first kind of
stroke. It may miss tall objects and strike the ground nearby. Figure 14.2 shows other ways in which this. kind of
stroke may be induced. In each case, A is a stroke of the first kind and B is the second type of stroke induced by A.
In each case the first stroke from cloud 1 changes the potential gradient at cloud 2 and thus produces the
second stroke.
The current in a discharge is uni-directional and consists of impulses with very steep wave fronts. The
equivalent frequency of these impulses varies from 10kHz to 100kHz.
While some lightning discharges consist of a single stroke, others consist of a series of strokes following each
other along the same path in rapid succession. The current in a single stroke can vary from about 2000A to a
maximum of about 200000A, with a statistical average of 20000A. It rises to a peak value in a few microseconds.
 When a discharge consists of several successive strokes, each stroke rises and falls in a time and to an
amplitude of this order so that the whole discharge can last up to a second.
Figure 14.1 Induced lightning stroke
Figure 14.2 Induced lightning strokes
The effects of a discharge on a structure are electrical, thermal and mechanical.
As the current passes through the structure to earth it produces a voltage drop which momentarily raises the
potential of part of the structure to a high value above earth. One function of a lightning conductor is to keep this
potential as low as possible by providing a very low resistance path to earth.
It is recommended in the British Standard Code of Practice (BS 6651:1999) that the resistance to earth of the
protective system should not exceed 10ohms. The sharp wave front of the discharge is equivalent to a high-
frequency current and, therefore, there is also an inductive voltage drop which has to be added phasorially to the
resistive drop. Part of the lightning conductor is thus inevitably raised to a high potential. This brings with it a risk
of flashover from the conductor to other metal in the structure, such as water and gas pipes and electrical cables.
These in turn would then be raised to high potential which could bring danger to occupants of the building, and
it is necessary to guard against such flashovers. Bonding the lightning protection system to the main earthing
terminal of the installation does this.
 The discharge of the lightning stroke to earth can also produce a high potential gradient in the ground around
the earthing electrode, which can be lethal to people and to animals. The resistance to earth of each earthing
electrode should be kept as low as is practicable.
The duration of a lightning discharge is so short that its thermal effect can in practice be ignored.
When a large current of high frequency flows through a conductor which is close to another conductor, large
mechanical forces are produced. A lightning conductor must, therefore, be very securely fixed.
Characteristics of lightning discharge Figure J3 shows the values given by the lighting protection
committee (Technical Committee 81) of the I.E.C. As can be seen, 50 % of lightning strokes are of a force
greater than 33 kA and 5 % are greater than 85 kA. The energy forces involved are thus very high.
It is important to define the probability of adequate protection when protecting a site.
Furthermore, a lightning current is a high frequency (HF) impulse current reaching roughly a megahertz.
The effects of lightning
A lightning current is therefore a high frequency electrical current. As well as considerable induction and voltage
surge effects, it causes the same effects as any other low frequency current on a conductor:
 Thermal effects: fusion at the lightning impact points and joule effect, due to the circulation of the current,
causing fires
 Electrodynamic effects: when the lightning currents circulate in parallel conductors, they provoke attraction or
repulsion forces between the wires, causing breaks or mechanical deformations (crushed or flattened wires)
 Combustion effects: lightning can cause the air to expand and create overpressure which stretches over a
distance of a dozen metres or so. A blast effect breaks windows or partitions and can project animals or people
several metres away from their original position. This shock wave is at the same time transformed into a sound
wave: thunder
 Voltage surges conducted after an impact on overhead electrical or telephone lines
 Voltage surges induced by the electromagnetic radiation effect of the lightning channel which acts as an
antenna over several kilometres and is crossed by a considerable impulse current
 The elevation of the earth potential by the circulation of the lightning current in the ground. This explains
indirect strokes of lightning by step voltage and the breakdown of equipment
Operating voltage surges
A sudden change in the established operating conditions in an electrical network causes transient phenomena to
occur. These are generally high frequency or damped oscillation voltage surge waves (see Fig. J1).
They are said to have a slow gradient: their frequency varies from several ten to several hundred kilohertz.
Operating voltage surges may be created by:
 The opening of protection devices (fuse, circuit-breaker), and the opening or closing of control devices (relays,
contactors, etc.)
 Inductive circuits due to motors starting and stopping, or the opening of transformers such as MV/LV
substations
 Capacitive circuits due to the connection of capacitor banks to the network
 All devices that contain a coil, a capacitor or a transformer at the power supply inlet: relays, contactors,
television sets, printers, computers, electric ovens, filters, etc.

Transient overvoltages at industrial frequency (see Fig. J4)

These overvoltages have the same frequency as the network (50, 60 or 400 Hz); and can be caused by:
 Phase/frame or phase/earth insulating faults on a network with an insulated or impedant neutral, or by the
breakdown of the neutral conductor. When this happens, single phase devices will be supplied in 400 V instead
of 230 V.
 A cable breakdown. For example, a medium voltage cable which falls on a low voltage line.
 The arcing of a high or medium voltage protective spark-gap causing a rise in earth potential during the action
of the protection devices. These protection devices follow automatic switching cycles which will recreate a fault
if it persists.
Voltage surges caused by electrical discharge
In a dry environment, electrical charges accumulate and create a very strong electrostatic field. For example, a
person walking on carpet with insulating soles will become electrically charged to a voltage of several kilovolts. If
the person walks close to a conductive structure, he will give off an electrical discharge of several amperes in a
very short rise time of a few nanoseconds. If the structure contains sensitive electronics, a computer for example,
its components or circuit boards may be damaged.

Main characteristics of voltage surges
Figure J5 below sums up the main
characteristics of voltage surges.
Different propagation modes
Common mode
Common mode voltage surges occur between the
live parts and the earth:
phase/earth or neutral/earth (see Fig. J6).
They are especially dangerous for devices whose
frame is earthed due to the risk of
dielectric breakdown.
Differential mode
Differential mode voltage surges circulate between live conductors: Phase to phase
or phase to neutral (see Fig. J7). They are especially dangerous for electronic
equipment, sensitive computer equipment, etc.

Two major types of protection devices are used to suppress or

limit voltage surges:
they are referred to as primary protection devices and secondary
protection devices.
2.1 Primary protection devices (protection of
installations against lightning)
The purpose of primary protection devices is to protect
installations against direct strokes of lightning.
They catch and run the lightning current into the ground.
The principle is based on a protection area determined by a structure which is higher than the rest.
The same applies to any peak effect produced by a pole, building or very high metallic structure.
There are three types of primary protection:
 Lightning conductors, which are the oldest and best known lightning protection device
 Overhead earth wires
 The meshed cage or Faraday cage
The lightning conductor
 The lightning conductor is a tapered rod placed on top of the
building. It is earthed by one or more conductors (often copper
strips) (see Fig. J8).
 The design and installation of a lightning conductor is the job
of a specialist.
 Attention must be paid to the copper strip paths, the test
clamps, the crow-foot earthing to help high frequency lightning
currents run to the ground, and the distances in relation to the
wiring system (gas, water, etc.).
 Furthermore, the flow of the lightning current to the ground
will induce voltage surges, by electromagnetic radiation, in the
electrical circuits and buildings to be protected. These may
reach several dozen kilovolts. It is therefore necessary to
symmetrically split the down conductor currents in two, four
or more, in order to minimise electromagnetic effects.
A lightning conductor works by diverting to itself a stroke which might otherwise strike part of the building
being protected. The zone of protection is the space within which a lightning conductor provides protection by
attracting the stroke to itself. It has been found that a single vertical conductor attracts to itself strokes of
average or above average intensity which in the absence of the conductor would have struck the ground within a
circle, having its centre at the conductor and a radius equal to twice the height of the conductor. For weaker than
average discharges the protected area becomes smaller.
For practical design it is therefore assumed that statistically satisfactory protection can be given to a zone
consisting of a cone with its apex at the top of the vertical conductor and a base of radius equal to the height of
the conductor. This is illustrated in Figure 14.3. For structure of a complicated nature a ‘rolling sphere’ of 6m
diameter method is used. A horizontal conductor can be regarded as a series of apexes coalesced into a line, and
the zone of protection thus becomes a tent-like space (Figure 14.4). When there are several parallel horizontal
conductors the area between them has been found by experience to be better protected than one would expect
from the above considerations only. On the basis of experience the recommended design criterion is that no part
of the roof should be more than 5m from the nearest horizontal conductor except that an additional 1.0m may
be added for each 1.0m by which the part to be protected is below the nearest conductor.
Whether or not a building needs protection against lightning is a matter of judgement. It obviously depends
on the risk of a lightning stroke and also on the consequence of a stroke. Thus a higher risk of a strike can
probably be accepted for an isolated small bungalow than for, say, a children’s hospital. While no exact rules can
be laid down that would eliminate the designer’s judgement entirely, some steps can be taken to objectify the
assessment of risk and of the magnitude of the consequences.
Figure 14.3 Protected zone Figure 14.4 Protected zone—
horizontal conductor
The method recommended in BS 6651:1999 is to determine the probable number of strikes per year, apply a
weighting factor to this, and see if the result is more or less than an acceptable level of risk. The weighting factor
is the product of individual factors which take into account the use of the structure, the type of construction, the
consequential effects of a strike, the degree of isolation and the type of country.
This and other extracts from BS 6651 are reproduced here by permission of the British Standards Institution
(BSI). Complete copies can be obtained from BSI at Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE. It should be
noted that the area protected depends on the height of the conductor, which is normally the height of the
building, and the latter is thus allowed for in the calculation of P.
The individual weighting factors are reproduced from BS 6651 in Table 14.1. The previously calculated value of
P is multiplied by the product of all the individual factors to give an overall risk factor, Po. The standard
recommends that protection is needed if Po is greater than 1×10−5 per year.
A complete lightning protective system consists of an air termination network, a down conductor and an earth
termination. The air termination network is that part which is intended to intercept lightning discharges. It
consists of vertical and horizontal conductors arranged to protect the required area in accordance with the
empirical rules which we have given above. Typical arrangements are shown in Figure 14.6.
The earth termination is that part which discharges the current into the general mass of the earth. In other
words, it is one or more earth electrodes; earth electrodes for lightning protection are no different from earth
electrodes for short-circuit protection systems.
The total resistance of an earthing system, with all electrodes in parallel, should not exceed 10ohms. It is
clearly safer to ensure that the resistance of each electrode is less than 10ohms. It is also recommended that the
same earth termination system should be used for lightning protection as for all other services.
The electrodes should be the rod or strip type, and should be eitherbeneath or as near as possible to, the
building being protected. Plate electrodes are expensive and come into their own only when large current-
carrying capacity is important. Because of the short duration of a lightning stroke, this is not a consideration for
lightning electrodes. The practice sometimes adopted of putting the electrode some distance away from the
building is both unnecessary and uneconomical, and may increase the danger of voltage gradients in the ground.
The down conductor is the conductor which runs from the air termination to the earth termination. There
should be one down conductor for every 20m of perimeter. For buildings higher than 20m there should be one
down conductor for every 10m of perimeter.
A tall non-conducting chimney should have two down conductors equally spaced, with metal conductors
joining the two down conductors round the top and bottom of the chimney and at intervals along its height. The
down conductors should preferably be distributed round the outside walls of the building. If this is for any
reason not practicable a down conductor can be contained inside a non-metallic and noncombustible duct.
It can, for example, run inside a service duct provided the service duct does not contain any non-metal-
sheathed cables. Sharp bends, as for example at the edge of a roof, do not matter, but re-entrant loops can be
dangerous. A re-entrant loop produces a high inductive voltage drop which can cause the lightning discharge to
jump across the loop. The discharge can, for example, go through the masonry of a parapet rather than around
it. On the basis of experience it can be said that this danger may arise
when the perimeter of the loop is more than eight times the length of the open side. This is illustrated in Figure
14.7. If a parapet is very narrow the problem can be solved by taking the conductor through a hole in the parapet
as shown in Figure 14.8.
Figure 14.6 Typical lightning
conductors
Figure 14.7 Re-
entrant loops
Figure 14.8 Parapet
Sometimes a building is cantilevered out at a level above the ground. If the down conductor followed the
contour of the building, there would be a real risk of flashover under the overhang, which could be lethal to
anyone standing there. In such a building the down conductor must be taken straight down inside the ducts
within the building. This problem and its solution are illustrated in Figure 14.9.
The material used for lightning conductors is normally aluminium or copper. The criterion for design is to
keep the resistance from air termination to earth to a minimum. Since the bulk of resistance is likely to occur at
the earth electrode the resistance, and therefore the size, of the down conductor would not appear to be critical.
Recommended dimensions are given in Table 14.2. Larger conductors should be used if the system is unlikely to
receive regular inspection and maintenance. External metal on a building should be bonded to the lightning
conductor with bondsn at least as large as the conductor.
When a lightning conductor carries a stroke to earth, it is temporarily raised to a considerable potential above
earth. There is, therefore, a risk that the discharge will flash over to nearby metal and cause damage to the
intervening structure or occupants.
This can be prevented either by providing sufficient clearance between conductor and other metal or by
bonding them to ensure that there can be no potential difference between them. The clearance required depends
on the voltage to which the lightning system rises, which in turn depends on the current and the impedance. The
impedance has a resistive component and an inductive one; in the worst case, which is the one which should be
designed for, the two components add linearly.
The induced voltage arises in a loop formed by the down conductor and other metalwork so that the coupling
is generated by the self inductance minus the mutual inductance to this metal work. This quantity is termed the
transfer inductance and is given by the expression:
The length of the loop is the distance over which the down conductor and other metal run in parallel. The
number of down conductors is brought into the formula because the total current is assumed to be shared
between all of them, and if the peak current reached in one down conductor is 1/n times the total peak current,
then the rate of change of current in one conductor is also 1/n times the maximum rate of change assumed.
This assumption is not entirely valid, but it can be corrected for by the addition of 30 per cent to the calculated
voltage for the down conductor at a corner of a rectangular or square building which has more than four down
conductors, and a corresponding deduction of 30 per cent from the calculated voltage for a down conductor in
the central area of such a building.
The resistive voltage is the total maximum current, assumed to be 200kA, divided by the number of down
conductors and multiplied by the permitted resistance to earth of the down conductor. The latter is the combined
resistance of all down conductors, which is allowed to be 10ohms, times the number of down conductors, so that
the number of down conductors in fact cancels out the equation.
The sum of the inductive and resistive voltages is the voltage which could occur between the down conductor
and the adjacent metalwork. Figure 14.10 shows the spacing required to avoid flashover for a given voltage. If the
distance between the down conductor and the adjacent metalwork is less than this, the metalwork should be
bonded to the down conductor. It will be found that the critical factors determining whether or not bonding is
required are usually the number of down conductors and the resistance to earth.
Metal services entering the building should be bonded as directly as possible to the earth termination. Large
masses of metal, such as a bell frame in a church tower, should be bonded to the nearest down conductor as
directly as possible. Short isolated pieces of metal like window frames may be ignored and do not have to be
bonded. Similarly, metal reinforcement in a structure which cannot easily be bonded and which cannot itself
form part of a down conductor can also be ignored. The danger from such metal is best minimized by keeping it
entirely separate from the lightning protection system.
It is perfectly in order for metal cladding or curtain
walling which has a continuous conducting path in all
directions to be used as part of a lightning protection
system. In the extreme case, a structure which is
itself a complete metal frame, such as a steel
chimney, needs no lightning conductor other than
itself. It is enough to earth it effectively.
A structure having reinforcement or cladding
forming a close metal mesh in the form of internal
reinforcement or screen approaches the conditions of
a Faraday Cage, in which any internal metal assumes
the same potential as the cage itself.
The risk of side flashing is thereby reduced and the
recommendations for bonding need not be so strictly
adhered to. The metal bars of concrete reinforcement
are tied together by binding cable. Both the bars and
the binding cable are usually rusty, so that one does
not expect a good electrical contact.
Nevertheless, because there are so many of these
joints in parallel the total resistance to earth is very
low, and experience has shown that it is quite safe to
use the reinforcement as a down conductor.
Naturally the resistance from air termination to earth must be checked after the structure is complete and if it
is too high a separate down conductor must after all be installed. A building containing explosive or highly
flammable materials may need more thorough protection. An air termination network should be suspended
above the building or area to be protected, and the conductors should be spaced so that each protects a space
formed by a cone having an apex angle of 30°, i.e. a smaller zone than is adopted for less hazardous buildings.
 The height of the network should be such that there is no risk of flashover from the network to the building,
and the down conductors and earth terminations should be well away from the building. All the earth
terminations should be interconnected by a ring conductor buried in the ground. All major metal inside or on the
surface of the building should be effectively bonded to the lightning protection system.
It may be difficult to put a radio or television aerial on a roof so that it is within the space protected by the air
termination network, and this may present something of a problem. If the down lead is concentric or twin
screened, protection can be obtained by connecting the metallic sheath of the cable to the lightning conductor.
With a single or twin down lead it is necessary to insert a discharge device between the conductors and an earth
lead. In either case metal masts, crossarms and parasitic elements should be bonded to the lightning conductor.
Example:
Consider a large factory in a built-up area within Greater London. It is assumed to be 80m long by 15m wide and
to be 6m high. Vertical rods on the roof to give protection over such an area would be impracticably high, so the
air termination must be a network of conductors on the roof. One strip will run round the perimeter, and an
additional lengthwise strip down the centre of the roof will ensure compliance with the requirement that no part
of the roof is more than 5m from the nearest horizontal conductor. This is shown in Figure 14.11 which also shows
the area protected; the latter extends outside the building by a distance equal to the height.
Secondary protection devices (protection of
internal installations against lightning)
These handle the effects of atmospheric, operating or industrial frequency voltage surges. They can be classified
according to the way they are connected in an installation: serial or parallel protection.
Serial protection device
This is connected in series to the power supply wires of the system to be protected (see Fig. J12).

Secondary protection devices are classed in two categories: Serial protection and parallel protection devices.
Serial protection devices are specific to a system or application.
Parallel protection devices are used for: Power supply network, telephone network, switching network (bus).
Transformers
They reduce voltage surges by inductor effect and make
certain harmonics disappear by coupling.
This protection is not very effective.
Filters
Based on components such as resistors, inductance coils
and capacitors they are suitable for voltage surges caused
by industrial and operation disturbance corresponding to a
clearly defined frequency band.
This protection device is not suitable for atmospheric
disturbance.
Wave absorbers
They are essentially made up of air inductance coils which limit the voltage surges, and surge arresters which
absorb the currents. They are extremely suitable for protecting sensitive electronic and computing equipment.
They only act against voltage surges. They are nonetheless extremely cumbersome and expensive.
Network conditioners and static uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)
These devices are essentially used to protect highly sensitive equipment, such as computer equipment, which
requires a high quality electrical power supply. They can be used to regulate the voltage and frequency, stop
interference and ensure a continuous electrical power supply even in the event of a mains power failure (for
the UPS). On the other hand, they are not protected against large, atmospheric type voltage surges against which
it is still necessary to use surge arresters.
Parallel protection device
The principle
The parallel protection is adapted to any installation
power level (see Fig. J13).
This type of overvoltage protection is the most
commonly used.
Main characteristics
b The rated voltage of the protection device must correspond to the network voltage at the installation terminals
b When there is no voltage surge, a leakage current should not go through the protection device which is on
standby
b When a voltage surge above the allowable voltage threshold of the installation to be protected occurs, the
protection device abruptly conducts the voltage surge current to the earth by limiting the voltage to the desired
protection level Up (see Fig. J14).

When the voltage surge disappears, the protection device stops

conducting and returns to standby without a holding current. This is
the ideal U/I characteristic curve:
b The protection device response time (tr) must be as short as possible
to protect the installation as quickly as possible
b The protection device must have the capacity to be able to conduct
the energy caused by the foreseeable voltage surge on the site to be
protected
b The surge arrester protection device must be able to withstand the
rated current In.
The products used
Voltage limiters
They are used in MV/LV substations at the transformer output, in IT earthing
scheme.
They can run voltage surges to the earth, especially industrial frequency surges
(see Fig. J15)

LV surge arresters
This term designates very different devices as far as technology and use are concerned.
Low voltage surge arresters come in the form of modules to be installed inside LV
switchboard.
There are also plug-in types and those that protect power outlets. They ensure secondary
protection of nearby elements but have a small flow capacity. Some are even built into
loads although they cannot protect against strong voltage surges
b Low current surge arresters or overvoltage protectors
These protect telephone or switching networks against voltage surges from the outside
(lightning), as well as from the inside (polluting equipment, switchgear switching, etc.)
Low current voltage surge arresters are also installed in distribution boxes or built into
loads.
Surge arrester installation standards
b International: IEC 61643-12 selection and application principles
b International: IEC 60364 Electrical installations of buildings
v IEC 60364-4-443: protection for safety
When an installation is supplied by, or includes, an overhead line, a protection device
against atmospheric overvoltages must be foreseen if the keraunic level of the site being considered
corresponds to the external influences condition AQ 1 (more than 25 days per year with thunderstorms).
v IEC 60364-4-443-4: selection of equipment in the installation.
This section helps with the choice of the protection level Up for the surge arrester in function of the loads to be
protected.
Rated residual voltage of protection devices must not be higher than the value in the voltage impulse withstand
category II (see Fig. J19):
IEC 60364-5-534: choosing and implementing
electrical equipment
This section describes surge arrester installation
conditions:-
According to earthing systems: The
maximum continuous operating voltage Uc
of SPDs shall be equal to or higher than shown in
Fig. J20.

- At the origin of the installation: if the

surge arrester is installed at the source of
an electrical installation supplied by the utility
distribution network, its rated discharge current
may be lower than 5 kA.
If a surge arrester is installed downstream from an earth leakage protection device, an RCD of the s type, with
immunity to impulse currents of less than 3 kA (8/20 μs), must be used.
- Protection against overcurrent at 50 Hz and consequences of a SPD failure:
protection against SPDs short-circuits is provided by the overcurrent protective devices F2 which are to be
selected according to the maximum recommended rating for the overcurrent protective device given in the
manufacturer's SPD instructions.
- In the presence of lightning conductors: a surge arrester must be installed,
additional specifications for surge arresters must be applied (see IEC 62305 part 4).
When installing surge arresters, several elements
must be considered, such as:
• Cascading
• Positioning with respect to residual current
devices
• The choice of disconnection circuit breakers
The earthing system must also be taken into
account.

4.1 Protection devices according to the earthing system

 Common mode overvoltage: basic protection involves the installation of a common mode surge arrester
between phase and PE or phase and PEN, whatever type of earthing system is used.
 Differential mode overvoltage: in the TT and TN-S earthing systems, earthing the neutral leads to
dissymmetry due to earthing impedances, which causes differential mode voltages to appear, whereas the
overvoltage induced by a lightning strike is a common mode voltage.
 For example, let us consider a TT earthing system. A two-pole surge arrester is installed in common mode to
protect the installation (see Fig. J21).
The neutral earthing resistor R1 used for the pylons has a
lower resistance than the earthing resistor R2 used for the
installation. The lightning current will flow through
circuit ABCD to earth via the easiest path. It will pass
through varistors V1 and V2 in series, causing a differential
voltage equal to twice the residual voltage of the surge
arrester (Up1 + Up2) to appear at the terminals of A and C
at the entrance to the installation in extreme cases.
To protect the loads between Ph and N effectively, the
differential mode voltage (between A and C) must be
reduced.
Another earthing system is therefore used (see
Fig. J22).
The lightning current flows through circuit
ABH which has a lower impedance than
circuit ABCD, as the impedance of the
component used between B and H is null (gas
filled spark gap).
In this case, the differential voltage is equal to
the residual voltage of the surge arrester
(Up2).
Internal architecture of surge arresters
2P, 3P, 4P surge arresters (see Fig. J24):
v They provide protection against common-mode overvoltages
only
v They are appropriate for TN-C and IT earthing systems.
1P+N, 3P+N surge arresters (see Fig. J25):
v They provide protection against common-mode and
differential-mode overvoltages
v They are appropriate for TT, TN-S, and IT earthing systems.
Single-pole (1P) surge arresters (see Fig. J26):
v They are used to satisfy the demand of different assemblies
(according to the manufacturer’s instructions) by supplying
only one product.
However, special dimensioning will be required for N - PE
protection (for example 1+N and 3P+N)
v The assembly must be validated by means of the tests
specified in EN 61643-11.

Installation rules
 The overvoltage protection study of an installation may show that the site is highly exposed and that the
equipment to be protected is sensitive. The surge arrester must be able to discharge high currents and have a
low level of protection. This dual constraint cannot always be handled by a single surge arrester. A second
one will therefore be required (see Fig. J27).
 The first device, P1 (incoming protection) will be placed at the incoming end of the installation.
 Its purpose will be to discharge the maximum amount of energy to earth with a level of protection y 2000 V
that can be withstood by the electrotechnical equipment (contactors, motors, etc.).
 The second device (fine protection) will be placed in a distribution enclosure, as close as possible to the
sensitive loads. It will have a low discharge capacity and a low level of protection that will limit overvoltages
significantly and therefore protect sensitive loads (y 1500 V).
Selection guide
Estimate the value of the equipment to be protected
To estimate its value, consider:
b The cost of the equipment in financial terms
b The economic impact if the equipment goes down.
Determine the electrical architecture of buildings
Lightning protection can be calculated for an entire building or for part of a building that is
electrically independent
Depending on the size of the building and the extent of its electrical system, one or more surge arresters must be
used in the various switchboards in the installation.
 Detached house.
 Apartment, small semi-detached house.
 Communal part of a building. Location of the building
 Professional premises.
 Tertiary and industrial buildings:
• single switchboard, main switchboard
• distribution board
• sensitive equipment more than 30 m from the
switchboard.
Understand the risk of the impact of lightning on the
site
Lightning is attracted by high points that conduct
electricity. They can be:
b Natural: tall trees, mountain crest, wet areas, ferrous soil
b Artificial: chimney, aerial, pylon, lightning conductor.
Indirect effects can be incurred within a fifty metre radius
around the point of impact.
Application example: supermarket
Solutions and schematic diagram
 The surge arrester selection guide has made it possible to determine the precise value of the surge arrester at
the incoming end of the installation and that of the associated disconnection circuit breaker.
 As the sensitive devices (Uimp < 1.5 kV) are located more than 30 m from the incoming protection device, the
fine protection surge arresters must be installed as close as possible to the loads.
 To ensure better continuity of service for cold room areas:
o "si" type residual current circuit breakers will be used to avoid nuisance tripping caused by the rise in earth
potential as the lightning wave passes through.
 For protection against atmospheric overvoltages:
o install a surge arrester in the main switchboard
o install a fine protection surge arrester in each switchboard (1 and 2) supplying the sensitive devices situated
more than 30 m from the incoming surge arrester
o install a surge arrester on the telecommunications network to protect the devices supplied, for example fire
alarms, modems, telephones, faxes.
Function of the surge arrester protection
b Conduct the lightning current to earth, ensuring a level
of protection Up compatible
with the electrical equipment to be protected.
b Limit the rise in earth potential and the magnetic field
induced.
Cabling recommendations
b Ensure the equipotentiality of the earth terminations of
the building.
b Reduce the looped power supply cable areas.
Installation recommendations
b Install a surge arrester, Imax = 40 kA (8/20 µs) and a
C60 disconnection circuit
breaker rated at 20 A.
b Install fine protection surge arresters, Imax = 8 kA (8/20
µs) and the associated
C60 disconnection circuit breakers rated at 20 A.
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load current IB for the load
concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if permanent damage to the
cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two types of overcurrent are
distinguished:
1. Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a number of small short-duration
loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor starting loads, and so on. If either of these conditions
persists however beyond a given period (depending on protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be
automatically cut off.
2. Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and between live conductors and
earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed neutrals) in any combination, viz:
 3 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
 2 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
 1 phase short-circuited to neutral (and/or to earth)
Overcurrent protection principles
A protective device is provided at the origin of the circuit concerned
b Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I²t characteristic of the circuit cabling
b But allowing the maximum load current IB to flow indefinitely
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents can, for periods up to 5 seconds
following short-circuit initiation, be determined approximately by the formula:
I²t = k² S²
which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the squared cross-sectional-area of the
condutor. where
t: Duration of short-circuit current (seconds)
S: Cross sectional area of insulated conductor (mm2)
I: Short-circuit current (A r.m.s.)
k: Insulated conductor constant (values of k2 are given in Figure G52 )
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according to the environment.
For instance, for a high ambient temperature (θa1 > θa2), Iz1 is less than Iz2, θ “temperature”.
Note:
 ISC: 3-phase short-circuit current
 ISCB: rated 3-ph. short-circuit breaking current of the circuit-breaker
 Ir (or Irth)(1): regulated “nominal” current level; e.g. a 50 A nominal circuit-breaker can be regulated to have a
protective range, i.e. a conventional overcurrent tripping level similar to that of a 30 A circuit-breaker.
Practical values for a protective scheme
The following methods are based on rules laid down in the IEC standards, and are representative of the practices
in many countries.
General rules
A protective device (circuit-breaker or fuse) functions correctly if:
Its nominal current or its setting current In is greater than the maximum load current IB but less than the
maximum permissible current Iz for the circuit, i.e.
IB ≤ In ≤ Iz corresponding to zone “a”
Its tripping current I2 “conventional” setting is less than 1.45 Iz which corresponds to zone “b”
The “conventional” setting tripping time may be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local standards and the actual
value selected for I2. For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted If) which will operate the fuse in the conventional time.
Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase short-circuit current existing at
its point of installation. This corresponds to zone “c”.
Applications
1. Protection by circuit-breaker
 By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or 1.45 Ir) so that the condition
I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz (as noted in the “general rules” above) will always be respected.
 *Particular case
 If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to ensure that, at a time of lowest
value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device protecting the circuit will operate correctly.
 2. Protection by fuses
 The condition I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting level) current, equal to
k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular fuse concerned.
 A further factor k3 has been introduced will be valid if In y Iz/k3.
 For fuses type gG:
 In < 16 A → k3 = 1.31
 In ≥ 16 A → k3 = 1.10
 Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the level of 3-phase short-
circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
 Association of different protective devices
 The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault level existing at their point
of installation are permitted by IEC and many national standards in the following conditions:
 There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary shortcircuit
 rating, and The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than that which can be
withstood without damage by the downstream device and all associated cabling and appliances.
Short Circuit
Sources of short-circuit current that are normally taken
under consideration include:
- Utility Generation - Local Generation
- Synchronous Motors - Induction Motors
- Alternate Power Sources
Short circuit calculations should be done at all critical
points in the system. These would include:
- Service Entrance - Transfer Switches
- Panel Boards - Load Centers
- Motor Control Centers - Disconnects
- Motor Starters - Motor Starters
CIRCUIT-PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Introduction
 To protect insulation, wiring, switches, and other apparatus from the destructive effects of overload and short-
circuit currents, an automatic means for opening the circuit is required.
 The selection, specification or recommendation of equipment for a particular application can be critical and
carries a great deal of responsibility. It is reassuring to know that modern fuse and switchgear is the result of
extensive research and cumulative knowledge gained over more than a century.
Types of protective equipments
Fuses, MCBs, MCCBs and RCBs provide earth fault protection, overload protection and short circuit
protection where:
A short circuit is a fault of negligible impedance (call it resistance for now) between live and neutral conductors.
An overload is a current which exceeds the rated value in an otherwise healthy circuit In all cases the basic
requirement for protection is that the fault current should be removed quickly and the circuit isolated.
The IEE Regulations state that the protective device must operate very quickly to remove the danger and within a
time of:
0.4 seconds for portable equipment supplied by socket outlet circuits.
0.5 seconds for fixed equipment
0.2 seconds for construction sites, agricultural and horticultural premises.
The two most common devices employed to fulfill this function are the fuse and the circuit breaker, the latter
frequently abbreviated c/b.
(a) Fuses
 The fuse is a simple device consisting of a fusible link or wire of low melting temperature that, when enclosed
in an insulating fiber tube, is called a cartridge fuse and, when enclosed in a porcelain cup, is known as a plug
fuse. Figure 26.20 shows common types of fuses.
 Plug fuses, such as those in residential use, are rated 5 to 30 A, 150 V to ground, maximum. Cartridge fuses of
various designs are available up to 6000 A and 600 V.
Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the
circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or device failure is often the reason for excessive current.
Characteristic parameters
Rated current IN:- A maximum current that the fuse can continuously conduct without interrupting the
circuit.
Speed:- The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current flows through it and the material of
which the fuse is made.
Fuses have different characteristics of operating time compared to current, characterized as "fast-blow", "slow-
blow" or "time-delay", according to time required to respond to an over current condition.
The I²t value
A measure of energy required to blow the fuse element and so a measure of the damaging effect of over current
on protected devices; sometimes known as the let-through energy. Unique I2t parameters are provided by charts
in manufacturer data sheets for each fuse family. The energy is mainly dependent on current and time for fuses.
 Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity is the maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the fuse.
Miniature fuses may have an interrupting rating only 10 times their rated current. Some fuses are designated
High Rupture Capacity (HRC) and are usually filled with sand or a similar material.
Rated voltage
Voltage rating of the fuse must be greater than or equal to what would become the open circuit voltage. For
example, a glass tube fuse rated at 32 volts would not reliably interrupt current from a voltage source of 120 or
230 V.
If a 32 V fuse attempts to interrupt the 120 or 230 V source, an arc may result. Plasma inside that glass tube fuse
may continue to conduct current until current eventually so diminishes that plasma reverts to an insulating gas.
Voltage drop
A voltage drop across the fuse is usually provided by its manufacturer. Resistance may change when a fuse
becomes hot due to energy dissipation while conducting higher currents.
Temperature de-rating
Ambient temperature will change a fuse's operational parameters. A fuse rated for 1 A at 25°C may conduct up to
10% or 20% more current at -40°C and may open at 80% of its rated value at 100°C. Operating values will vary
with each fuse family and are provided in manufacturer data sheets.
Fuse Markings
Most fuses are marked on the body or end caps with markings that indicate their ratings. Surface-mount
technology "chip type" fuses feature few or no markings, making identification very difficult.
Similar appearing fuses may have significantly different properties, identified by their markings. Fuse markings
will generally convey the following information.
Ampere rating of the fuse
Voltage rating of the fuse
Time-current characteristic, i.e. fuse speed
Approvals by national and international
standards agencies
Manufacturer / Part number / Series
Breaking capacity
BS Standards
BS 88
HBC fuse for voltage up to and including 1000VAC/1500VDCPt 2 : Specification for fuses for use by authorized
person. (mainly in industrial application)
(6A, 10A, 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A, 40A, 50A, 63A, 80A & 100A, 125A, 160A, 200A, 250A, 800A, 1000A & 1500A)
BS 1361
Specification for cartridge fuses for a.c circuit in domestic and similar premises.
(5A, 15A, 20A, 30A, 45A, 60A, 80A & 100A)
BS 1362
Specification for general purpose fuse link for domestic and similar premises (use in plug)
BS 3036
Specification for semi-enclosed fuse (rating up to 100A and 240V to earth) (5A, 15A, 20A, 30A, 45A, 60A &
100A)
(A)Cartridge Fuses
(B)High Rupturing Capacity Fuses. HRC
(b) Circuit Breakers
 A circuit breaker is an electromechanical device that performs the same protective function as a fuse and in
addition, acts as a switch. Thus, it can be used in lieu of a switch-and-fuse combination to both protect and
disconnect a circuit. Most circuit breakers are equipped with both thermal and magnetic trips.
 The thermal trip acts on overload, whereas the magnetic trip acts on short circuit. These thermal and magnetic
actions have inverse-time characteristics: that is, the heavier the overload, the faster the trip action. Modern
circuit breakers in commercial and industrial applications are frequently equipped with solid-state electronic
tripping control units, which provide fully adjustable overload, short circuit, and ground-fault protection.
 Air-circuit breakers are available in two types:
 The molded-case breaker and the large air-circuit breaker.
 Molded-case breakers consist of a complete mechanism encased in a molded phenolic case. A light-duty
molded-case 50-A frame, plugin circuit breaker is illustrated in Fig. 26.21a. The molded-case breaker shown in
Fig. 26.21b has a 400-A frame and can be equipped with an adjustable electronic tripping unit, ground fault
trip, plus other features formerly available only on large air circuit breakers.
 The large air-circuit breaker is a more complicated and highly adjustable device that can be used in
applications that preclude the use of molded-case breakers. A modern solid-state adjustable trip controller for
a large air-circuit breaker is shown in Fig. 26.22, along with a circuit breaker with a similar solid-state trip
unit.
 All breakers can be equipped with remote trip and auxiliary contacts, and all good breakers have trip-
indicating handles and are trip-free (i.e., they will trip out harmlessly if closed on a short-circuited line). Low-
voltage (600-V class) circuit breakers are available in frame sizes ranging from 50 to 4000 A and 1 to 3 poles.
Circuit Breaker :
The CB is protective devices which can be operated
manually and automatically it trips in case of over load and
short- circuit condition

Standard C.B Rating

5 A to 40 A MCB
(Miniature circuit breaker )

50 A to 600 A MCCB
(Modulate Case circuit breaker )

800 A to 3500 A ACB

(Air Circuit Breaker)
Magnetic characteristic
 The maximum rated current available for MCBs is 125 A, and these BS EN 60898 devices are available with
different magnetic sensitivities, denoted with a prefix B, C or D accordingly.
 The different magnetic characteristics of BS EN 60898 circuit breakers are provided in Appendix 3 of BS
7671: 2008, but to illustrate the differences in the magnetic characteristics, Figure D 6.2 shows a comparison
of B, C and D types for devices of the same basic rating.
 A 32 A circuit breaker with type C sensitivity is denoted C32, and it is a requirement of the equipment
standard to apply this marking to the device.

 The stated B, C or D sensitivities each have a minimum

current that causes operation, and this is conventionally
taken to be operation within 0.1 second; this is
conventionally termed instantaneous operation or
instantaneous tripping.
 This minimum time convention is due to the mechanics
of the circuit breaker, which will always require a certain
minimum time, regardless of current for the trip
mechanism to open.
 This instantaneous tripping time of 0.1 second can be a
problem where two devices are required to discriminate,
and this is also explained in Chapter C.
Isolator or disconnect switch (D/S):
Isolator or D/S is not a protective devices is it doesn’t trip in case of
any fault it is only meant for on and off purpose
It can look similar to CB with handle side handle or rotary
handle
Important note :

In sudan and B.S countries the isolator is

used as main breaker knows as (main isolator )
inside the DB or final DB

Always install D/S near to every heavy

mechanical equipment such as chiller , AHU ,
Motor and pumps , lights for maintains
and repair purpose
STANDARD ISOLATOR RATING
NO .OF POLES FOR ISOLATOR DB:
2P

4P

No.of poles D/S near the heavy

mechanical equipment

SPN for single phase equipment

TPN for three phase equipment

RELAYS
The RELAY is a device that acts upon the same fundamental principle as the solenoid. The difference between a
relay and a solenoid is that a relay does not have a movable core (plunger) while the solenoid does. Where
multipole relays are used, several circuits may be controlled at once.
Relays are electrically operated control switches, and are classified according to their use as POWER RELAYS or
CONTROL RELAYS. Power relays are called CONTACTORS; control relays are usually known simply as relays.
The function of a contactor is to use a relatively small amount of electrical power to control the switching of a
large amount of power. The contactor permits you to control power at other locations in the equipment, and the
heavy power cables need be run only through the power relay contacts.
Only lightweight control wires are connected from the control switches to the relay coil. Safety is also an
important reason for using power relays, since high power circuits can be switched remotely without danger to the
operator.
Control relays, as their name implies, are frequently used in the control of low power circuits or other relays,
although they also have many other uses. In automatic relay circuits, a small electric signal may set off a chain
reaction of successively acting relays, which then perform various functions.
In general, a relay consists of a magnetic core and its associated coil, contacts, springs, armature, and the
mounting. Figure 3-19 illustrates the construction of a relay. When the coil is energized, the flow of current
through the coil creates a strong magnetic field which pulls the armature downward to contact C1, completing the
circuit from the common terminal to C1. At the same time, the circuit to contact C2, is opened.
Figure 3-19. - Relay construction.
Protective Relays
 There are several kinds of faults that can occur in an
electrical system. Over- or undervoltage, reverse flow of
power, and excessive currents are but a few. Protective
relays are available for application at critical locations in
the electrical system to protect against these faults.
Originally, protective relays were, and most still are,
intricate electromechanical devices. However, many solid-
state devices have been introduced that match the
performance and dependability of the electromechanical
relays.
 Protective relays do not directly trip a breaker; they close
a contact to provide an electrical signal to the breaker trip
circuit. When protective relays are used to trip a circuit
breaker, it is always necessary to provide a source of
electrical power, usually dc, from a battery bank at 48 V
or 125 V, to provide tripping power.
Capacitor Duty Contactors Definite purpose Contactors Mini Contactors

Robusta Contactors
HARMONIC CURRENTS
 A recent phenomenon, large harmonic currents, has been the cause of considerable difficulty in modern
electrical installations. Without going into detail on this highly technical subject, a brief description of the
problem and its causes is given here.
 Conventional electrical loads such as lighting, resistive devices (heaters), motors, and the like are linear (i.e.,
the load impedance remains essentially constant, regardless of instantaneous voltage). This is not the case
with most electronic equipment.
 Computers, modems, printers, electronic lighting ballasts, variable-speed motor drives, and solid-state
equipment of all types are essentially nonlinear loads. As such, they produce harmonic currents, of which the
odd-order ones are additive in the power system neutral conductor. The most troublesome of these are the
third harmonic and its odd multiples (9th, 15th, 21st, . . .).
 These currents can become so large in a modern computerized office (especially with electronic ballasts) that
instead of the neutral conductors carrying the unbalanced current in a 3-phase system (zero in a balanced
system), they actually carry more current than the phase wires.
 Other serious negative effects of harmonic currents are:
• Deterioration of electronic equipment performance; continuous or sporadic computer malfunctions
• Overheating of the neutral—possibly causing neutral burnout and resulting in equipment being subjected to
severe voltage variations
• Overheating and premature failure of transformers—even when the transformer nameplate rating seems
adequate
• Overheating of motors because of operation with a distorted voltage waveform
• Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers and adjustable- speed drives.
• Telephone interference
• Capacitor fuse blowing
 The problem of destructive harmonic currents becomes progressively more severe as the amount of electronic
equipment in use increases (as it does continuously).
 Today, at least half of the electric load in a modern office-type facility is composed of nonlinear, harmonic-
producing equipment. It follows that all such facilities, both existing and under design, must take necessary
corrective measures.
 In the past, these measures consisted of oversizing equipment to avoid overload burnout; adding passive
harmonic filters (which act to reduce harmonic content) in the electric distribution system; using isolation
transformers at sensitive loads; selecting power sources with low output impedance to minimize voltage
distortion; using controls that are relatively insensitive to harmonic distortion; adding meters throughout the
system that measure true rms voltage and current rather than the average values shown by conventional
meters; and other expensive (and essentially passive) power line conditioning (see Sections 26.35 and 26.36).
 In view of the increasing severity of the problem, computer-controlled variable power-conditioning
equipment (called active conditioning) has become available. Such power conditioning equipment operates in
a fashion similar to that described for active noise cancellation .
 The conditioner instantaneously and continuously analyzes the harmonic content of the line voltage and
injects an equal but exactly out-of-phase voltage to cancel the harmonics and produce a pure sinusoidal
voltage supply. The harmonic currents that are required by nonlinear loads are supplied by a digital signal
generator.
 Other techniques are also used. In any retrofit work, the electrical designer must obtain a detailed electrical
system analysis for the existing system, performed by engineers experienced in the field of power quality.
 Many existing
 systems carry as much as 70% to 80% harmonic current and constitute a major system failure waiting
 to happen. A proper power quality study, performed with such instruments as true rms meters, harmonic
analyzers, frequency selective voltmeters, and spectrum analyzers, will yield a true picture of an existing system
and permit the electrical rehab work to be engineered with harmonic limitations as one of the important design
parameters.

Problems arising from power-system harmonics

 Equipment which uses power electronics components (variable-speed motor controllers, thyristor-controlled
rectifiers, etc.) have considerably increased the problems caused by harmonics in power supply systems.
 Harmonics have existed from the earliest days of the industry and were (and still are) caused by the non-linear
magnetizing impedances of transformers, reactors, fluorescent lamp ballasts, etc.
 Harmonics on symmetrical 3-phase power systems are generally odd-numbered: 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th..., and the
magnitude decreases as the order of the harmonic increases.
 A number of features may be used in various ways to reduce specific harmonics to negligible values – total
elimination is not possible. In this section, practical means of reducing the influence of harmonics are
recommended, with particular reference to capacitor banks.
 Capacitors are especially sensitive to harmonic components of the supply voltage due to the fact that capacitive
reactance decreases as the frequency increases.
 In practice, this means that a relatively small percentage of harmonic voltage can cause a significant current to
flow in the capacitor circuit. The presence of harmonic components causes the (normally sinusoidal) wave form
 of voltage or current to be distorted; the greater the harmonic content, the greater the degree of distortion.
The problem: why is it necessary to detect and eliminate harmonics?
Disturbances caused by harmonics
Harmonics flowing in distribution networks downgrade the quality of electrical power.
This can have a number of negative effects:
• Overloads on distribution networks due to the increase in rms current
• Overloads in neutral conductors due to the cumulative increase in third-order harmonics created by single-
phase loads
• Overloads, vibration and premature ageing of generators, transformers and motors as well as increased
transformer hum
• Overloads and premature ageing of power-factor correction capacitors
• Distortion of the supply voltage that can disturb sensitive loads
• Disturbances in communication networks and on telephone lines
Economic impact of disturbances
Harmonics have a major economic impact:
 Premature ageing of equipment means it must be replaced sooner unless oversized right from the start
 Overloads on the distribution network can require higher subscribed power levels and increase losses
 Distortion of current waveforms provokes nuisance tripping that can stop production
Increasingly serious consequences
 Only ten years ago, harmonics were not yet considered a real problem because their effects on distribution
networks were generally minor. However, the massive introduction of power electronics in equipment has
made the phenomenon far more serious in all sectors of economic activity.
 In addition, the equipment causing the harmonics is often vital to the company or organisation.
Which harmonics must be measured and eliminated?
 The most frequently encountered harmonics in three-phase distribution networks are the odd orders.
Harmonic amplitudes normally decrease as the frequency increases. Above order 50, harmonics are negligible
and measurements are no longer meaningful. Sufficiently accurate measurements are obtained by measuring
harmonics up to order 30.
 Utilities monitor harmonic orders 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13. Generally speaking, harmonic conditioning of the lowest
orders (up to 13) is sufficient. More comprehensive conditioning takes into account harmonic orders up to 25
 The presence of harmonics indicates a distorted current or voltage wave. The distortion of the current or
voltage wave means that the distribution of electrical energy is disturbed and power quality is not optimum.
 Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads connected to the distribution network. The flow of
harmonic currents causes harmonic voltages via distribution network impedances and consequently distortion
of the supply voltage.

Origin of harmonics
 Devices and systems that cause harmonics are present in all sectors, i.e. industrial, commercial and
residential.
 Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads (i.e. loads that draw current with a waveform that is not the same as
that of the supply voltage).
 Examples of non-linear loads are:
 Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc furnaces, induction furnaces, rectifiers)
 Variable-speed drives for asynchronous or DC motors
 UPSs
  Office equipment (computers, photocopy machines, fax machines, etc.)
 Home appliances (television sets, micro-wave ovens, fluorescent lighting)
 Certain devices involving magnetic saturation (transformers)
Disturbances caused by non-linear loads: harmonic current and voltage
 Non-linear loads draw harmonic currents that flow in the distribution network.
 Harmonic voltages are caused by the flow of harmonic currents through the impedances of the supply circuits
(transformer and distribution network for situations similar to that shown in Figure M2).
Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks
The non-linear loads can be considered to reinject the harmonic currents upstream into the distribution
network, toward the source.

Figures M3 and M4 show an installation disturbed by harmonics.

Figure M3 shows the flow of the current at 50 Hz in the installation and Figure M4
shows the harmonic current (order h).
Supply of the non-linear load creates the flow of a current I50Hz (shown in figure M3), to which is added
each of the harmonic currents Ih (shown in figure M4), corresponding to each harmonic order h.
Still considering that the loads reinject harmonic current upstream into the distribution network, it is possible to
create a diagram showing the harmonic currents in the network (see Fig. M5).

Harmonics have major economic

effects in installations:
 Increases in energy costs
 Premature ageing of
equipment
 Production losses
Energy losses
Harmonics cause additional losses (Joule effect) in conductors and equipment.
Higher subscription costs
The presence of harmonic currents can require a higher subscribed power level and consequently higher costs.
What is more, utilities will be increasingly inclined to charge customers for major sources of harmonics.
Oversizing of equipment
 Derating of power sources (generators, transformers and UPSs) means they must be oversized
 Conductors must be sized taking into account the flow of harmonic currents.
In addition, due the the skin effect, the resistance of these conductors increases with frequency. To avoid
excessive losses due to the Joule effect, it is necessary to oversize conductors
 Flow of harmonics in the neutral conductor means that it must be oversized as well
Reduced service life of equipment
When the level of distortion in the supply voltage approaches 10%, the duration of the service life of equipment is
significantly reduced. The reduction has been estimated at:
 32.5% for single-phase machines
 18% for three-phase machines
 5% for transformers
To maintain the service lives corresponding to the rated load, equipment must be oversized.
Nuisance tripping and installation shutdown
Circuit-breakers in the installation are subjected to current peaks caused by harmonics.
These current peaks cause nuisance tripping with the resulting production losses, as well as the costs
corresponding to the time required to start the installation up again.
Examples
Given the economic consequences for the installations mentioned below, it was necessary to install harmonic
filters.
Computer centre for an insurance company
In this centre, nuisance tripping of a circuit-breaker was calculated to have cost 100 k€ per hour of down time.
Pharmaceutical laboratory
Harmonics caused the failure of a generator set and the interruption of a longduration test on a new medication.
The consequences were a loss estimated at 17 M€.
Metallurgy factory
A set of induction furnaces caused the overload and destruction of three transformers ranging from 1500 to 2500
kVA over a single year. The cost of the interruptions in production were estimated at 20 k€ per hour.
Factory producing garden furniture
The failure of variable-speed drives resulted in production shutdowns estimated at 10 k€ per hour.
Solutions to attenuate harmonics
There are three different types of solutions to
attenuate harmonics:
 Modifications in the installation
 Special devices in the supply system
 Filtering

Basic solutions
To limit the propagation of harmonics in the
distribution network, different solutions are
available and should be taken into account
particularly when designing a new
installation.
Position the non-linear loads upstream in the
system
Overall harmonic disturbances increase as the short-
circuit power decreases.
All economic considerations aside, it is preferable to
connect the non-linear loads as far upstream as
possible (see Fig. M16).
Group the non-linear loads
When preparing the single-line diagram, the
non-linear devices should be separated from the
others (see Fig. M17).
The two groups of devices should be
supplied by different sets of busbars.

Create separate sources

In attempting to limit harmonics, an additional
improvement can be obtained by creating a
source via a separate transformer as indicated in
the Figure M18.
The disadvantage is the increase in the cost of
the installation.

Transformers with special connections

Different transformer connections can eliminate certain harmonic orders, as indicated in the examples below:
 A Dyd connection suppresses 5th and 7th harmonics (see Fig. M19)
 A Dy connection suppresses the 3rd harmonic
 A DZ 5 connection suppresses the 5th harmonic
Install reactors
 When variable-speed drives are supplied, it is possible to smooth the current by installing line reactors. By
increasing the impedance of the supply circuit, the harmonic current is limited.
 Installation of harmonic suppression reactors on capacitor banks increases the impedance of the
reactor/capacitor combination for high-order harmonics.
 This avoids resonance and protects the capacitors.
Select the suitable system earthing arrangement
TNC system
 In the TNC system, a single conductor (PEN) provides protection in the event of an earth fault and the flow of
unbalance currents.
 Under steady-state conditions, the harmonic currents flow in the PEN. The latter, however, has a certain
impedance with as a result slight differences in potential (a few volts) between devices that can cause
electronic equipment to malfunction.
 The TNC system must therefore be reserved for the supply of power circuits at the head of the installation and
must not be used to supply sensitive loads.
TNS system
 This system is recommended if harmonics are present.
 The neutral conductor and the protection conductor PE are completely separate and the potential throughout
the distribution network is therefore more uniform.
Harmonic filtering
In cases where the preventive action presented above is insufficient, it is necessary to equip the installation with
filtering systems. There are three types of filters:
 Passive
 Active
 Hybrid
Selection criteria
Passive filter
 It offers both power-factor correction and high current-filtering capacity.
 Passive filters also reduce the harmonic voltages in installations where the supply voltage is disturbed. If the
level of reactive power supplied is high, it is advised to turn off the passive filter at times when the percent load
is low. Preliminary studies for a filter must take into account the possible presence of a power factor correction
capacitor bank which may have to be eliminated.
Active harmonic conditioners
 They filter harmonics over a wide range of frequencies and can adapt to any type of load.
 On the other hand, power ratings are low.
Hybrid filters
 They combine the performance of both active and passive filters.
A complete set of services can be offered to eliminate harmonics:
 Installation analysis
 Measurement and monitoring systems
 Filtering solutions
 If the natural frequency of the capacitor bank/ power-system reactance combination is close to a particular
harmonic, then partial resonance will occur, with amplified values of voltage and current at the harmonic
frequency concerned. In this particular case, the elevated current will cause overheating of the capacitor, with
degradation of the dielectric, which may result in its eventual failure.
 Several solutions to these problems are available. This can be accomplished by
 Shunt connected harmonic filter and/or harmonic-suppression reactors or
 Active power filters or
 Hybrid filters

Harmonics are taken into account mainly by

oversizing capacitors and including harmonic
suppression reactors in series with them
Possible solutions
Passive filter (see Fig. L28)
Countering the effects of harmonics
The presence of harmonics in the supply voltage results in abnormally high current levels through the capacitors.
An allowance is made for this by designing for an r.m.s. value of current equal to 1.3 times the nominal rated
current. All series elements, such as connections, fuses, switches, etc., associated with the capacitors are
similarly oversized, between 1.3 to 1.5 times nominal rating.
Harmonic distortion of the voltage wave frequently produces a “peaky” wave form, in which the peak value of the
normal sinusoidal wave is increased. This possibility, together with other overvoltage conditions likely to occur
when countering the effects of resonance, as described below, are taken into account by increasing the insulation
level above that of “standard” capacitors. In many instances, these two counter measures are all that is necessary
to achieve satisfactory operation.
Countering the effects of resonance
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and consequently do not generate harmonics.
The installation of capacitors in a power system (in which the impedances are predominantly inductive) can,
however, result in total or partial resonance occurring at one of the harmonic frequencies.
The harmonic order ho of the natural resonant frequency between the system inductance and the capacitor bank
is given by
 The closer a natural frequency approaches one of the harmonics present on the system, the greater will be the
(undesirable) effect. In the above example, strong resonant conditions with the 3rd harmonic component of a
distorted wave would certainly occur.
 In such cases, steps are taken to change the natural frequency to a value which will not resonate with any of the
harmonics known to be present. This is achieved by the addition of a harmonic-suppression inductor
connected in series with the capacitor bank.
 On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often adjusted to bring the resonant frequency of the combination, i.e.
the capacitor bank + reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are adjusted to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system. These
frequencies correspond to a value for ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e. approximately mid-way between the 3rd
and 5th
 harmonics.
 In this arrangement, the presence of the reactor increases the fundamental frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) current
by a small amount (7-8%) and therefore the voltage across the capacitor in the same proportion.
 This feature is taken into account, for example, by using capacitors which are designed for 440 V operation on
400 V systems.
Active filter (see Fig. L29)
 Active filters are based on power electronic technology. They are generally installed in parallel with the non
linear load.
 Active filters analyse the harmonics drawn by the load and then inject the same harmonic current to the load
with the appropriate phase. As a result, the harmonic currents are totally neutralised at the point considered.
This means they no longer flow upstream and are no longer supplied by the source.
 A main advantage of active conditioners is that they continue to guarantee efficient harmonic compensation
even when changes are made to the installation.
 They are also exceptionally easy to use as they feature:
o Auto-configuration to harmonic loads whatever their order of magnitude
o Elimination of overload risks
o Compatibility with electrical generator sets
o Connection to any point of the electrical network
o Several conditioners can be used in the same installation to increase depollution efficiency (for example
when a new machine is installed)
 Active filters may provide also power factor correction.

Hybrid filter (see Fig. L30)

This type of filter combines advantages of passive and active filter. One frequency can be filtered by passive filter
and all the other frequencies are filtered by active filter.
Choosing the optimum solution
Figure L31 below shows the criteria that
can be taken into account to select the
most suitable technology depending on the
application.
 For passive filter, a choice is made from the following parameters:
o Gh = the sum of the kVA ratings of all harmonic-generating devices (static converters, inverters, speed
controllers, etc.) connected to the busbars from which the capacitor bank is supplied. If the ratings of some
of these devices are quoted in kW only, assume an average power factor of 0.7 to obtain the kVA ratings
o Ssc = the 3-phase short-circuit level in kVA at the terminals of the capacitor bank
o Sn = the sum of the kVA ratings of all transformers supplying (i.e. directly connected to) the system level of
which the busbars form a part
 If a number of transformers are operating in parallel, the removal from service of one or more, will
significantly change the values of Ssc and Sn. From these parameters, a choice of capacitor specification which
will ensure an acceptable level of operation with the system harmonic voltages and currents, can be made, by
reference to
 Figure L32.
Choice of protection, control devices and connecting cables
The choice of upstream cables and protection and control devices depends on the current loading.
For capacitors, the current is a function of:
 The applied voltage and its harmonics
 The capacitance value
The nominal current In of a 3-phase capacitor bank is equal to:

 The permitted range of applied voltage at fundamental frequency, plus harmonic components, together with
manufacturing tolerances of actual capacitance (for a declared nominal value) can result in a 50% increase
above the calculated value of current. Approximately 30% of this increase is due to the voltage increases,
while a further 15% is due to the range of manufacturing tolerances, so that 1.3 x 1.15 = 1.5
 All components carrying the capacitor current therefore, must be adequate to cover this “worst-case”
condition, in an ambient temperature of 50 °C maximum. In the case where temperatures higher than 50 °C
occur in enclosures, etc. derating of the components will be necessary.
Protection
The size of the circuit-breaker can be chosen in order to allow the setting of long time delay at:
 1.36 x In for Classic range(1)
 1.50 x In for Comfort range(1)
 1.12 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 2.7 f)(2)
 1.19 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 3.8 f)
 1.31 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 4.3 f)
Short time delay setting (short-circuit protection) must be insensitive to inrush current. The setting will be 10 x
In for Classic, Comfort and Harmony range(1).
 Micrologic - a power-monitoring unit built into the
Detection devices circuit-breaker

Measurements are the first step in gaining control over

harmonic pollution.
Depending on the conditions in each installation, different
types of equipment
provide the necessary solution.

Power-monitoring units
Power Meter and Circuit Monitor in the
PowerLogic System

PowerLogic System with Power Meter and

Circuit Monitor, Micrologic offer a complete
range of devices for the detection of harmonic
distortion
Load Distribution
Definition:
A characteristic related to the uniformity of load distribution (in kVA / m2) over an area or throughout the
building.
Different categories:
 Uniform distribution: the loads are generally of an average or low unit power and spread throughout the
surface area or over a large area of the building (uniform density).
 E.g.: lighting, individual workstations
 Intermediate distribution: the loads are generally of medium power, placed in groups over the whole building
surface area
 E.g.: machines for assembly, conveying, workstations, modular logistics “sites”
 Localized loads: the loads are generally high power and localized in several areas of the building (non-uniform
density).
 E.g.: HVAC
 Distribution Inside Large Buildings
 In large buildings the type of distribution depends on the building type, dimension, the length of supply cables,
and the loads. The distribution system can be divided in to:
 The vertical supply system (rising mains).
 The horizontal supply (distribution at each floor level).
 In most cases a high voltage supply and transformer substation is required. Normally HV switchgear and
substation transformers are installed at ground floor ( or basement ).
 However, often there are appliances with large power demand installed on the top floors (converters and
motors for lifts, air conditioning equipment and electric kitchens).
 As it is desirable to brining the high voltage supply as close as possible to the load centers, transformers are
installed at the top floor, or if required, additional ones are installed on one of the intermediate floors.
 In such cases transformers with non-inflammable insulation and cooling are used.
Centralized or distributed layout
 POWER SUPPLY MODES

Power supply by cables gives greater independence of circuits (lighting, power sockets, HVAC, motors,
auxiliaries, security, etc), reducing the consequences of a fault from the point of view of power availability.
The use of busbar trunking systems allows load power circuits to be combined and saves on conductors by
taking advantage of a clustering coefficient. The choice between cable and busbar trunking, according to the
clustering coefficient, allows us to find an economic optimum between investment costs, implementation costs
and operating costs.
These two distribution modes are often combined.
 Distribution Inside Large Buildings
 The arrangement of the rising mains depends on the size and shape of the building and suitable
size of shafts for installing cables and bus ducts must be provided in coordination with the building
architect.
 The vertical supply system are implemented in several ways, some of which are :
 Single Rising Main
 Applications :-
 Where high supply security is not important.
 Advantages :-
 a) The different loads of individual floors are balanced out.
 b) Only a small main L.V board is required.
 c) Simple in construction and operation.
 Disadvantages :-
 Low supply security (a fault in the rising mains effect all floors).
 Grouped Supply
 Grouped Supply
 Applications :-
 High rise building with high load concentration.
 Advantages :-
 Easier mounting.
 Smaller size for rising mains.
 Disadvantages :-
 A fault in any rising mains effect several floors
(relatively low
 security).
 Loads are balanced only within each group.
 Larger power distribution board.
 Individual Floor Supply
 Applications :-
 In high rise buildings were stories are let separately
(metering is at central point at ground floor).
 Advantages :-
 a) Smaller size of cables can be used (easy installation).
 b) In the case of a fault in arising main, only one story
is effected.
 Disadvantages:-
 a) Different loading of the individual floors can not be
balanced out.
 b) The rising main must be rated for the peak load of
each floor.
 c) Uneconomical – large number of cables and the size
of the rising main shaft is quite large.
 d) Large low voltage distribution board with numerous
circuits.
 Ring Main Supply
 Applications :-
 In large buildings when relatively higher security is required.
 Advantages :-
 a) Higher power supply security ( in the event of a fault, it is
possible to switch off the faulty part and leave the majority of
the building operational )
 b) A small low voltage distribution board is required.
 c) The differing loading of individual floor are balanced out (
smaller sizes for rising mains )
 Double Feed Supply
 Applications:-
 In large buildings with relatively large loads at the top floors
(lifts, kitchen, air-conditioning).
 Advantages :-
 a) Higher power supply security.
 b) The differing loading of individual floors are balanced out.
 c) Smaller L.V. distribution board required.
 In practice all supply circuits presented above are used
depending on the building type, size, load data, etc.
INTERIOR WIRING SYSTEMS
At this point, it is helpful to survey the different types of interior wiring systems before commencing a discussion
of components. When the primary purpose of a system is to distribute electrical energy, it is referred to as an
electrical power system; when the purpose is to transmit information, it is referred to as an electrical signal or
a communication system.
This chapter deals with electrical power systems, except that the discussion of raceways covers equipment also
used by communication systems.
Due to the nature of electricity, its distribution within a structure for power use poses a single basic problem:
how to construct a distribution system that safely provides the energy required at the desired locations. The
safety consideration is all-important because all parts of an interior distribution system are connected to the
utility’s powerful network, and the very real potential for physical damage, injury, and fire is always present. The
solution to this problem is to isolate all electrically conducting elements from the building structure, except at
those specific points, such as wall receptacles, where contact is desired. This isolation is generally accomplished
by insulating the conductors and placing them in protective raceways.
The principal types of interior wiring systems in use today are exposed insulated cables, insulated cables in open
raceways, and insulated conductors in closed raceways.
(a) Exposed Insulated Cables
This category includes (using the NEC nomenclature) cable types NM (“Romex”) and AC (“BX”).
Also included are other types where the cable construction itself provides the necessary electrical insulation and
mechanical protection.
(b) Insulated Cables in Open Raceways (Trays)
This system is specifically intended for industrial applications, and it relies on both the cable and the tray for
safety.
(c) Insulated Conductors in Closed Raceways
This system is the most general type and is applicable to all types of facilities. In general, the raceway is installed
first and the wiring is pulled in or laid in later. The raceways themselves may be:
1. Buried in the structure—for example, conduit in the floor slab or underfloor duct.
2. Attached to the structure—for example, all types of surface raceways, including conduit and wireways
suspended above hung ceilings.
3. Part of the structure—for example, cellular concrete and cellular metal floors.
(d) Combined Conductor and Enclosure
 This category is intended to cover all types of factory- prepared and factory-constructed integral assemblies of
conductor and enclosure. Included here are all types of busway, busduct, and cablebus flat-cable assemblies
and lighting track; flat cable intended for under carpet installation; and manufactured wiring systems.
 All wire sizes up to No. 0000 (also written as No. 4/0) are expressed in AWG. The AWG numbers run in
reverse order to the size of the wire—that is, the smaller the AWG number, the larger the size.
 Thus, No. 10 is a heavier wire than No. 12 wire and is lighter (thinner) than No. 8 wire. The No. 4/0 size is the
largest AWG designation, beyond which a different designation called kcmil (thousand circular mil) is used.
 In this designation, wire diameter increases with number; thus, 500 kcmil is a heavier wire (double the area)
than 250 kcmil. The former designation for this unit was MCM, a term that is still used in many sources.
 Outside of the United States, where SI units are in general use, conductor sizes are given simply by their
diameter in millimeters. Table 27.1 gives dimensional and stranding data for common wire sizes and includes
the millimeter equivalent of each size. This will prove useful in relating American gauges to SI sizes.
CONDUCTOR INSULATION AND JACKETS
 Most conductors are covered with some type of insulation that provides both electrical isolation and a degree
of physical protection. Additional physical shielding, where necessary, is provided by a jacket placed over the
insulation.
 Insulation is rated by voltage. Ordinary building wiring is rated for either 300 or 600 V. Common types of
building wire insulation are listed in Table 27.5 with their associated trade names, code letters, maximum
permitted operating temperatures, and special provisions.

COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS

 Aluminum has an inherent weight advantage over copper, which brings with it lower installation costs.
Economy usually lies with copper in small- and medium-sized cable, because weight is not a problem, and the
smaller conduit required for the smaller copper conductors generally makes the combined installation
cheaper.
 In larger cable sizes, the aluminum weight advantage offsets the economy of smaller copper size and conduit,
and aluminum generally proves less expensive, particularly in many urban areas with high labor costs.
 Aluminum and copper both exhibit the low electrical resistivity necessary for a good electrical conductor.
There are, however, difficulties inherent in splicing and terminating aluminum. These difficulties—which can
be overcome with the use of proper equipment, techniques, and workmanship— stem from aluminum’s cold-
flow characteristic when under pressure (causing joints to loosen) and aluminum’s oxide.
 This oxide, which forms within minutes on any exposed aluminum surface, is an adhesive, poorly conductive
film that must be removed and prevented from reforming if a successful, long-life joint or termination is to be
made.
 If this is not done, the oxide causes a high-resistance joint with excessive heat generation and possible
incendiary effects. The oxide problem can be largely overcome by the use of copper-clad aluminum wire, but
the cold-flow problem remains. Furthermore, when used in residential branch circuits, aluminum can create
problems (even if properly installed initially) when wiring devices are replaced by unskilled homeowners.
 As a result of a number of unfortunate incidents, some jurisdictions in the United States have banned the use of
aluminum wire in branch circuitry.
 Heavy feeders are normally installed by experienced and skilled contractors, and the risk of a poor joint is
minimized. We recommend that the use of aluminum conductors be restricted to sizes no smaller than No. 4
AWG, and that installation be permitted only by contractors who certify expertise in the specialized techniques
involved. Also, local codes and electrical inspectors should be consulted.
 All references in this text, including all tables and illustrations, are to copper conductors. The following sections
provide a brief description of the principal building wire types.

FLEXIBLE ARMORED CABLE

 Among the most common types of exposed wiring is NEC type AC armored cable, commonly known in the
smaller sizes by the trade name BX. It is an assembly of insulated wires, bound together and enclosed in a
protective armor made of a spiralwound interlocking strip of steel tape (Fig. 27.3).
 The cable is installed with simple U-clamps or staples holding it against beams, walls, and so on. This type of
installation is frequently used in residences and in the rewiring of existing buildings.
 Use of type AC cable is generally restricted to dry locations. For application and installation details and
restrictions, see NEC Article 333, “Armored Cable.”
A similar construction with much broader application (covered in NEC Article 334) is metalclad (MC) cable. This
cable may be used exposed or concealed and in cable trays, and, when covered with a moisture-impervious
jacket, in wet and outdoor locations as well.

NONMETALLIC SHEATHED CABLE (ROMEX)

NEC types NM and NMC, also known by the trade name Romex, are restricted to small building applications—
that is, residential and other structures not exceeding three floors above grade.
The plastic outer jacket, unlike the armor on type AC, makes type NM easier to handle but more vulnerable to
physical damage. For application details and restrictions, see NEC Article 336, “Nonmetallic
heathed Cable.” The typical installation technique is shown in Fig. 27.6.

CONDUCTORS FOR GENERAL WIRING

Under this heading (Article 310), the NEC lists the wire types that are generally installed in raceways and are
referred to by the term building wire. The most common types are listed in Table 27.5. These wires consist of a
copper conductor covered with insulation and, in some instances, with a jacket (Fig. 27.7).

SPECIAL CABLE TYPES

Although most building wiring is accomplished with plastic-insulated 300- and 600-V conductors of the types
described in the preceding sections, some applications require the use of special cables.
These include high-voltage cables, armored cables, corrosion-resistant jacketed cables, underground cables, and
so on. The reader is referred to manufacturers’ catalogs and the NEC for construction and application details.
WIRES AND CABLES:-
Wire : conductor + insulation (small size)
Cables : conductor + insulation + sheath (large size )
Bare conductor : only conductor (no insulation). Ex, over head lines in Sudan

Units of wires and cables :

mm² → Sudan and B.S countries (UAE, K.SA,Qatar)

OR

AWG →(American Wire Gange )

mm² : it is cross sectional area of conductor without insulation.

Core (c) represents the numbers of conductors in the cable , there are two types of the cable based on the cores
of cables
1. Single core cable (1c)
2. Multi core cable
(a) 2 core cable (2c)
(b) Three core cable (3c)
(c)Four core cable (4c)
(d)3 ½ core or 3.5 core
Run of cable represents the no .of single core or multi core
Always the earth is separate run and 1c only . no multi core for earth
wire
We prefer multi core cables above 6mm², avoid single cables above
6mm²
1.5 mm² → single core (1c)
2.5 mm² → single core (1c)
4 mm² → single core (1c)
6 mm² → single core (1c)
10 mm² → (2c ,3c , 4c, 3.5c)
16 mm² → (2c ,3c , 4c, 3.5c)
25 mm² → (2c ,3c , 4c, 3.5c)
:
:
300 mm² → (2c,3c , 4c, 3.5c)
Insulation materials
1. PVC :(Poly-Viny Chloride)
PVC insulated wires are used for smaller
loads like light , fans , s/o.
They can with stand up to 60 C.
2. LSOH : Low Smoke zero Holagen
LSOH insulated wires are used for smaller
loads like lights , fans , s/o , w/h , w/m . c/r .
XLPE : cross linked polyethylene
XLPE insulated cables are used as main
feeder cable (service wire) for DB OR SMDB
OR MCC OR T/F etc. and for heavy mechanical
load like chiller – AHU – Boilers
XLPE cables can with stand up to 90º c
FR : Fire Retardant or MICC (Mincal Insulated Cable
Conductor )
FR cable are professed for emergency load like lights fire
fighting pumps , emergency lights ,fire alarms cables
Final representation of cables :
BUSWAY/BUSDUCT/CABLEBUS
 A busway (busduct) is an assembly of copper or aluminum bars in a rigid metallic housing.
 Its use is almost always preferable, from an economic viewpoint, in two instances: when it is necessary to
carry large amounts of current (power) and when it is necessary to tap onto an electrical power conductor at
frequent intervals along its length.
 In the case of a heavy current requirement, the alternatives to using busways are to use paralleled sets of
round conductors or a single large conductor.
 Paralleled sets of conductors are almost always more expensive than a busway of similar current capacity
because of the high installation cost of multiple conduits. Alternatively, using a single, large-diameter
conductor becomes increasingly inefficient as cable size increases because large round conductors require
more cross section per ampere of current-carrying capacity than do the flat conductors (busbars) used in
busduct .
 Where many power taps are required along an electric feeder run consisting of cable in conduit, costs become
very high because of the large amount of expensive hand labor involved, since a connection must be made to
each conductor in the run. The preferable alternative is to use a “plug-in” busway to which connections can be
made easily and rapidly with a plug-in device, similar to the insertion of a common plug into a wall receptacle.
 This has the additional advantage of convenience; connection/ disconnection is simply a matter of inserting
or withdrawing the plug-in device, whereas cable taps are permanent connections.
 A typical application of heavy-duty busduct might be a vertical feeder in a high-rise building connecting the
basement switchboard to the penthouse machine room. The same building might also use heavy-duty plug-in
busduct as vertical riser(s) with taps feeding individual floors.
 Typical applications for light-duty plug-in busduct (70 to 100 A) could be any machine shop or workshop.
 The electrical supply to individual machine tools is made very simply and flexibly with a tap-on device
.Busduct is specified by type, material, number of buses, current capacity, and voltage (e.g., aluminum feeder
busduct, 4-wire, 1000 A, 600 V, or copper plug-in busway, 100 A, 3-wire, 600 V).
 Feeder busduct (no plug-in capability) is available in ratings from 400 to 4000 A. Plug-in busway is available
from 30 A for lighting or light-machinery circuits to 3000 A. A wide variety of fittings and joints is available
for all busways to permit easy installation (Fig. 27.11). Devices are available for indoor and outdoor
application.
 Cablebus is similar to ventilated busduct, except that it uses insulated cables instead of busbars. The cables are
rigidly mounted in an open space-frame.
 The advantage of this construction is that it carries the ampacity rating of its cables in free air, which is much
higher than for the same cables in conduit, thus giving a high amperes-per-dollar first-cost figure. Its principal
disadvantages are bulkiness and difficulty in making taps.
 An example of the type of economic analysis that should be made when considering an item as fundamental as
a heavy-current electrical feeder, is summarized in Table 27.6, which shows the results of such a study in
terms of relative costs. Note that when considering first cost alone, the advantage lies with cable tray (with
interlocked armor cables) and cablebus. Adding energy-loss considerations shifts the advantage to cable tray
and wire in conduit. No general conclusion should be drawn from Table 27.6 regarding costs.
 A change in feeder length, number of taps, hours of operation, energy costs, or any of the other factors can
shift the advantage to a different system. The point of the study is to demonstrate that life-cycle costs and first
costs often lead to entirely different conclusions and that this type of study is truly required before a rational
engineering decision can be made. (Life-cycle cost in this example was taken as the present value of all costs
over the installation’s life cycle—in this case, 20 years.)
 Two additional items are worthy of note:
 1. The very factors that yield a lower first cost operate to yield a higher operating cost. The smaller copper sizes
in busduct and cablebus, permitted by high-temperature insulation and good ventilation, cause increased
power loss because of their higher resistivity.
 2. If the heat loss from the busduct or cablebus can be used to advantage, the related energy cost can be
credited instead of being considered a total loss, and life-cycle costs can be changed considerably. Conversely,
it can also negatively affect the building cooling load.

LIGHT-DUTY BUSWAY, FLATCABLE ASSEMBLIES, AND LIGHTING TRACK

 Special prefabricated assemblies that act as lightduty (branch circuit) plug-in electrical feeders are widely used
because of their simplicity of installation and, more importantly, because of their plug-in mode of connection.
(a) Light-Duty Plug-In Busway
 This construction, which may be used either for feeder or branch circuit applications, is covered by the NEC
general article on busways, with restrictions when applied as branch circuit wiring. Lightduty busways are
rated from 20 to 60 A at 300 V, in 2- and 3-wire construction. A somewhat heavier design rated 60 A to 100 A
at 600 V is available in 3- and 4-wire construction. Their application is principally for direct connection (with
overcurrent protection) of light machinery and industrial lighting (Figs. 27.12 and 27.13).
(b) Flat-Cable Assemblies
 A specially designed cable (NEC Article 363; Type FC) consisting of two, three, or four No. 10 AWG conductors
is field-installed in a rigidly mounted standard 15 8-in. (41 mm) square structural channel. Power-tap devices,
installed where required, puncture the insulation of one of the phase conductors and the neutral.
Electrical connection is then made to the pigtail wires that extend from the tap devices. This connection can
extend directly to the device or to an outlet box with a receptacle, which then acts as a disconnecting means for
the electric device being served. In this fashion, lighting fixtures, small motors, unit heaters, and other single-
phase, light-duty devices can be served without the necessity of “hard” (conduit and cable) wiring. Figure 27.14
illustrates.
(c) Lighting Track
This is a factory-assembled channel with conductors for one to four circuits permanently installed in the track
(NEC Article 410-R). Power is taken from the track by special tap-off devices that contact the track’s electrified
conductors and carry the power to the attached lighting fixture, which can be positioned anywhere along the
track. The tracks are generally rated at 20 A and, unlike FC cable assemblies, may feed only lighting fixtures.
Taps to feed convenience receptacles are not permitted. A typical design is shown in Fig. 27.15. An application of
track lighting is shown in Fig. 16.9.
 Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) also the busbar trunking may play a
dual role of supplying electrical power and physically holding the lights.
 Busbar trunking system components
 A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors protected by an enclosure
 Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems have all the necessary
features for fitting: connectors, straights, angles, fixings, etc.
 The tap-off points placed at regular intervals make power available at every point in the installation.
 The various types of busbar trunking:
 Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from the link between the
transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power sockets and lighting
to offices, or power distribution to workshops.
 There are essentially three categories of busways.
 Transformer to MLVS busbar trunking
 Installation of the busway may be considered as permanent and will most likely never be modified.
 Frequently used for short runs, it is almost always used for ratings above 1,600 / 2,000 A, i.e. when the use of
parallel cables makes installation impossible. Busways are also used between the MLVS and downstream
distribution switchboards.
 The characteristics of main-distribution busways authorize operational currents from 1,000 to 5,000 A and
short-circuit withstands up to 150 kA.
 Sub-distribution busbar trunking with low or high tap-off densities
 Downstream of main-distribution busbar trunking ,
Two types of applications must be supplied:
i. v Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork machines or large
supermarkets with heavy loads). The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70
kA and 100 to 1,000 A)
ii. v Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small machines, supermarkets with small
loads). The short-circuit and current levels are lower (respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
a. Modifications and upgrades given the high number of tap-off points
b. Dependability and continuity of service because tap-off units can be connected under energized conditions
in complete safety
** The sub-distribution concept is also valid for vertical distribution in the form of 100 to 5,000 A risers in tall
buildings.
**Lighting distribution busbar trunking
Lighting circuits can be distributed using two types of busbar trunking according to whether the lighting fixtures
are suspended from the busbar trunking or not.
I. busbar trunking designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures. These busways supply and support light
fixtures (industrial reflectors, discharge lamps, etc.). They are used in industrial buildings, supermarkets,
department stores and warehouses. The busbar trunkings are very rigid and are designed for one or two 25 A
or 40 A circuits. They have tap-off outlets every 0.5 to 1 m.
II. busbar trunking not designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures. Similar to prefabricated cable systems,
these busways are used to supply all types of lighting fixtures secured to the building structure. They are
used in commercial buildings (offices, shops, restaurants, hotels, etc.), especially in false ceilings.
The busbar trunking is flexible and designed for one 20 A circuit. It has tap-off outlets every 1.2 m to 3 m.
** Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of buildings.
 Industrial buildings: garages, workshops, farm buildings, logistic centers, etc.
 Commercial areas: stores, shopping malls, supermarkets, hotels, etc.
 Tertiary buildings: offices, schools, hospitals, sports rooms, cruise liners, etc.

The advantages of busbar trunking systems

 Flexibility, Easy to change configuration, Reuse components, Wide choice of tap-off units.
 Simplicity, Performances are independent of implementation, Reduction of fitting time, Easy to implement.
 Dependability, Fool-proof units, impossible to make any mistakes, Reliability guaranteed by factory-built.
 Continuity of service, easy to supply power to any new current consumer, Quick and easy fault location,
Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced.
 Major contribution to sustainable development, Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be
combined (1,3 phase) , Reusable device, does not generate toxic gases or waste.
New functional features for Canalis, Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new
features we can mention:
• Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A through to 1000 A (Ks).
• New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
• New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with “VDI” (voice, data, images)
circuits.
CABLE TRAY
 This system, which is covered in NEC Article 318, is simply a continuous open support for approved cables.
 When used as a general wiring system, the cables must be self-protected. The advantages of this system are
free-air-rated cable ampacities, easy installation and maintenance, and relatively low cost. The disadvantages
are bulkiness and accessibility requirements. Cable trays are used primarily in industrial applications.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RACEWAY SYSTEMS
 The following sections deal with closed wiring raceways, which completes the discussion of raceways.
 The details of construction and application information is readily available from manufacturers and applicable
NEC articles. Cable trays are used primarily in electrical power systems, in addition to empty raceways
intended for signal, data, and communications wiring (to be provided by others) are normally provided under
the electrical section of a construction contract.
 The function of a raceway in such systems is largely the same as it is for power wiring: protection and isolation
of the wiring. Prior to the widespread use of computers in buildings of all types, raceway space requirements
for communication and signal wiring were easily established because such wiring consisted of small telephone
cables plus miscellaneous signal and alarm wires. These requirements were easily satisfied with empty
conduits or cells in floor raceway systems.
 Today, when virtually every commercial/ institutional building uses some type of data-processing equipment,
and communication networking is commonplace even in small facilities, raceways for communication cabling
have become a major design consideration. They often far exceed in cross-sectional area the space required for
power cabling. Their space requirements are sometimes so great that they, like ductwork, have substantial
architectural impact and must therefore be considered early in the design process.
 Sizing of raceways for power wiring is an exact process, based as it is upon maximum permissible
temperatures for specific materials in a given environment. This is not so for communication cabling, even
when a system’s present requirements are known, because of the extremely rapid growth of demand for
networking and data interchange.
 The problem is all the more difficult when designing commercial space for rental to an unknown client. The
advisable approach in such cases is either to provide a reasonable amount of floor-level raceway space for
main cabling and to rely on add-on systems such as under-carpet wiring and surface or ceiling raceways for
additional raceway area, or, alternatively, to use a structural system that provides virtually unlimited wiring
space.
 Because the latter is a major structural/architectural decision, it must be made during the preliminary stages
of design. A clear understanding of the owner’s project requirements will assist in decision making.
 Design of raceways for data and communication system wiring includes the following
 considerations:
 I. Number, type, and location of data-processing terminals.
 II. Networking requirements:
 A. The type of local area network largely determines the communication media (i.e., coaxial cable, shielded
and unshielded wire, and fiber-optic cables), which affects the raceway space requirements. The cable type
also determines the type of connectors needed (and their space requirements) and the type of floor outlets
used for machine connection.
 B. Cable topology (i.e., interconnection arrangements). This item is frequently not within the domain of the
architectural designer, although the raceway space availability seriously affects the cabling arrangement and
vice versa.
 C. Requirement for interconnection of networks and connection to remote networks.
 III. Number, location, and characteristics of major peripheral devices, such as mass storage, printing, and
plotting.
 IV. Location and type of major subsystems, such as computer-aided design/manufacturing spaces.
 V. Location of presentation spaces that require interconnection to computer networks.
 In view of these highly technical and rapidly changing requirements, engaging the services of a consultant with
specialization in this area is suggested.
Cable Tray Material types
Aluminium, Steel (pre-galvanized, hot dip galvanized and stainless steel grades 304 and 316
Aluminium (to 1050 H14)
Aluminium 1050 H14 alloy for lightweight construction, excellent corrosion resistance, and high strength-to
weight ratio.
Aluminium cable tray offers simple installation and low maintenance.
Pre-galvanized steel (to BS EN 10142 & BS EN 10143)
Steel is ideal as a high strength, low cost material for cable tray.
Pre-galvanized steel tray is produced by passing the low-carbon steel through molten zinc before fabrication,
and is generally recommended for indoor commercial applications rather than outdoor or industrial
environments.
Hot dip galvanized steel (to BS EN ISO 1461)
Hot dip galvanized steel tray is produced by immersing the fabricated tray in molten zinc, creating a much
thicker coating than pre-galvanized. This process is recommended for most outdoor and harsh industrial
applications.
Stainless steel (to AISI Type 316 or 304)
Stainless steel offers high strength and high resistance to chemicals, even at high ambient temperatures. T&B
stainless steel cable tray is roll-formed from AISI Type 316 or 304 stainless steel. cable tray edges and welds are
rounded and smoothed during manufacture to prevent cable damage. Care should be taken when handling cable
tray and protective gloves should be worn to avoid risk of injury.
Straight section
Pre-fabricated steel or aluminium straight sections designed
with a perforation pattern which permits efficient connection of
Ty-Rap® cable ties, supports and accessories.
Available in aluminium or steel in a range of finishes to cover
all possible installation needs.
Supplied complete with standard coupler for connection to
fittings and other straight sections.
Fittings
Including bends, reducers, tees and crosses, fittings enable a
perforated tray system to change direction, elevation or size to
meet building design/cable run constraints.
Covers
Available for all cable tray widths and material types, covers provide
mechanical protection and should be installed where falling objects may
damage cables or where vertical tray runs are accessible by pedestrian or
vehicular traffic. Styled as solid or ventilated for varying installation needs,
each including an integral flange to enable quick and simple positioning
above tray lengths.
Accessories
A complete line of accessories and supports to supplement the function of
straight sections and fittings, including couplers, cover brackets, barrier
strips, end plates and Superstrut® support solutions
Channel tray bottom types
Solid channel tray is offered in all widths (1 1/2”, 3”, 4”, 6”), and includes connector holes at each end for
attachment of fittings or other straight sections via a splice plate.
3”, 4” and 6” ventilated channel tray includes burr free oblong punched holes for easy access. Ty-Rap® slots are
provided between each opening for securing and maintaining air space between cables. Ty-Rap® slots are
provided at intervals in 1 1/2” ventilated tray.
Note: fittings supplied in solid bottom type only.
Fittings enable a channel tray system to change direction or
elevation in order to meet building design and cable run constraints.
The channel tray range of fittings includes:
Horizontal bends Vertical inside bends
Vertical outside bends Horizontal tees
Horizontal crosses
The most important decision to be made in fitting design concerns radius.
Selection of the most appropriate radius requires a compromise with the considerations being available space,
minimum bending radius of cables, ease of cable pulling, and cost.
Whether horizontal or vertical application, a standard radius of either 12” or 24” is available, with options for
zero (non-radius), or custom sizes greater than 24” to special order.
The typical radius specified in channel tray installations is 24”.
Material types
Aluminium
Steel (pre-galvanized, hot dip galvanized
& stainless steel)
Bottom types
Ladder
Ventilated
Solid trough
Cable ladder is a more reliable, less
expensive solution for supporting cable,
which is easier to maintain, proves more
adaptable to changing needs, and is
more suitable for harsh
and corrosive environments.
STEEL CONDUIT
 The purpose of conduit is to:
 1. Protect the enclosed wiring from mechanical injury and damage from the surrounding atmosphere
 2. Provide a grounded metal enclosure for the wiring in order to avoid a shock hazard
 3. Provide a system ground path
 4. Protect surroundings against a fire hazard as a result of overheating or arcing of the enclosed conductors
 5. Support the conductors
 For these reasons, the NEC generally requires that all power wiring be enclosed in a rigid metallic corrosion-
resistant conduit. To this latter end, steel conduit is manufactured in several types, amongwhich are hot-dip
galvanized, sherardized (coated with zinc dust), enameled, and plastic-covered.
 There are three types of steel conduit that differ basically only in wall thickness. They are, in order of
decreasing weight:
 1. Heavy-wall steel conduit, also referred to simply as rigid steel conduit; covered by NEC Article 346
 2. Intermediate metal conduit, usually referred to as IMC; covered by NEC Article 345
 3. Electric metallic tubing, normally known as EMT or thin-wall conduit; covered by NEC Article 348
 The differences are shown in Table 27.7. Several types of heavy-wall conduit plus EMT are shown in Fig. 27.16.
The equivalent SI dimensions of conduits are given in Table 27.8.
 Rigid conduit and IMC use the same threaded fittings. As a result of its thin wall, EMT is not threaded;
instead, it uses set-screw and pressure fittings. The thinner walls of EMT and IMC yield a larger inside
diameter (ID) and, therefore, easier wire pulling.
 The combination of lower weight and easier wire pulling gives EMT and IMC a distinct labor cost advantage
over rigid conduit, which is further enhanced in jobs with a great deal of field bending and handling of
conduit. Both, however, have application restrictions, which are detailed in the NEC.
 Generally, no conduit smaller than ½-in. (13 mm) nominal trade diameter is used. Ordinary steel pipe may
not be used as electric conduit, and all electric steel conduit is distinctively marked as such.
 When steel conduit is installed in direct contact with the earth, it is advisable to use the hot-dip galvanized
type and to coat the joints with asphaltum.
 If the earth is very wet, the entire conduit system should be coated with an appropriate waterproofing
compound. Alternatively, a plastic-jacketed conduit can be used.
 Conduit is fastened to the building structure in much the same way as piping: with pipe straps and clamps.
The vertical load at floor openings is taken with special support clamps. Trapeze mounting is common for
conduit banks hung from the ceiling, as in Fig. 27.17.
 Conduit size depends not only on the maximum permissible temperature of the contained conductors, but also
on the number and diameter of the wires that may be drawn into the conduit without injuring the wire. The
number and radius of bends in the conduit, as well as its total length, affect the degree of abrasion to the
wiring insulation during installation. No wires should be installed until a conduit system has been inspected
and approved.
 For structural reasons, conduits in concrete slabs are run close to the bottom surface (in the portion of the slab
in tension) or near the center. If a large number of conduits must be embedded, it may be necessary to
increase the slab thickness.
 In many instances, the structural slab is covered with a concrete topping, in which conduit may be installed
without affecting slab integrity. In all cases, local building codes should be consulted for limitations on
embedded conduits. In any event, the top of any conduit shall be at least ¾ in. (19 mm) below the finished
floor surface to prevent cracking. When heavy trucking is expected, this allowance should be increased to 1½
in. (38 mm) minimum.
 In general, the following rules should be observed and included in all specifications for conduit work in
concrete slabs:
 1. Conduits shall have an outside diameter (OD) no greater than one-third the slab thickness, as measured at
its thinnest point.
 2. Conduits running parallel to each other shall be spaced not less than three times the OD of the largest
conduit center-to-center.
 3. Conduit crossings shall be as close to a right angle as possible.
 4. Minimum cover over conduits shall be ¾ in. (19 mm).

ALUMINUM CONDUIT
 The use of aluminum conduit has increased greatly in recent years because of the weight advantage that
aluminum has over steel, being even lighter than EMT. The savings in labor costs usually more than offset the
additional cost of the material itself.
 In addition, aluminum has better corrosion resistance in most atmospheres; it is nonmagnetic, giving a lower
voltage drop; it is nonsparking; and, generally, it does not require painting.
 Its major drawback is its deleterious effect on many types of concrete, causing spalling and cracking when
embedded. Although manufacturers can demonstrate cases of embedding in concrete without harmful effect,
this procedure should be avoided unless the concrete additives are rigidly controlled and the conduit is coated
to prevent contact with the concrete. It is also inadvisable to bury aluminum in earth, with or without asphalt
or another coating, because of the rapid corrosion often encountered.
 Other difficulties frequently encountered are mechanical freezing of threaded joints (because of thread
deformation) and difficulty in obtaining electrical contact with grounding straps. With the exceptions noted,
aluminum conduit may be used in all locations where steel conduit is used.
FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT
 This type of conduit consists of an empty, spirally wound, interlocked armor steel or aluminum raceway.
 It is known to the trade as Greenfield and is covered in NEC Article 350. It is used principally for motor
connections and other locations where vibration is present, where movement is encountered, or where
physical obstructions make its use necessary.
 The vibration isolation provided by flexible conduit is one of its most important applications. It should always
be used in connections to motors, transformers, ballasts, and the like. Another common application is for
wiring inside metal partitions.
 When cove red with a liquid-tight plastic jacket, it is suitable for use in wet locations (Fig. 27.18). In this
configuration, it is most often known by the trade name Sealtite.

NONMETALLIC CONDUIT
 A separate classification of rigid conduit (NEC Article 347) covers raceways that are formed from such
materials as fiber, asbestos–cement (not as serious an environmental concern as it might sound), soapstone,
rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and highdensity polyethylene.
 For use above ground, such conduit must be flame-retardant, tough, and resistant to heat distortion, sunlight,
and low-temperature effects. For use underground, the last two requirements are waived. Generally,
nonmetallic conduit may be used without restriction in nonhazardous areas within the physical limitations of
the material involved.
 Thus, plastic conduit has a temperature limitation, asbestos–cement has considerable physical strength
limitations, and so on. As a result of these limitations, PVC conduit is the material of choice for indoor exposed
use, and asbestos— cement, fiber, and PVC plastic for outdoor and underground use. A separate ground wire
must be provided because the ground provided by a metallic conduit is absent.
SURFACE METAL RACEWAYS (METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC)
These raceways are covered in NEC Article 352.
Surface metal raceways and multioutlet assemblies may be utilized only in dry, nonhazardous noncorrosive
locations and may generally contain only wiring operating below 300 V. Such raceways are normally installed
exposed, in places not subject to physical injury.
The principal applications of surface metal raceways are:
1. Where economy in construction weighs very heavily in favor of surface raceways and where expansion is
anticipated.
2. Where outlets are required at frequent intervals and where rewiring is required or anticipated
3. Where access to equipment in the raceways is required and/or where necessary due to the nature of the
wiring
4. Where the extensive and expensive cutting and patching required to “bury” a raceway during rewiring is to be
avoided
OUTLET AND DEVICE BOXES
These boxes are generally of galvanized stamped sheet metal. The most common sizes are the 4-in. (100-mm)
square and 4-in. (100-mm) octagonal boxes used for fixtures, junctions, and devices and the 4 × 21 8 in. (100 ×
54 mm) box used for single devices where no splicing is required. Box depths vary from 1½ to 3 in. (38 to 76
mm). Nonmetallic boxes may be used with NM and NMC cable and with nonmetallic conduit installations. In
wet locations and for outdoor work, cast-iron or cast aluminum boxes are recommended.
An NEC (Article 300-21) requirement that electrical penetrations in fire-rated floors be designed to maintain
fire ratings has spurred electrical manufacturers to produce a line of pokethrough fittings to meet this need.
(This requirement applies also to walls, ceilings, and partitions.)
One such design is shown in Fig. 27.25. These electrical penetrations have become increasingly prevalent in
existing commercial spaces where the expanded need for desktop power and data wiring can be met most
economically and rapidly by through-the-floor feeds from accessible wiring in the suspended ceiling plenum
below. In addition, these fittings facilitate the electrical wiring relocations so common in rental office
occupancies.
Trunking Installations
A trunking is an enclosure provided for the protection of cables which is normally square or rectangular in cross-
section, having one removable side. Trunking may be thought of as a more accessible conduit system and for
industrial and commercial installations it is replacing the larger conduit size. A trunking system can have great
flexibility when used in conjunction with conduit; the trunking forms the background or framework for the
installation, with conduits running from the trunking to the point controlling the current using apparatus.
Trunking is supplied in 3 m lengths and various crosssections measured in millimetres from 50 50 up to 300
150. Most trunking is available in either steel or plastic.

Metallic Trunking
Metallic trunking is formed from mild steel sheet, coated with grey or silver enamel paint for internal use or a
hot-dipped galvanised coating where damp conditions might be encountered. A wide range of accessories are
available, such as 45 bends, 90 bends, tee and four-way junctions for speedy on-site assembly.
Alternatively, bends may be fabricated in lengths of trunking, as shown in Fig. 4.18. This may be necessary
or more convenient if a bend or set is nonstandard, but it does take more time to fabricate bends than merely to
bolt on standard accessories.
STANDARD SIZE OF TRUNKS

1. 50mm ×50mm (5cm×5cm)

2. 100mm ×100mm (10cm×10cm)
3. 150mm ×150mm (15cm×15cm)
4. 200mm ×200mm (20cm×20cm)
5. 250mm ×250mm (25cm×25cm)
6. 300mm ×300mm (30cm×30cm)
7. 400mm ×400mm (40cm×40cm)
8. 500mm ×500mm (50cm×50cm)
Note: other combination are also available
ex : 300mm×100mm